WIRES Wires Represents a conductor that conducts

electrical current. Also called a power

line or electric line or wire.

Connected Wires Represents the connection of two

conductors. Dot shows the junction
point.

Unconnected Represents two unconnected

Wires wires/conductors

Input Bus Line Represents a bus for input or

incoming data.

Output Bus Line Represents a bus for output or

outgoing data.

Terminal Represents start or end point.

 Bus Line Represents a number of conductors
joined together to form a bus wire.

SWITCHE

S
1. There must be at least two (2) people in the laboratory while working onlive
circuits or chemical processing.

2. Shoes must be worn at all times.

3. Remove all loose conductive jewelry and trinkets, including rings, which
may come in contact with exposed circuits. (Do not wear long loose ties,
scarves, or other loose clothing around machines.)

4. Consider all circuits to be "hot" unless proven otherwise.

5. When making measurements, form the habit of using only one hand at a
time. No part of a live circuit should be touched by the bare hand.

6. Keep the body, or any part of it, out of the circuit. Where interconnecting
wires and cables are involved, they should be arranged so people will not trip
over them.

7. Be as neat a possible. Keep the work area and workbench clear of items
not used in the experiment.

8. Always check to see that the power switch is OFF before plugging into the
outlet. Also, turn instrument or equipment OFF before unplugging from the
outlet.

9. When unplugging a power cord, pull on the plug, not on the cable.

10. When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.

11. "Cheater" cords and 3-to-2 prong adapters are prohibited unless an
adequate separate ground lead is provided, the equipment or device is double
insulated, or the laboratory ground return is known to be floating.

12. No ungrounded electrical or electronic apparatus is to be used in the

laboratory unless it is double insulated or battery operated.

13. Keep fluids, chemicals, and beat away from instruments and circuits.

14. Report any damages to equipment, hazards, and potential hazards to the
laboratory instructor.
15. If in doubt about electrical safety, see the laboratory instructor. Regarding
specific equipment, consult the instruction manual provided by the
manufacturer of the equipment. Information regarding safe use and possible-
hazards should be studied carefully.
 Electrical Symbols & Electronic Symbols

WIRES

Wires Connected Wires Unconnected Wires

Represents a conductor that Represents the connection of Represents two unconnected

conducts electrical current. two conductors. Dot shows wires/conductors.

Also called a power line or the junction point.

electric line or wire.

Input Bus Line Output Bus Line Terminal

Represents a bus for input or Represents a bus for output Represents start or end point.

incoming data. or outgoing data.

Bus Line
Represents a number of

conductors joined together to

form a bus wire.

SWITCHES

Push Button (Normally Open) Push Button (Normally Spst Switch

Closed)

This switch is in ON state when Single pole single throw is

the button is pressed otherwise This switch is initially in ON abbreviated as SPST. This

it is in OFF state. state. This goes to OFF state acts as ON/OFF switch.

when it is released. Poles define the number of

circuits it can be connected to

and throws defines the

number of positions that a

pole connects.

Spdt Switch Dpst Switch Dpdt Switch

Double pole double throw is

Single pole double throw is Double pole single throw is the full form of DPDT. This
abbreviated as SPDT. This abbreviated as DPST. This can connect the four circuits

switch allows the current to flow switch can drive two circuits by changing the position.

in any one of the two directions at a time.

by adjusting its position.

Relay Switch

This represents the relay

switch. This can control the AC

Loads using the DC voltage

applied to the coil.

SOURCES

AC Supply DC Supply Constant Current Source

This represents AC supply in This represents the DC power The symbol represents an

the circuit. supply. It applies DC supply independent current source

to the circuit. which delivers constant

current.
Controlled current Source Controlled Voltage Source Single Cell Battery

It is a dependent current It is a dependent voltage This provides supply to the

source. Usually depends on source. Usually depends on circuit.

other sources (voltage or other sources (voltage or

current). current).

Multi Cell Battery

Combination of multiple single

cell batteries or a single large

cell battery. The voltage is

usually higher.

Wave Generators

Sinusoidal Generator Pulse Generator Triangular Wave

Represents sine wave Represents pulse or square Represents triangular wave

generator. wave generator. generator.

GROUND SYMBOLS

Ground Signal Ground Chassis Ground

It is equivalent to theoretical 0V It is a reference point from It acts as a barrier between

and is used as zero potential which the signal is measured. user and the circuit and

reference. It is the potential of There may be several signal prevents electric shock.

perfectly conducting earth. grounds in a circuit due to the

voltage drops in a circuit.

RESISTOR SYMBOLS

Fixed Resistor

It is a device that opposes the

flow of current in a circuit.

These two symbols are used to

represent fixed resistor.

VARIABLE RESISTOR

Rheostat Preset Thermistor

It is a two terminal variable It is a mini variable resistor. It It is a temperature sensitive

resistor. They are generally is also called Trimmer resistor. They are used in

used to control the current in Resistor or Trim Pot. The temperature sensing, current

the circuit. Generally used in resistance is adjusted with limiting circuits, over-current

tuning circuits and power rotary control present on top protection circuits etc.

control applications like of it with the help of a screw

heaters, ovens etc driver. They are used to

adjust the sensitivity of the

circuit like temperature or

light.

Varistor Magneto Resistor LDR

It is a Voltage Dependent They are also called as They are also called as Photo
Resistor. It has non-linear Magnetic Dependent Resistors. The resistance of

current-voltage characteristics. Resistors (MDR). The LDR varies with the intensity

Generally used in circuit resistance of magneto of the light incident on it.

protection from voltage surges resistor varies according to They are generally used in

and excessive transient the external magnetic field light sensing applications.

voltages. strength. They are used in

electronic compass, ferrous

material detection, position

sensors etc.

Tapped resistor Attenuator Memristor

A wire-wound type fixed It is a device used to lower The resistance of memristor

resistor with one or more the power of a signal. They is varied according to the

terminals along its length. are made from simple voltage direction of flow of charge.

Generally used in voltage dividers and hence can be Memristors can be used in

divider applications. classified in the family of the signal processing,

resistors. logic/computation, non-

volatile memory etc.

CAPACITOR SYMBOLS
Non Polarized Capacitor Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic Capacitor

Capacitor stores the charge in Polarized capacitors are Almost all electrolytic

the form of electrical energy. small in size but have high capacitors are polarized and

These two symbols are used capacitance. They are used hence used in DC circuits

for non-polarized capacitor. in DC circuits. They can be

Non-polarized capacitors are used as filters, for bypassing

big in size with small or passing low frequency

capacitance. They can be used signals.

in both AC and DC circuits.

Feed through Capacitor Variable Capacitor

They provide low impedance The capacitance of the

path to ground for high variable capacitor can be

frequency signals adjusted by turning the knob.

They are widely used to

adjust the frequency , that is

for tuning.
INDUCTORS

Iron Core Inductor Ferrite Core Inductors Center Tapped Inductors

These are used as substitutes Core material, in this type of These are used in coupling of

to ferrite core inductors. Ferrite inductors is made of ferrite signals,

core or Ferromagnetic material. These are mostly

inductors have high used to suppress the

permeability and require air gap interference of

to reduce it. Iron powdered electromagnetic waves.

core inductors have this air gap

integrated.

Variable Inductors

Movable ferrite magnetic core

variable inductors are most

common. The inductance is

varied by sliding the core in or

out of the coil.

DIODES

Pn Junction Diode Zener Diode Photodiode

A PN junction diode allows the In forward bias condition, it Photodiode detects the light

current to flow only in forward acts as normal diode and energy and converts it into

bias condition. These diodes allows current. It also allows current or voltage by a

can be used in clipping and current to flow in reverse bias mechanism called

clamping circuits , as rectifiers condition when the voltage photoelectric effect. These

in dc circuits etc. reaches a certain break-down are used in CD players ,

point. Generally used in Cameras etc.

voltage regulator and over

voltage protection circuits.

Led Varactor Diode Shockley Diode

Light emitting diode is similar to Varactor diode is called This is a four layer diode.

PN junction diode but they emit varicap or variable This had fast switching
energy in the form of light capacitance diode. The operation and hence is used

instead of heat. These are capacitance of this diode in switching applications.

mostly used in indication , varies according to the

lightening applications. applied input voltage. This is

used in frequency controlled

oscillators , frequency

multipliers etc.

Schottky Diode Tunnel Diode Thyristor

It represents Schottky diode. It This is also known as Esaki It consists of four layers of

has low forward voltage drop diode.It can switch very fastly alternating P and N materials.

and it can switch rapidly. Used and can perform well in micro They act as bistable switches

in voltage clamping, rectifiers, wave frequency range. This is and are used in circuits

reverse current and discharge used in oscillator circuits and where high voltages and

protection micro wave circuits. currents are involved.

Constant Current Diode Laser Diode

Also called as Current Limiting The laser diode is similar to

Diode or Current Regulating light emitting diode. The

Diode. It limits the current to a active region is formed in

specified maximum value. intrinsic region in PIN

structure. Laser diodes find

its applications in laser

printing, laser scanning etc.

TRANSISTOR SYMBOLS

NPN PNP

It is made of combination of P- It is made of combination of

type semiconductor between N-type semiconductor

two N-type semiconductors. It between two P-type

is switched ON when the base- semiconductors. It is switched

emitter junction is forward ON when the base-emitter

biased. They are commonly junction is reverse biased.

used for amplifying and These are used for amplifying

switching applications. and switching applications.

JFET
N- Channel JFET P-Channel JFET

N-channel JFET is made by n- P-Channel JFET is made by

type silicon bars which form p-type silicon bar which forms

two PN junctions at the side. two PN junctions at the side.

Majority charge carriers here Majority charge carriers here

are electrons. are holes.

MOSFET

Enhancement MOSFET Depletion MOSFET

The enhancement mode The depletion mode has

MOSFET has positive gate negative gate operation. This

operation. It induces negative decreases the width of the

charges into the n-channel and depletion layer.

thus number of negative

charges increases, enhancing

the channel conductivity.

Phototransistor Photo Darlington Darlington Transistor

The photo transistor converts Photo Darlington Transistor is This configuration produces

the light energy falling on it to similar to phototransistor with high current gain. They are

its corresponding electrical very high gain and sensitivity used in power regulators,

energy. This can be used in output stages of audio

light sensing applications.Base amplifiers, display drivers etc.

is left disconnected as light is

used to enable the flow of

current.

LOGIC GATES

And Gate Or Gate Nand Gate

This is the basic gate and it The OR gate implements It is complement of AND

implements logical conjunction. logical disjunction.The output gate. The output is low only

The output of the AND gate is is high if any one of the inputs when both the inputs are

high, only if both the inputs are is high. high, otherwise it is high.
high otherwise both are low.

Nor Gate Not Gate Exor

NOR gate is a not OR gate. Inverter or NOT gate This gate implements

Output of this gate is high, if implements logical negation. exclusive OR logic. The

both the inputs are Low, This gate inverts the input. output of this gate is high ,if

otherwise it is High. both the inputs are different.

Exnor Buffer Tri-State Buffer

This gate implements negation It is an audio signaling Similar to a normal buffer but

of EXOR logic. The output of device. Generally used in with a control signal. In case

this gate is high , only if the two alarms, timers and for of active high buffer, it

inputs are identical. confirmation messages. operates normally only when

control signal is 1. In case of

active low buffer, it operates

normally only when control

signal is 0.
Flip Flop

Flip flop is the also

a memory element but this is a

synchronous device. The figure

below shows the basic D-flip-

flop.

AMPLIFIERS

Basic Amplifier Operational Amplifier

An amplifier is a device that Operational Amplifier (Op

amplifies a relatively small input Amp) is a voltage amplifier

signal i.e. it increases the with very high gain. The input

power of the signal. They are is differential. They are used

used in communication in instrumentation devices,

systems, audio devices etc signal processing, control

systems etc
ANTENNA

Antenna Loop Antenna Dipole Antenna

This symbol belongs to Aerial Loop antenna is named after It is most widely used

or Antenna. It converts its loop like shape of wire or antenna.Generally used in

electrical power into radio other electrical conductor. set-top TV, shortwave

waves. It is used in wireless They are used as receiving transmission and FM

communication to transmit or antennas in low frequency receivers.

receive the signals. range.

TRANSFORMER

Transformer Iron Core Center Tapped

Transformer is the basic Uses a piece of magnetic The center tapped

element that transfers energy in material as core. Generally transformer has its secondary

one circuit to the other circuit Ferro magnetic metals like winding divided into two parts

through electromagnetic iron are used. The core has with same number of turns in

induction. They are generally high permeability and is used each part. This results in two
used in electric power to confine the magnetic field. individual output voltages

applications to increase or across two line ends. Used in

decrease the voltage of AC rectifier circuits.

current.

Step Up Transformer Step Down Transformer

The no. of turns in secondary The no. of turns in secondary

winding is more than that of winding is less than that of

primary winding. The output primary winding. The output

voltage is higher than input voltage is lesser than input

voltage. Significantly used in voltage. It is widely used in

inverters. low power applications.

MISCELLANEOUS

Buzzer Loud Speaker Light Bulb

This is sound producing device. This is also an audio device. The symbol represents the

This produces buzz sound The electrical signal is light bulb. The bulb glows
when the voltage is applied. converted into sound signal when required voltage is

here. applied.

Motor Fuse

This converts the electric Symbol represents the fuse

energy to mechanical energy. that protects the circuit from

over current.

Crystal Oscillator ADC DAC

Used to generate clock signal Analog to Digital converter is Digital to Analog converter is

of very precise frequency. used convert analog signals used to convert digital code

(usually voltage) to digital to analog signals.

values.

Thermocouple
It is used to measure

temperature.
 Classification of Power Supply
and Its Different Types
 ELECTRICAL
 ELECTRONICS
4 COMMENTS

The power supply unit is the part of the hardware that is used to convert the power
provided from the outlet into usable power to many parts inside an electrical device.
Every energy supply must drive its load, which is connected to it. Depending on its
design, a power supply unit may obtain energy from various types of energy sources,
like electrical energy transmission systems, electromechanical systems such as generators
and alternators, solar power converters, energy storage devices such as a battery and
fuel cells, or other power supply. There are two types of power supplies existed, AC and
DC power supply. Based on the electrical device’s electric specifications it may use AC
power or DC power.
What is a Power Supply?
The power supply can be defined as it is an electrical device used to give electrical
supply to electrical loads. The main function of this device is to change the electrical
current from a source to the accurate voltage, frequency and current to supply the load.
Sometimes, these power supplies can be named to as electric power converters. Some
types of supplies are separate pieces of loads, whereas others are fabricated into the
appliances that they control.
Power Supply Block Diagram
The Power supply circuit is used in various electrical & electronic devices. The power
supply circuits are classified into different types based on the power they utilize for
providing for circuits or devices. For instance, the microcontroller based circuits are
generally the 5V DC regulated power supply (RPS) circuits, which can be designed with
the help of different method for changing the power from 230V AC to 5V DC.

The power supply block diagram, and the step by step conversion of 230V AC to 12V
DC is discussed below.

 A step-down transformer converts the 230V AC into12v.

 The bridge rectifier is used to change AC to DC
 A capacitor is used to filter the AC ripples and gives to the voltage regulator.
 Finally voltage regulator regulates the voltage to 5V and finally, a blocking diode is used for taking
the pulsating waveform.

Power Supply Block Diagram

Classification of Power Supply and Its Different Types

Here we will discuss different types of power supplies which have existed in the market
world. The below table tells the basic types of power supplies for following conditions.

OUTPUT = DC OUTPUT
 Wall wart  Isolation transformer
 Bench power supplies  Variable AC supply
INPUT = AC  Battery charger  Frequency changer
 Inverter
 Generator
INPUT = DC  DC-DC converter  UPS
Variable AC Power Supply
The different AC voltages are generated by using a transformer. The transformer may
have multiple windings or taps, in which case the instrument uses switches to select the
different voltage levels. Alternatively, a variable transformer (adjustable
autotransformer) can be used to continuously vary the voltages. Some variable AC
supplies are included meters to monitor the voltage, current, and/or power.
 Variable AC Power Supply

Unregulated Linear Power Supply

Unregulated power supplies contain a step-down transformer, rectifier, filter capacitor,
and a bleeder resistor. This type of power supply, because of simplicity, is the least
costly and most reliable for low power requirements. The main disadvantage is that the
output voltage is not constant. It will vary with the input voltage and the load current,
and the ripple is not suitable for electronic applications. The ripple can be reduced by
changing the filter capacitor to an LC (inductor-capacitor) filter, but the cost becomes
more.
 Unregulated Linear
Power Supply

Input transformer

The input transformer is used to convert the incoming line voltage down to the required
level of the power supply. It also isolates the output circuit from the line supply. Here we
are using a step-down transformer.
X

Rectifier

The rectifier used to convert the incoming signal from an AC format into raw DC. Please
refer these links, Different types of rectifiers available are half wave rectifier and full-wave
rectifier.
Filter Capacitor

The pulsated DC from the rectifier is fed to the smoothing capacitor. It will remove the
unwanted ripples in the pulsated DC.
Bleeder Resistor

Bleeder Resistor is also known as a power supply drain resistor. It is connected across
the filter capacitors to drain their stored charge so that the power system supply is not
dangerous.

Programmable Power Supply

This type of power supply permits remote control for its operation via analog input
otherwise digital interfaces like GPIB or RS232. The controlled properties of this supply
include current, voltage, frequency. These type of supplies are used in a wide range of
applications like fabrication of semiconductors, X-ray generators, monitoring of crystal
growth, automated apparatus testing.

Generally, these types of power supplies use an essential microcomputer for controlling
as well as monitoring the operation of a power supply. A power supply provided with an
interface of computer uses standard (or) proprietary communication protocols, and
device control language like SCPI (standard-commands-for-programmable-instruments)

Computer Power Supply

The power supply unit in a computer is the part of the hardware that is used for
changing the power supplied from the outlet into utilizable power for the several parts of
the computer. It converts the alternating current into direct current

It also controls over-heating through controlling voltage, which may modify manually or
automatically based on the power supply. The PSU or power supply unit is also called
as a power converter or a power pack.

In a computer, the internal components like cases, motherboards, & power supplies all
available in different configurations, sizes which are known as form factor. All these
three components must be well-matched to work appropriately together.
Regulated Linear Power Supply
Regulated linear power supplies are same as the unregulated linear power supply
except that a 3-terminal regulator is used in place of the bleeder resistor. The main aim of
this supply is to provide the required level of DC power to the load. The DC power
supply uses an AC supply as the input. Different applications require different levels of
attributes voltages, but nowadays the DC power supplies provide an accurate output
voltage. And this voltage is regulated by an electronic circuitry so that it provides a
constant output voltage over a wide range of output loads.

Regulated Power Supply Block Diagram

Here the basic circuit diagram for Regulated Linear Power Supply given below.

Regulated Linear Power

Supply

The main features of this power supply include the following.

 The efficiency of this power supply ranges from 20 to 25%

 The magnetic materials used in this power supply are CRGO core or Stalloy.
 It is more reliable, less complex and bulky.
 It gives a faster response.
The main advantages of linear power supply include reliability, simplicity, low cost and
the noise level is low. Along with these benefits, there are some disadvantages such as

These are best for several low power applications as a result when a high-power is
required; the drawbacks turn into more clearly. The disadvantages of this power supply
include a high loss of heat, size, & low-efficiency level. Whenever linear power supply is
used in high power applications; it requires large components to manage the power.

Smoothing

Once rectified from an AC signal, the DC needs to be smoothed to remove the varying
voltage level. Large value capacitors are generally used for this purpose.

Voltage Regulator

A linear regulator has an active (BJT or MOSFET) pass device (series or shunt)
controlled by a high gain differential amplifier. It compares the output voltage with a
precise reference voltage and adjusts the pass device to maintain a constant level
output voltage. There are two main types of linear power supplies. Read more
about Different Types of Voltage Regulators with Working Principle.
Series regulator

This is the most widely used regulators for linear power supplies. As the name implies a
series element is placed in the circuit as shown in below figure, and its resistance varied
via the control electronics to ensure that the correct output voltage is generated for the
current taken.
 Concept of the Series
Voltage Regulator or Series Pass Regulator

Shunt regulator

The shunt regulator is less widely used as the main element within a voltage regulator.
In this, a variable element is placed across the load as shown in below. There is a
source resistor placed in series with the input, and the shunt regulator is varied to make
sure that the voltage across the load remains constant.

Shunt Voltage Regulator with Feedback

Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

The SMPS has a rectifier, filter capacitor, series transistor, regulator, transformer, but is
more complicated than the other power supplies that we have discussed.
Switching Mode Power Supply

The above-shown schematic is a simple block diagram. The AC voltage is rectified to an

unregulated DC voltage, with the series transistor and the regulator. This DC is chopped
to a constant high-frequency voltage which enables the size of the transformer to be
dramatically reduced and allows for a much smaller power supply. The disadvantages
of this type of supply are that all of the transformers have to be custom-made and the
complexity of the power supply does not lend itself to low production or economical low
power applications. Please refer this link to Know All About SMPS.
 Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

UPS is a Backup power source that, in the case of power failure or fluctuations, allows
enough time for an orderly shutdown of the system or for a standby generator to start
up. UPS consists usually of a bank of rechargeable batteries and power sensing and
conditioning circuitry. Furthermore read about the UPS circuit diagram and different
types, please refer this link to read more about UPS Circuit Diagram and Working.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

DC Power Supply
A DC power supply is one that provides a consistent DC voltage to its load. Based on its
plan, a DC power supply might be controlled from a DC supply or from an AC supply
like the power mains.
 DC Power Supply

This is all about different types of power supplies which include linear power supplies,
switching mode power supply, uninterrupted power supply. Furthermore, to implement
electronics and electrical projects or any information regarding the types of power supply
fell free to give your feedback to give your suggestions, comments in the comment
section below.

bread board

A breadboard is a solderless device for temporary prototype with electronics and test circuit designs. Most
electronic components in electronic circuits can be interconnected by inserting their leads or terminals into
the holes and then making connections through wires where appropriate. The breadboard has strips of metal
underneath the board and connect the holes on the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown
below. Note that the top and bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally and split in the middle while
the remaining holes are connected vertically.
Complete List of Passive Electronic
Components
Here is complete list of most common and widely used Passive Electronic
Components. I have not mentioned the Obsolete Components.

Basic Components Electromechanical Components

 Resistors (All Types)  Piezoelectric devices
 Capacitors (All Types)  Crystals
 Inductors / Coil  Resonators
 Memristor / Network  Terminals and Connectors
 Sensors  Cables
 Detectors  Switches
 Transducers  Circuit Protection Devices
 Antennas  PCB
 Assembly Modules  Mechanical Devices such as a Fan, Lamp

What is a Resistor?
A Resistor is an electrical device that resists the flow of electrical current. It is
a passive device used to control, or impede the flow of, electric current in
an electric circuit by providing resistance, thereby developing a drop
in voltage across the device.

Resistor

What is a Capacitor?
A capacitor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in the
electric field between a pair of conductors called “plates”. The process of
storing energy in the capacitor is known as “charging“. The ability of a
capacitor to store charge is measured by its capacitance.
Capacitors are used in electronic circuits as energy storage devices. They are
also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency
signals. A wide variety of capacitors are available, including electrolytic
capacitors, basic parallel-plate capacitors, and mechanical variable
capacitors.

Capacitor

What is a Diode?
A diode is a one-way valve for electricity. Diodes allow flow of electricity in one
direction. Most diodes have a painted line on one end showing the direction or
flow. The negative side is normally white.
 Diode

What is an Integrated Circuit (IC)?

Integrated Circuits (ICs) are package of several complex circuits. ICs are
available in a wide variety of packages and sizes. Their applications are as
varied as their packages.

IC
What are Transistors?
A transistor is a semiconductor device. It is the fundamental building block of
the circuitry in mobile phones, computers, and several other electronic
devices. A transistor has very fast response and is used in a number of
functions including voltage regulation, amplification, switching, signal
modulation, and oscillators.
Transistors may be packaged individually or they can be a part of an
integrated circuit. Some of the ICs have billion of transistors in a very small
area.

Transistor

Circuit Symbols of Active and Passive

Electronic Components
Inductor Basics – Types, Formula,
Symbol, Unit, Uses, Function
BY SANTOSH DAS | LAST UPDATED ON AUGUST 5, 2019
Learn Inductor Basics – Types of Inductor, Formula, Symbol, Unit, Uses and
Function Explained in Detail.

Here we Learn Inductor Basics – Types of Inductor, Formula, Symbol, Unit,

Uses and Function.
 Different Types of Inductors
Table of Contents
 What is an Inductor?
 Inductor Unit and Symbol
 Properties of an Inductor
 Combination of Inductors
 Different Types of Inductors
 How Inductor Works?
 Uses of Inductor

What is an Inductor?
An inductor is a passive electrical device (typically a conducting coil) that
introduces inductance into a electric circuit. It is basically a coil of wire with
many winding, often wound around a core made of a magnetic material, like
iron. Simplest form of an inductor is made up of a coil of wire.
Inductors are the third and final type of basic electronic component.
The inductance measured in henrys, is proportional to the number of turns of
wire, the wire loop diameter and the material or core the wire is wound
around.
Inductor Unit and Symbol
The SI Unit of Inductance is henry (H) named after the American
scientist Joseph Henry.

Passive Components
Parts Gallery > Passive Components

Passive Components are electronic components that do not require a Source of Energy to
perform their intended functions. The followings are the examples of Passive Components:

Resistors

They resist the flow of electric current. The resistance is measured in Ohms
(Ω). R=V/I, where: R=Resistance, V=Voltage and I=Current.

Potentiometer
 It is a resistor with a tap or contact which can be moved to change the
resistance.

Capacitors

Capacitors store energy in its electric field. The capacitance is measured in

Farads (F). C=Q/V, where: C=Capacitance, Q=Charge and V=Voltage. Capacitors
stop direct current flow (DC). They are an open circuit to DC.

Variable Capacitors

The capacitance of these capacitors can be changed to adjust a circuit.

 Inductors

Inductors store energy in its magnetic field. They are measured in Henrys (H).

L=N ，, where: L= Inductance, N=Numbers of Turns, and is the

change in Flux linking a coil due to a change in Current through the coil.

Connectors

These connect one part of an electric circuit with another. Connectors are
designed for different power levels and signal types.

Switches
Switches can be on-off controls (single throw) or change the connection from
one circuit to another (double throw). Complex switches can control many
circuits at the same time.

Relays

A relay is a switch that is turned on and off by an electromagnet, or a solid

state switch controlled by an optical coupler.

Parts Gallery > Passive Components

 Home
 Lab Assignments
o Lab 1-Linear Circuits I
o Lab 2-Linear Circuits II
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Home » Lab Assignments » Lab 1 - Introductory Experiments and Linear Circuits I

Lab 1 - Introductory Experiments and Linear Circuits I

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University of California at Berkeley

Donald A. Glaser Physics 111A
Instrumentation Laboratory
Lab 1
Introductory Experiments and Linear Circuits I
© 2016 by the Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.

General guidelines:
 Always read the entire Lab Writeup before coming to lab. Lab time is precious. Don't waste it reading
the background material.
 Likewise, do the pre-lab questions before you come to lab. You are required to do the prelab
questions before beginning benchwork. Information required to answer the prelab questions can be
found in the background material at the beginning of the lab, from lecture, in the stated references, and
on the web.
 As best you can, formulate a plan to perform the Lab exercises.
 Please ask questions of the GSIs or Professor if you don't understand something (or you think you know
something that we don't) at any time during the course!
 Please clean your work station at the end of class or when you leave. Resort all the prestripped wires,
return your components to the proper drawers, place your bnc jacks, minigrabbers, 50 ohm terminators,
Tees, etc, back in their box, and neaten all your BNC cables.
Note that you can check out and permanently keep one (per person) portable breadboard, VB-106 or
VB-108, from the 111-Lab . Store these breadboards in the shelves along the west wall. As you build
more complicated circuits, you will find it useful to keep your circuits assembled on
these portable boards until you next class. You must disassemble circuits on lab station breadboards.
 Wikipedia has many useful and informative articles.
 Reprints and other information can be found on the Physics 111 Library Site.
Important safety habits:
 When you are done for the day, make sure you power down all equipment.
 Never place food or drink next to any apparatus. Accidental spills can damage or destroy the
equipment and your experiment and give you a shock. Food can only be consumed on the designated,
marked tables.
This lab is unusual in that it has two parts. In your prelab prep, concentrate on the Part 1 before
your first lab day, and Part 2 when you have complete Part 1. You do not need to have
completed the Part 2 prelab questions before beginning Part 1.
Part 1 of this lab introduces you to the equipment you will be using throughout the 111a lab and
most of the labs in Physics 111b, particularly the digital multimeter (DMM), breadboard, power
supplies, oscilloscope, and the signal generator. The breadboard, power supplies and some other
components are integrated into a box found at each lab station.
Everyone needs to have a working knowledge of this equipment before continuing with the rest
of the 111a course. Note that the manuals for the lab equipment are posted online. The XYZ’s
of scopes contains a general introduction to oscilloscopes.
In Part 2 of this lab you will study circuits made from linear components such as resistors, and
capacitors. You will build filters and learn the concept of frequency dependent impedance and its
importance in circuit analysis and electrical measurements. You will also learn why we use
scope probes and terminators for scope measurements.
References:
"Student Manual for Art of Electronics", Chapter 1, p 1–31 and p 32–60
Hayes & Horowitz
Chapter 1.1–1.4, 1.7 and Appendixes A, B, C, D, skim H, and O.
"The Art of Electronics",
Horowitz & Hill, 3rd edition (You'll read the rest of Ch. 1 for the next two weeks, so you might w

Look at other Books available Readings

All parts spec sheets are on the Physics 111 Library site.
Note that you can generally find most of the information that you need for the labs in the lab
writeups themselves. The references listed above are for background and more in depth
explanations.
Legend for the lab writeup symbols

This problem should be done before coming to the 111 lab.

This problem must be checked and signed off by the GSIs or the Professor. You may
continue on to your next question while waiting for a signoff, but keep your setup for the signoff
question.
Pre-lab Questions:

Pre-lab questions (Part 1):

1. Write a short paragraph each explaining how the breadboard, power supply, multimeter,
oscilloscope, and the signal/pulse generator are used.
2. What is the difference between the common and the ground of a circuit?
3. Derive the voltage divider equation ( VoutVin=R2R2+R1) for the following circuit:
Pre-lab questions (Part 2):
1. What is impedance? Input impedance? Output impedance?
2. What are the interesting properties of a coaxial cable and transmission lines? (hint:
Wikipedia.org)
3. What is a low-pass circuit? A high pass circuit? Draw an example of each. Derive the
transfer function for each of these circuits.

Part 1—Equipment and Simple Circuits

Now let’s play with the equipment. video link introduction below;
Keithley 2110 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
Spec Sheet PDF

The DMM is used to measure

voltages, currents, resistances and
several other more complicated
quantities. The DMM is a
relatively simple instrument.
Turn on the digital multimeter by
pressing the power button located
to the left on the front panel. To
make a measurement with the
DMM, first connect a double
banana plug to one end of a BNC cable and a pair of mini-grabbers to the other end. The outer
shield of the BNC is traditionally at ground; the inner wire carries the signals. When the BNC
cable is attached to a double banana plug, one of the plugs will be attached to the outer shield,
i.e. the ground, and the other to the signal. Figure out which of the banana plugs is labeled
ground. Look for the little black tab on the banana plug pair; this tab will the ground.

Double Banana Plug minigrabber

Voltage
Find the pair of red and black inputs on the DMM that indicate where to insert the banana plugs
to make a voltage measurement; remember that red is positive and black is ground and hook up
the banana plug accordingly. You have two different voltage measuring options: DCV and ACV.
DCV measures voltage created by a DC current and ACV for an AC current. You can change
the DMM’s range to maximize your measurement’s resolution by pressing the up and
down arrows labeled “Range +” and “Range – “.
Resistance
Be sure to disconnect the electronics component you wish to measure from the circuit before
making the resistance measurement (think about why it is better to do so). You also have two
options for measuring resistance. One is the standard 2 wire measurement and the other is a 4
wire measurement. The 4 wire measurement method is used for measuring very small resistances
when even the resistance in the copper wire leads is important. Because this lab won’t be dealing
with such low resistances, the majority of the measurements you make will be done with the
standard 2 wire method. To make the measurement, hook up the banana plug to the correct
red/black inputs for measuring resistance, indicated by the \(\Omega\) symbol, and select the 2
wire resistance option indicated by the \(\Omega^2\) symbol.
Capacitance
Same setup as the voltage and resistance measurements. The capacitance measurement option is
indicated by the capacitor symbol.
Current
Current measurements also have two options: DCI and ACI. DC current measurements using this
DMM are tricky because the appropriate jacks, the black jack on the right and the white jack on
the left, are too far apart to have a single banana plug inserted into them. To compensate for this
problem, we will be using two banana plugs and only use the center conducting wire of two
different BNC cables to perform the measurement. Consult the picture below for how this is
done.
Here we are measuring the current flowing across a resistor. Notice how the banana plugs are
inserted in and how we are only using the red grabbers, or the center conducting wires, to make
the measurement. Conversely, we could flip the orientation of both banana plugs and only use
the grounding (black) wires to make the measurements instead. The important thing to note is
that any DC current measurement requires the left white jack and the right black jack to
work; you can insert the banana plugs in any orientation you want but you must remember to use
the correct BNC grounding or conducting wires.
ACI measurements are easy because we only need one banana plug. The jacks for an ACI
measurement are the black and white jacks on the right. Be sure to hook up the banana plug with
the correct polarity.
Alternate method to measure current:
DMM Hookup connections for current
measement

Note black and red leads are in series with the resistor to
measure current.
 Connect the DMM leads in parallel with a component to measure voltages across it, and in
series with a component to measure currents through it. When measuring the resistance of a
component, the element must be isolated from the rest of the circuit.

Fluke 179 Handheld DMM

Video link introduction above;
The Fluke meter is similar to the Keithley, but less accurate. It is good for quickly measuring

voltages and resistances. On the setting, the DMM will beep when there is a low
resistance path between the two leads; this "continuity check" setting is used to trace wires paths.

Breadboard Box

(B) BSC Laboratory Breadboard Box

Breadboard
Commercial electronic equipment is constructed on printed circuit boards; “wires” are photo-
etched onto a sheet of copper, and components are soldered into place. To save time and effort,
we will build our prototype circuits on solderless breadboards. A breadboard is an insulating
board with a regular pattern of holes that can be used as sockets. The sockets are interconnected
with hidden wires, and electronic component leads or wires pushed into the socket holes will
make contact with the interconnecting wires below. The interconnecting wires on our
breadboards follow the pattern shown by the heavy lines in the drawing below; the gray squares
indicate the positions of the sockets.
Breadboard Practice:
Use 22-gauge solid (not
stranded) wire to make
connections. [Wire gauges
(thicknesses) are listed
at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
American_wire_gauge.)] Use
the precut wires, or, for long
runs, cut interconnecting wires to
the right length. Strip ~3/8” of
insulation from each end, and
poke the bare wires into the
breadboard socket holes until
they bottom out. The
breadboards are delicate! Forcing
wires or component leads into
the board can damage the sockets
or make a poor connection.
Wires or leads that do not fit
easily into the breadboards may
Figure 1: Breadboard be too thick.
· Use the buses (the long horizontal strips shown in Figure 1) for power and ground
connections. Good bus habits will save you lots of time and trouble with complicated circuits by
making your circuit wiring more transparent and by removing unnecessary clutter.
· Build your circuits compactly. Long leads between components introduce stray
capacitance and can result in oscillations or high frequency [e.g., radio frequency (RF)] pickup.
· For clarity, signals should flow from left to right; place input signals on the left side of
the board, circuitry in the middle, and output signals on the right side.
· Use color-coding to make your wiring clear: by convention, red wires are used for power
connections, black wires are used for ground connections, and other color wires used for signals.
Following this convention, espcially for the long wires that you cut yourself, will help
enormously when working with complex circuits later in this course.

Problem 1.1.1 - Breadboard Layout

Use the Digital Multimeter (DMM) in resistance-measuring mode to check some of the internal
connections in the breadboard. Make sure you understand how the breadboard is set-up: what is
connected and what is not. Sketch a simple diagram showing what connects where on the
breadboard. Your sketch should suffice to explain the breadboard to someone using it for the
first time.
Commons and Grounds
Recall that voltage is a measure of the potential difference between two points. Although we say
“the voltage at point A”, we really mean “the voltage at point A with respect to the local zero-
potential reference point.”
The most useful zero-potential reference point is the earth itself—the “ground.” A ground in any circuit is define
be any wire, lead or bus somehow connected to the earth. The power company thoughtfully provides a wire
connected to the earth in all three-pronged power outlets, and that ground wire is often connected to a ground lea
electrical equipment. Thus, the potential of a point in a grounded circuit is the same as the potential difference
between that point and the earth.
Why do most electrical wall sockets have three leads? The electric company intends current to flow between the
and neutral wires in the wall socket, the two rectangular slots. No current should flow in the ground wire. The
electrical company arranges its transformers so that the hot lead is approximately 120V from the neutral, and the
neutral is approximately at ground. But things are rarely perfect, and the neutral lead is often a few volts from
ground. As for the ground lead itself (the horseshoe shaped hole), the electric company grounds the lead by actua
attaching it to a long conducting rod stuck into the earth. Look for the ground wire the next time you walk by a
transformer on a pole! Other good grounds are available. Cold water pipes, for example, are well connected to th
earth, and are often used as grounds.
The electric company doesn’t supply the ground as a courtesy for electronic circuits builders; they supply it for
shock prevention. Electrical shocks occur when a sufficiently high voltage drives a sufficiently high current throu
the victim’s body. Most dangerous are shocks in which currents travels through the victim’s heart; only 50mA ca
be lethal. Grounding the outer case of a piece of equipment greatly reduces the chance of shocks by shielding the
user from any high internal voltages.
It is difficult (but not impossible!) to get a serious shock with voltages less than about 50V. While you should
always think before touching a bare wire, shocks should not be a problem with any of the circuits in the BSC lab
Caution: Standard electronic circuit construction always uses black for ground, red for power and other colors f
signal leads. BUT North American building wiring always uses white for neutral, BLACK FOR HOT (the
dangerous lead) and green for ground.

While grounding a circuit is usually beneficial, it is not actually necessary. Cell phones, for
instance, are not grounded. For these circuits we define a “common” for the voltage—a local
point that all measurements on the circuit refer to.
Power supply
+12
Red
V
Black 0V
Gree
-12V
n
Red +5V
 Black 0V

Each station has two power supplies built into the box carrying the breadboard. The first supply
(bottom two terminals) has an output voltage of 5 V and is used mainly with digital circuits. The
common of the 5V supply is marked 0V, and is connected to the metal chassis of the breadboard
box, which is in turn connected to ground. Thus the common of the 5V supply is also a
ground.
The other supply, the top three terminals, supplies 12V between adjacent terminals. This power
supply “floats”, i.e. it is not connected to ground. A floating supply maintains its rated voltage
difference between its terminals, but its absolute potential can float up or down. Usually ground
is attached to the 0V terminal, but it may be useful to attach it to either of the other two
terminals. Watch out: leaving the power supply floating, or inappropriately grounding the
supply, can lead to subtle circuit failures. If you use both the 5V and the ±12V power supplies in
a circuit, make sure that the ±12V supply is referenced to the 5V supply.
Note that the voltages labeled ±12V are actually closer to ±13.1V, but throughout this class we
will refer to them by their nominal value, namely as the ±12V supplies.

Problem 1.1.2 - Power Supply Voltages: Conceptual

How should you hook up the power supplies to get the following voltages with respect to ground:
a) +24V, b) –24V, c) +12V, d) –12V, e) +17V?
Sketch a simple diagram for each one. Remember that ground is a zero voltage point reference.

Problem 1.1.3 - Power Supply Voltages: Measurements

Setup, measure, and record the power supply voltages required in Problem 1.1.2. What does the DMM read whe
between the +12V output and 5V supply ground (the GND terminal) if you don’t hook up any other wires? Exp
12V!
Remember to turn on your supplies with the switch on the side. All three lights should glow.
The following Breadboard Box components will be occasionally useful throughout this
semester. For now, read the descriptions and locate these components on the
Breadboard Box, but there are no exercises that require them in this lab.
 Offset Adder Potentiomete
The Offset Adder adds a constant voltage to the input signal. The There are two 25k and one 1M potentiomete
constant voltage can be adjusted by turning the Offset Adjust knob, can be varied. Potentiometers have three ter
and can be either positive or negative. terminal, called the wiper, and the green term
terminals will vary from 0 to the designated r
green terminal varies inversely, i.e. between
terminals is constant at the designated resis
The eight logic switches are all referenced to a single logic common.
Throwing the switch puts it in either a HIGH or LOW state. These can be There are two PCBs on the breadboard. The
connected to a circuit to easily switch the voltage from high to low or vice other components. The displays are wired a
versa.

Problem 1.1.4 - Voltage Divider: General Calculation

Calculate the voltage at point A with respect to 0V in the general case shown here. You will use this “voltage di
course!

Problem 1.1.5 - Voltage Divider: Specific Current Calculation

Now calculate the current through each resistor using the specific values shown in the schematic
at right. Show the circuit and calculations in your notes. Note that the ohm symbol (Ω) is
traditionally suppressed when showing resistor values in a circuit diagram. Hence, the label
"470k" means a resistor with value 470 kΩ, and 10k means a resistor with value 10 kΩ. A
circuit label of 330 next to a resistor would be 330Ω.

Problem 1.1.6 - Voltage Divider: Specific Voltage Calculation

Calculate the voltage at point A with respect to 0V for the circuit values above and the formula you derived in 1.1.4.

Problem 1.1.7 - Voltage Divider: Measurement Setup

How should you connect the DMM in order to measure a) the current through the 10k resistor, b) the voltage drop acros
corresponding circuit diagrams for each of these measurements, showing the connections to the DMM.

Problem 1.1.8 - Voltage Divider: Component Measurements

Obtain the 10k and 470k resistors necessary to build the divider in problem 1.1.5 from the
resistor stock on the West wall. Resistors are often misfiled. Always check the value of the
resister by reading its color code, given by the colored bands printed on the resistor. The resistor
color code is posted in the lab near the resistor stock, and can be found
at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_color_code.
Even if you have obtained the correct resistor, it will not have precisely the value that you
desired. Actual component values vary around their specified values; a 10k resistor is never
exactly 10k. The specified values, as opposed to the actual values, are often called the "nominal"
values. With the DMM, measure and record the actual values of these resistors.
The tolerance for most of the resistors in the lab is ±5%. This means that the measured value of
the resistor should be within ±5% of its nominal value.
Do the measured and nominal resistances agree within the specified tolerance?
Also measure and record the 24V power supply voltage.

The values you calculated in this problem rely on the accuracy of the DMM's resistance and voltage
measurements. This accuracy is quite good, but be mindful that in ultraprecise situations that these are
not exact values.

Problem 1.1.9 - Voltage Divider: Calculations with Actual Component Values

Repeat the calculations of Question 1.1.5 and 1.1.6 using the actual measured resistances and
voltages rather than the nominal ones. Note the difference between these calcualted values and
the nominal calculated values.
Problem 1.1.10 - Voltage Divider: Voltage Measurement

Now use the breadboard, the power supplies and the DMM to build the voltage divider pictured
above with your 470k and 10k resistors. Your circuit should look something like the pictures
below.
Measure the voltage at point A as precisely as possible. Note that this is one of the few times in
this course when you should write down many significant figures. Bench electronics is generally
a 10% science.
Estimate the error (uncertainty) using the example below, which comes from the Kiethley DMM
manual:
Accuracy (error) = 0.012% of value + 0.004% of range (i.e. 1mV, 10mV, 10 volts)
As an example of how to calculate the actual reading limits, assume that you are measuring 5V
on the 10V range.
Accuracy = 0.012% of value + 0.004% of range
0.012% * 5 V + 0.004% * 10 V
0.0006 V + 0.0004 V
0.0010 V
Thus, the actual reading range is 5 V ± 1 mV or from 4.999 V to 5.001 V.
DC current, AC voltage, AC current, and resistance errors calculations are performed in a
similar manner using the pertinent specifications, ranges, and input signal values.
Does the voltage at point A agree with the value calculated in Section 1.1.9? Comment on
the closeness of your calculated and measured values. Do they agree to within the measurement
uncertainty?

Problem 1.1.11 - Voltage Divider: Current Measurement

Measure the current through the resistors. Is your result consistent with the calculated values?
(Specify your measurement's uncertainty.)

Problem 1.1.12 - Voltage Divider: Power Calculations

Using the nominal values for simplicity:

a) Calculate how much power each resistor dissipates. Are your resistors rated for this power? (Hint: the
b) Keeping the same 24V supply and keeping the ratio of the resistors the same, would you increase or d
approach the maximum power rating of the resistors?
c) If you were to change the resistors as suggested in b), which resistor would reach its max power rating
d) Calculate how much larger or smaller (5 times smaller? 100 larger?) you would have to make the resis
exceeded its maximum power rating.

Tektronix MSO 2024 Digital Oscilloscope

Video link introduction above; Spec sheet PDF

The oscilloscope is the most important instrument in any electronics lab, as well as in many
physics labs. To do well in this lab and in 111b you must be fluent with its operation.

"Scopes" are used to take a picture of a signal — a time-history

or “scope trace” of the amplitude of the signal. The trace
moves horizontally, from left to right, across the screen at a
fixed, but adjustable rate, drawing the amplitude of the signal
vertically. When the trace comes to the end of the screen, it
jumps back to the beginning at the left. Usually, the trace moves
horizontally so fast that you can't see its progress across the
screen, but a slow (low frequency) signal is shown at the right.

Triggered Scope Displaying

Most, but not all signals, are repetitive. If this is the case,
succesive traces may overlay, and potentially, we may be able
to see a quasi-static image like that shown at right.

Triggered Scope Displaying

Note that the signals over

Trace image overlay will only happen if the time it takes the
trace to move across the screen is an integer multiple of the
period of the waveform being viewed. This is a
rare. Normally, this doesn't happen, and one gets traces that
look like those shown at right. Notice how the phase of the
signal jumps around. With normal trace draw speeds, this signal
would be completely jumbled as numerous traces would be
overlaid with random start phases. To stop this from happening,
scopes are "triggered". Before each trace starts from the left,
the scope waits until the signal reaches a specified
amplitude. Only when the signal reaches this amplitude does
the trace begin. This will align the scope traces at the same
phase, and we will see the desired quasi-static image.
Scope triggering is tricky and frustrating...it is probably the most
difficult thing about using a scope. With practice, you will get
good at it.
Improperly Triggered

A scope is a very complicated instruments. The 111a scopes have over sixty controls…and
these are relatively simple scopes. Fortunately most of these controls are rarely or never adjusted
while taking routine measurements; only a four controls determine the scope’s basic operation.
These primary controls are indicated on the panel drawn below.
 The four important controls, which will be discussed in more detail later, are:
1. The Vertical Scaling Knob adjusts the vertical size of the image on the scope screen; a typical setting
would be 1V/div.
2. The Vertical Position Knobs move the scope traces up and down.
3. The Horizontal Scaling Knob adjusts how fast the scope draws the image across the screen; a typical
setting would be 1ms/div.
4. The Trigger Level Knob adjusts the triggering voltage.
The signal itself is connected to one of the input BNC jacks on the scope. Our scopes have four
channels, and can display up to four signals simultaneously.
Turning on the scope
The power button is located on the front in the lower left hand corner. The scope will take some
time to start up it has a computer processor; do not press any buttons during this time.
Viewing an electronic signal
Using a BNC cable, connect the signal to one of the channels on the scope. The channels are
located in the front on the bottom right of the scope and are labeled “1, 2, 3, and 4”.
Do not plug the signal into the “Aux In”; the use for this input will be discussed later. After you
hook up the signal to the scope, you should see a trace of it appear on the screen. If you do not,
play around with the scope’s viewing controls.
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling and Position Controls
The vertical scale for each of the scope’s channels is set with the knobs labeled “Scale” in the
Vertical section of the scope controls and has units of volts/division. The horizontal scale for all
of the channels is set similarly in the Horizontal section of the scope controls and has units of
seconds/division. For example, a 100Hz 10 volt peak to peak triangle wave will take up two
divisions on the 5V/division scale and one period will take up 10 divisions on the 1 ms/division
scale. The current value of the vertical and horizontal scales is displayed at the bottom of the
scope’s screen.
You can also adjust the position of the signal on the screen with the position controls. These are
the smaller sized knobs located in the Vertical and Horizontal sections of the scope controls. The
arrows on the left side of the screen indicate where ground is for each channel.
XY mode can be accessed by pressing the “Acquire” button in the Horizontal section of the
scope controls and then turning on the “XY Display” option. XY mode will display two signals
at the same time, the amplitude of one of the signals will make up the x-axis and the amplitude of
the other will make up the y-axis. Consequently, if you put an equal amplitude sine wave as the
y-axis and cosine wave as the x-axis, in XY mode the resulting trace would be a circle.
The sec/div (time-base) knob is the primary horizontal control, and controls the rate at which
the scope trace sweeps (from left to right) across the screen. A scope trace of a 1ms period sine
wave, displayed on the 0.5ms/div scale, would show five complete cycles of the wave.
Try this exercise: turn on the power switch, set the trigger to AUTO, to CH1, and both channel’s
input switches (AC GND DC) to ground (GND). Set the horizontal time-base to 0.1ms/div.
Move the vertical "position" knob slowly for channel 1 until you obtain a line at the center of the
screen. Adjust the "focus" and "intensity if needed." Now slow the time-base to 0.1s/div. See
how the trace sweeps across the screen?
Look at the scope's "TRIGGER" section. The "trigger circuit" determines when the scope starts
its horizontal display sweep, but it needs an input. The source for this input is set by the position
of the TRIGGER SOURCE switch, and the operating mode by the “A TRIGGER” switch. Look
up what each switch does.
One other control deserves special mention: the Autoset button. If you cannot find the
scope trace, just push this button and the trace will be pulled onto the screen and set to the
correct voltage setting.
Individual Channel Configuration
You can turn individual channels on/off for viewing by pressing the corresponding channel
buttons which are color coded yellow, blue, magenta and green. The menu for each channel is
also accessed through these same buttons. In the menu you can configure an individual channel’s
coupling, bandwidth, label, etc. To exit out of the menu, press the “Menu Off” button. (Note: A
common mistake is to measure the amplitude of a low frequency signal with the channel on AC
coupling. AC coupling is mainly used to measure small AC signals on top of large DC
signals. Always use DC coupling unless there is a specific reason to use AC coupling.)
Triggering
Triggering on the scope will be one of the more difficult controls to understand. Recall that the
scope displays a trace of the signal by constantly redrawing the signal on top of itself. The scope
does this by selecting a certain amplitude for the signal to reach and once the signal reaches that
amplitude the scope begins drawing the signal trace from left to right on the screen. If the signal
is periodic, then the scope produces the same trace every time it draws. If the scope had selected
random points along the signal to begin drawing, the resulting image would be a smear of all the
differently timed traces. As a result, the scope needs to be “synched” to produce a readable
signal which can be done with the trigger controls located to the far right of the scope controls.
The triggering circuit needs to know at what amplitude the signal needs to reach to begin
drawing. This can be set with the “level” knob; an arrow on the right of the screen indicates the
trigger level. Additionally, it needs to know which signal it is using to trigger, a.k.a. the
“source”, and it must know whether to trigger when the signal has an increasing or decreasing
slope. Other features include the triggering coupling, the mode, type, etc. which can all be
configured in the trigger menu.
Furthermore, the scope does not need to rely on the input signal itself to tell it when to trigger. It
can accept an auxiliary signal to tell it when to trigger instead. This auxiliary signal is fed into
the “Aux In” channel and the source must be set to “Aux” in the trigger menu. With these
settings the scope will begin drawing the trace whenever the auxiliary source triggers the scope
to do so.
Making Measurements
The digital oscilloscope is capable of making measurements of the input signals such as
measuring the frequency. You can configure the scope to perform a measurement by pressing the
“Measure” button at the top of the scope controls. From there, select “Add Measurement” and
then use the multipurpose A knob (located to right of the screen) to indicate the measurement
type and the source. Afterwards, select “OK Add Measurement” and the scope will continuously
perform the measurement and display the result at the bottom of the screen.
Other mathematical operations on the signals can be accessed by pressing the red “Math” button.
Selecting the “Dual Wfm Math” option lets you add, subtract, or multiply two signals. The
“FFT” option performs a Fourier transform. The data used to perform the transform is less than
one screen width of the signal and the range can be viewed by turning on the “Gating Indicators”
in the “FFT” menu; use the horizontal position control to move the boundaries over the region of
the signal you want the transform to be performed. The horizontal scaling (in units of
Hz/division) of the transform is indicated in the “FFT” menu to the right of the screen and can be
adjusted using the multipurpose B knob.
Helpful tips for when you can’t get a good signal trace
- Sometimes the signal you see may be ridiculously larger than expected due to the “Probe
Setup” being configured to “10X” which multiplies the signal seen on the scope trace by a factor
of 10. Access the menu for that channel and take a look at the “Probe Setup” option to see if it is
set to “10X” and change it accordingly using the Multipurpose A knob.
- If you have accidentally changed one of the settings on the scope which messed up the
signal trace and do not know how to reset it, you can always return the scope to its default
settings by pressing the “Default Setup” button located below the scope screen.
- If you have been playing around with the viewing controls for a while and cannot get a
clear trace to appear on the screen, then press the “Autoset” button located above the Trigger
controls. This will have the scope configure itself to what it thinks are the best settings for
viewing the signal. (Note: The “Autoset” settings may not always be the best settings to use. Use
Autoset to first get a readable signal on the screen and from there configure the viewing controls
yourself to improve the trace further.)
- More information on the scope’s controls can be found on the scope's online manual. and
from "The XYZ's of Using a Scope," also posted on the course website.
Back To Top

Problem 1.1.13 - Scope Practice

Connect a BNC cable from the T1 output (a 1 kHz sine wave) on the Signal Distribution Box (Shown at right) to channel 1 o
wave) to channel 2. Adjust the scope so that the image on the scope is similar to the image below (the signal amplitudes

Practice this several times; take turns with your partner - one scrambling the controls of the scope - and the other
controls and sign you off when you recover the signal. You do not need to write anything down.
Tektronix AFG2021 Arbitrary Waveform Function Generator Video introduction
Spec sheet PDF

Turn on the function generator

The power button is the green button located in the lower left hand corner on the front. Like the
scope, the function generator will take some time to start up; do not press any buttons during this
time.
Configuring a continuous wave signal
To output a waveform, begin by selecting one of the six available waveform types using the
buttons under the screen. Next, be sure that the “Continuous” button is turned on if you want to
produce a pure, unmodulated waveform of the appropriate type. The current attributes of the
waveform are displayed on the screen.
 To change the attributes, do as follows: press the back button, the button with the arrow located
to the left of the “Continuous” button, until the menu on the right side of the screen shows the
options: “Frequency/Period/Phase Menu”, “Amplitude/Level Menu”, etc. Then, select the
appropriate menu and the attribute you wish to adjust. You can also use the knob on the right
instead of the number pad to change the attribute’s value and the right/left arrow beneath the
knob to select which digit to change.
To see the signal, connect a BNC cable between the output of the function generator (the
leftmost channel output BNC jack on the generator) and the scope. Turn on the channel
on/off button to enable the signal. The other output is the trigger or “sync” output which
produces pulses with the same frequency as the output waveform for scope
trigger/synchronization purposes.
You may find that the Configuring Signa
signal observed on the
scope has twice the
amplitude of the signal
that you requested from
the function
generator. This happens
because of an
impedance
mismatch. There are
two ways to cure this
problem; use either:
1. On the waveform
generator, go to the
Output Menu. Then select
the Load Impedance menu
and pick the High Z option.
Note that changing this
setting will also change
the waveform
generator Amplitude Level
setting, but your
generator and the scope
will now be consistent.
2. Attach a BNC T and a
50Ω terminator to the
scope input as shown to
the right.
Conversely, you may
find the scope amplitude
is half of what you
requested. Either:
1. On the waveform
generator, go to the
Output Menu. Then select
the Load Impedance menu
 and pick the
50Ω option. As before,
the waveform
generator Amplitude Level
setting will change.
2. Remove any
50Ωterminators.
In summary: either you
should have
a 50Ωterminator and
have the picked
the 50Ω Load
Impedance option, or
you should not use a
terminator and pick the
High Z Load Impedance
option.
Both configurations
have advantages and
disadvantages; the
proper choice is
complicated. Generally,
you should not use
the 50Ω terminator and
Load Impedance
configuration for signals
that are below 10MHz,
i.e. the vast majority of
signals used in this lab.
Note that changing the
Ouput Menu setting
does not change
anything about the
internal circuitry of the
signal generator; it just
changes the output
signal amplitude listed
on the generator screen
to anticipate the load 50Ω
placed on the signal
generator. Thus, if you
change the Outout
setting, the actual
amplitude of the signal
put out by the generator
will not change, but the
screen amplitude will
immediately change
appropriately.
Helpful Tips
Why does my function generator's output voltage not match my scope's reading.
Some of the menus are not fully displayed on the screen so be sure to check the bottom right
portion of the screen to see if there is a “more” option which will let you access the rest of the
menu.
Warning: When hooking up the function generator, make sure that you confirm the
connections before you attach the generator to your circuit. You can burn out
the generator if you attach the output of the generator to another voltage souce (like the
power supplies.)

Problem 1.1.14 - Generating Waveforms

To gain some familiarity with the scope and function generator, generate the following scope displays for a GSI.
reproduce the right offsets and voltage levels. (You do not have to write anything.)

Hint: These waveforms are generated with the Ramp and Pulse outputs. To match the depicted waveforms shapes, you
and Duty parameters.

Problem 1.1.15 - Measurement of DC and AC voltages

(Voltages can be measured using either the scope or the DMM. Connect the scope and DMM in
parallel and measure the output voltage of the 5 V power supply using both devices. A good
horizontal time-base setting to use is 1ms/div.
a) What are the result and the estimated error of the DMM measurement?
b) What are the result and the estimated reading error of the measurement using the scope?
c) Repeat the measurement for different settings of the V/div knob, and for the other
channel of the scope. Are the results consistent with each other and with the DMM
measurement?
d) Describe the best scope settings (0V level and V/div) to minimize the reading error.

Problem 1.1.16 - Supply Noise and the Scope AC Setting

Keeping the scope connected to the 5V supply, set the scope channel input switch to AC.
a) What does this setting do? Expand (increase the sensitivity) the vertical scale.
b) What do you see? Describe in detail the AC component of the output. Be sure to explore the full range of the t

Problem 1.1.17 - RMS Voltages: Calculations

The amplitude of an AC signal can be characterized in different ways: by the peak voltage (or amplitude), the pe
RMS (root-mean-square) voltage. The RMS voltage is particularly useful for measuring the power in a signal; fo
voltage, 120V in USA, is an RMS voltage, not an amplitude or peak-to-peak voltage. RMS is calculated by ave
average voltage squared:
VRMS=1T2−T1∫T2T1dt[V(t)]2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√,
where T1and T2 demark the beginning and end of one period of the wavefunction V(t).
Derive the coefficients that convert between the amplitude, peak-to-peak voltage, and RMS voltage for a) sine w
and c) square waves. Construct a conversation table showing your results. To verify the coefficients in the conve
of each type into both the DMM and the scope, using the scope to measure peak and peak-to-peak voltages, and t
voltage. Be sure to put the DMM into the AC/RMS mode. Compare your measured values to the calculated value
quantitative comparison requires consideration of errors on all the measured quantities.)

Problem 1.1.18 - RMS Voltages: Measurements

Using a sine wave of about 1V p-p (peak-to-peak), vary the frequency of the signal between
10Hz and 10MHz. Measure, as a function of frequency, the RMS voltage of the signal a) using
the scope with the input switch on 'DC' (using the conversion constant calculated in
Problem 1.1.18), and b) using the DMM. Plot the results. Find the frequency range over which
the DMM is accurate (i.e. where the two results agree to within 5%.). Does the DMM perform
within specifications? Take at least two measurements per decade (factor of ten) taking a few
more per decade at the low and high ends. You should take your data at geometrically rather than
arithmetically (i.e. multiplying by a constant each time rather than adding a constant increment)
spaced frequencies. Why?

Problem 1.1.19 - Scope AC Settings Distortions

Now feed a square-wave into both channels of the scope, with one channel set on 'DC', the other on 'AC'. Compa
signals for 10Hz, 100Hz and 10kHz square waves, and explain the distortion on the 'AC' channel.
Remember these results! A common mistake is to measure the amplitude of low-frequency signals using the ‘AC
the scope does not mean “use this setting if your signal has an AC component!” Use ‘DC’ unless you have a sp
only common reason to use the AC setting is to look at a small AC signal riding on top of a large DC. Even then
by using the DC setting and the vertical level knob to force the trace onto the screen.

Part 2—Linear Circuits I

Background: Black Boxes and Thévenin’s Theorem or Thévenin equivalent
circuit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thevenin%27s_theorem
 Perhaps the simplest general circuit is a box containing some internal circuitry con
Such “thought experiment” boxes are known as black boxes. What can we deduce
measurements on the two leads? Let’s assume that there are no frequency depende
simplest measurements that we can make on the black box are the open-circuit vo
current Ishort. What internal circuit could generate these two parameters?
(Open-circuit means that the leads are disconnected from all loads; i.e. no current
means that the leads are connected together with a zero resistance wire; i.e. the lea
voltage drop between the two leads.)
The simplest such circuit is shown to the right. If we set the battery voltage to the measured open-circuit
voltage V=Vopen and set the resistance to R=Vopen/Ishort, the circuit reproduces the correct open-circuit voltage an
short-circuit current. But is it identical to the original circuit for all other conditions? Thévenin proved that it is
indeed identical if all the internal components are linear. Linear circuit components are components that obey th
linear relation V=ZI+Vconstant, where Zis the impedance (similar to the resistance R) and is constant. Linear
components include resistors, capacitors, inductors, and batteries. The simplified circuit shown at right is called
the Thévenin equivalent circuit, and its internal components are called the “Thévenin resistance” and
the “Thévenin voltage”.
For example, complicated circuit on the left below can be reduced to the Thévenin equivalent
circuit on the right below by measuring the left circuit's open circuit voltage, which
is Vopen=3/5V and its short-circuit current, which is Ishort=1/3A. Thus, the circuit on the right
must have an internal battery voltage of 3/5V to match the left circuit, and a resistor
of R=Vopen/Ishort=9/5Ω to possess the same short circuit current.

What happens if you just have the circuit diagram, not the actual circuit, and can't
measure Vopen and Ishort? Textbooks and Wikipedia describe methods for calculating the
Thévenin circuit parameters. While these methods are not very hard, it is more important for you
to accept that the reduction can always be done then for you to be actually able to do it.
Thévenin’s theorem would be just a curiosity if it only worked for isolated black boxes. Its
power lies in the fact that the Thévenin equivalent circuit behaves exactly like the original circuit
when inserted into any external circuit.
For example, the currents and voltages across and through the external resistors R1and R2 will be
identical in the two circuits below.
Time Dependent Circuits
Circuit analysis is straightforward if all the signals are time independent, i.e. DC. The response
of circuit to time dependent (AC) signals like sine waves is more complicated because the
response to the signal may not be in phase with the signal, and may depend on frequency. For
example, a circuit driven by a voltage source V=V1cos(ωt) might produce an output current
phase-shifted by ϕ, namely I=I1cos(ωt+ϕ). We can incorporate such phase shifts into Ohm’s law
by allowing the voltages, currents, and resistances to be complex.
Thus, I1cos(ωt+ϕ) becomes I¯expjωt, where I¯=I1expjϕ. (We use j instead of i for the −1−−−√ to
avoid confusion with the symbol for the current.)
Note that in this formalism, we do all our algebra with complex quantities, but, in the end, we
measure real quantities in a lab. Consequently we implicitly always take the real part of our
solution, e.g. I=Re[I¯expjωt]. We can almost always ignore this last step; the one significant
exception is in calculating the power in a circuit, where we have to be quite careful.
Since I and V are not necessarily in phase, the resistance can no longer be a pure real quantity.
We use a new term for complex resistances: the impedance Z. The magnitude of the impedance
has much the same function in Ohm’s law (now V=ZI), as did the resistance R; it determines the
relation between the magnitudes of I and V. The phase angle of Z determines the phase shift
between I and V. Note that resistance is redefined to be the real part of the impedance, and
the reactance is defined to be the imaginary part of the impedance.
Clearly, a resistor has pure real impedance ZR=R, but the impedance of capacitors and inductors
is more complicated; capacitors have impedance ZC=1/jωC and inductors have
impedance ZL=jωL. Capacitor impedance decreases with frequency, while inductor impedance
increases with frequency. Both capacitors and inductors induce 90° phase shifts, but the phase
shifts are in opposite directions.
A linear circuit is any circuit that consists only of resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage
sources, and current sources; any linear circuit can be analyzed using the impedance
formulas. For example, the familiar parallel and series resistor addition formulas carry over
directly; just substitute the capacitative and inductive impedances for R. For example, the
impedance of two capacitors in parallel is:
Z=ZC1ZC2ZC1+ZC2=(1/jωC1)(1/jωC2)1/jωC1+1/jωC2=1jω(C1+C2)
Analyze any circuit just as you would if all the components were resistors, but keep track of the
complex parts, and you will get the right answer. Thévenin circuit reduction works as well,
though the Thévenin resistance becomes a complex, frequency dependent impedance.
This is all we need to know about complex impedances for this class. But as physicists we should
understand the formal differential equations methods that underlie these simplifications. These
theoretical underpinnings can be can be found in most E&M texts.

Large Signal Impedance/Input Impedance

To recapitulate, we can model any linear black box with its Thévenin equivalent. The black
box’s input impedance is defined to be the Thévenin impedanceZ: the ratio of the open-circuit
voltage to the short-circuit current Z=Vopen/Ishort. The Thévenin impedance Z may be a
function of frequency, but it is not (yet) a function of the amplitude of any signal. Such

impedances are called “large signal” impedances.

For example, consider the circuit to the right. The input current is related to the input voltage by
the equation Iin=(Vin−V)/Z. The proportionality between the current and the input voltage Vin is
the impedance Z, regardless of the amplitude of the external driving voltage Vin=Vext. In this
context, Z is often called the input inpedance.
It is often very important to measure the
input impedance of a circuit. This can be
done by varying Vext, but this can be
awkward. A more common procedure
employs the circuit shown in Fig. 2. (Note
that in most situations where we want to
know the input impedance, the Thévenin
voltage is zero.)
To measure Zin, we fix the amplitude and
frequency of Vext while varying R, and
measure the corresponding Vin. For
each R and Vin we can calculate the
corresponding input
current Iin=(Vext−Vin)/R. The we can
plot Vin as a function of Iin. If the circuit
is linear, then Zin=Vin/Iin is just the slope
of this curve; in fact, it can be calculated
Figure 2: Input Impedance Measuring Circ
at a single value of R:
namely, Zin=[Vin/(Vext−Vin)]R.
In principle, any set of values of R can be used to graph Vin(Iin) and find Zin. In practice, values
of R that are too large introduce errors because Vin will be too small to measure accurately.
Values of R that are too small will introduce errors because calculating the
denominator (Vext−Vin) requires the subtraction of two imprecisely known, but nearly equal
numbers. (For example, subtracting 2.1700 from 2.1701 is problematic if both numbers are not
known to more than five digits.) Values of R close to Zin generally produce the most accurate
results.
If the circuit is not linear (as in later labs), we can find the impedance by taking the slope of
the Vin(Iin) curve.
Output Impedance
Output impedance is defined similarly to input impedance, but is used when a black box is
putting out a signal, whereas the input impedance is used when we are putting a signal into a
black box. In contrast to the input impedance case, we normally assume that the black box of a
circuit for which we are attempting to measure the output impedance has some sort of internal
power source Vth. For convenience we also invert the direction of the current: Iout is now
directed out of the box. (Keep track of which direction goes with which impedance by
remembering that input and output impedances are normally positive.)

Output impedance can be measured in roughly the same manner as input input impedances are measured. We
hang a resistor off of the output of the circuit as shown in Fig. 3. Then we measure Vout as we vary the
resistor R, infer the output current from Iout=Vout/R, and graph Vout(Iout). These quantities are related
by Vth=Vout+ZoutIout, so the negative slope of the Vout(Iout)graph gives Zout. (The internal power source is
assumed not to depend on R.) More generally, Zout=−∂Vout/∂Iout.
 Figur

Remember that there is little actual difference between output and input impedances; which
we employ depends on the context. For example, input impedance is defined for the input of a
scope, while output impedance is defined for the output of a signal generator.
Note that Problem 1.2.10, given at the end of this writeup, is independent of the
other problems in this section. It uses one of two long BNC cables that must be
shared between groups. You can (and should) do it at any time the long cables are
free.
Problem 1.2.1 - Thévenin Analysis

Black Box Connector

Obtain a black box, and insert the two 9V batteries. Trace out the schematic. Decode the resistor
values from the color code by yourself. The Black Box's output connectors are the two 5-wide
grey connectors. All 5 spots on one connector are connected (shorted) together.
With the DMM measure the open-circuit voltage Vopen and the short-circuit current Ishort across
the Black Box output. Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit and determine the value of the
equivalent resistor R by calculating R=Vopen/Ishort. Now attach a 100Ω resistor to the output
terminals, and measure the output current (through the resistor) and voltage (across the resistor).
Repeat for 330Ω, 1kΩ, 3.3kΩ, 10kΩ, 33kΩ and 100kΩ resistors. Plotthe measured current
against the measured voltage. On the same graph, also plot the output current predicted by
the Thévenin circuit as a function of the output voltage, i.e. postulate that the Thévenin circuit is
attached to the above resistors, and calculate the output current and voltage. Does the Thévenin
circuit predict these voltages accurately? As with all your plots, be sure to label your axes and
scales clearly, and don't forget to give the units!
Remove the batteries and short the terminals of each battery holder with a wire. (This replaces
the 9V sources with 0V sources.) Use the DMM to measure the resistance between the two
terminals. Is it the same as the Thévenin resistance?
Disconnect and remove the 9V batteries when you return the black box.
Note: While you do not have to do so for this problem, it is possible to predict the Thevenin V and Z directly from a
schematic for any arbitrary combination of linear circuit elements and ideal voltage supplies. This generally involves
solving a system of linear equations. Ask a GSI if you're interested!

Problem 1.2.2 - Pickup Noise

Connect a four-foot BNC cable to the oscilloscope input. Attach a minigrabber clip to the other
end, and set the scope to 50mV/div and 4ms/div. Touch the end of the minigrabber signal (red)
lead.
a) What is the origin of the signal you see on the scope? Just look at the big signal, ignore, for
the time being, ignore any high frequency fuzz.
b) Do you see a signal if you pinch the red insulation rather than the metallic connection of the
minigrabber?
c) Now short the minigrabber signal and ground leads together. This makes a "loop
antenna". Play with the scope settings. Can you get a clear picture of the fuzz?
d) List some possible sources for the fuzz.
Problem 1.2.3 - Scope Input Impedance

Measure the input impedance of the scope using the circuit given in Fig. 2. Treat the scope as a
unknown resistor. Use a frequency of 100Hz, a driving amplitude of 1V p-p, and several
different resistors (for example 0Ω (a short), 200kΩ, 470kΩ, 820kΩ, 1MΩ and 2.2MΩ, 4.7MΩ,
10MΩ, and 20MΩ.) Record the scope’s input voltage for each resistor, conveniently the scope’s
input voltage is displayed on the scope itself.

Plot the input voltage versus input current (determined from Ohm's Law). What is the
dependence between input voltage, input current, and impedance? Does the data fit the theory?
Determine the input impedance of the oscilloscope from the plot, and make a simple estimate of
its uncertainty.
Problem 1.2.4 - Scope Probe Input Impedance

Repeat the previous (1.2.3) measurement, but this time connect a scope probe to the
oscilloscope and feed the signal generator output into the scope probe. You may need to
use higher-valued resistors. Is the input impedance of the scope with the probe higher
than with the scope alone? (Note that the scope probe attenuates the signal by a factor of
ten, so increase the channel gain to compensate.)
Signals are fed into the probe using the minigrabber-like connector at the probe
end. Though it is not always necessary, it is generally a good idea to attach the probe's
alligator clip to ground.
An ideal voltage meter would have an infinite input impedance, but this is never obtained
in practice. The impedance of the scope without the probe is high, but the probe raises it
further. This is always advantageous, but, as mentioned above, the probe also attenuates
the signal. This attenuation can be inconvenient when measuring already small signals.
In addition to achieving a higher input impedance, scope probes have
another advantage; they are better at high frequencies. (You will investigate this
phenomenon in the next lab.) Thus, scope probes are primarily used when the signal Scope
comes from a high ouput impedance source, or when the signal frequency is high.
Problem 1.2.5 - Output Impedance

Using the circuit given in Fig. 3, determine the output impedance of the signal generator at
1kHz. Measure the output impedance separately for both the 50Ω and High Z signal generator
settings. Use resistors between 2Ω and 1kΩ for your load.
Problem 1.2.6 - RC Circuits: Measurement Techniques

Build the RC circuit shown below. The circuit follows the convention that signals
flow left to right; the input terminals are the left and the output terminals are on
the right. Note that when units are not explicitly given for a capacitor, the
assumed units are μF.
Before building your circuit, confirm the values of your components using your
DMM and the LCR (Inductance-Capacitance-Resistor) meter. The LCR meter can
be tricky to use. Ask for help if you’re not sure about how to use it. Capacitors
typically have higher tolerances than resistors: generally within about ±20% of
their nominal value. Scope Auxillary Triggering, Volt
Drive the circuit with a 1Vp-p sine wave from the signal generator. Set the signal
frequency to 20Hz. You should observe a small signal. Setup Auxillary
Triggering between the signal generator and the scope. Configure the scope
to measure the peak to peak viltage of the signal. Imrpve the measurement by
setting up Averaging. You should obtain a clean, relatively noise-free trace and
measurement similar those shown in the adjacent video.
Using the Save button on the scope, save an image of the scope screen to a USB
thumb drive, and past this image into your notebood. (If you don't have a thumb
drive, use your pone to take a picture of the screen. Bring a thumb drive in the
future.)
Problem 1.2.7 - RC Circuits: Amplitude Measurements

Keep driving the RC circuit from exercise 1.2.6 with a 1V p-p sine waves, and
nowscan the drive frequency range from 10Hz to 20kHz. Measure the circuit
output amplitude as a function of frequency (use 1-2-5-10... frequency
steps). Plot Vout/Vin vs. frequency. (use a log scale for frequency.) Measure the Scope Probe A
roll-off point, defined as the frequency f where Vout/Vin=1/2√ and mark it on the
graph. (Bonus question: why 1/2√ instead of the more straightforward 1/2?)
Because this circuit sharply attenuates low frequencies, but passes high
frequencies unchanged, it is called a high-pass filter. Swapping the positions of
the capacitor and resistor results in a low-pass filter in which high frequencies are
attenuated.
Problem 1.2.8 - RC Circuits: Phase Measurements

For the circuit in 1.2.6, measure the phase shift between the input and the output over the same frequency range. Plot t
data on the same graph as 1.2.7. Find the frequency or frequencies yielding approximate phase shifts of 0°, 22.5°, 45°, 67
and 90° mark these values on the graph.

Problem 1.2.9 - Analysis

The gain of a circuit is defined to be the ratio of its output to input signal voltage amplitudes. It
is usually expressed in decibels:
G=∣∣∣VoutVin∣∣∣ (linear)
G=20log10∣∣∣VoutVin∣∣∣ (dB)
where "dB" is the abbreviation for "decibel". The frequency where G = –3dB
(where |Vout/Vin|=1/2√) is known as the "3 dB point" or the "rolloff point". Note that the 3dB
point is the point at which the output power (proportional to V2) has gone down by a factor of
two.

For the RC circuit analyzed in Sec. 1.2.6-8, plot the measured gain vs. frequency on a log-log
scale (most plotting programs have an easy setting for this). Mark the gain axis in dB. This type
of plot is sometimes called a Bode Plot. Next, on a new graph, plot the phase shift vs. frequency
on a semi-log scale (i.e. with frequency on a log scale and the phase shift on a linear scale).
Next, calculate and plot the expected transfer function and phase. (Put the theoretical and
experimental curves on the same plots as the measured ones.) Do the theoretical and
experimental rolloff points agree?
Problem 1.2.10 - Bandpass Filter

A bandpass filter passes frequencies between high and low rolloff points, and attenuates all other
frequencies. It can be constructed from sequential high and low-pass filters. Design, build, and
demonstrate a bandpass filter with rolloff points at f1 = 500 Hz and f2 = 10kHz. Choose the
impedances such that the first stage is not greatly affected by the loading of the second
stage. Take enough measurements to explore your filter's performance and plot your
results. (Note that this is not a good way to build a bandpass filter; later in the course, you will
build much better circuits.)
Problem 1.2.11 - Cable Propagation Measurements (Note: this exercise can be
completed at any point in the lab and does not rely on the previous exercises. We
only have two long cables, so you will have to share.)

a) Connect a BNC T to the scope 1 input. Run a BNC cable from this T to the
signal generator, and setup the aux triggering between the signal generator
and the scope. Configure the generator to produce isolated pulses like
those shown to the right. The pulses should be separated by 2μs, and be
about 60ns long. The pulse amplitude should be 1V, and the pulse baseline
should be at ground. To configure the generator, use the Pulse setting (one
of the illuminated buttons on the generators's bottom left), set the pulse
Duty cycle to 3% (on the Pulse Parameter Menu), and set the High Level
and Low Level (on the Amplitude/Level Menu) appropriately. Save the
scope image to a thumb drive.

Pulse Trai
b) Connect a BNC 50Ω terminator to the
BNC T on scope channel 1. How does the
signal change? Save the signal image.
Next, remove the terminator
and short the scope input signal by
connecting a bare wire between the BNC
T’s inner and outer conductors. (Use the
shortest possible wire.) What do you see
on the scope? Save it.
c) Now disconnect the bare wire and get a standard length (4ft) BNC cable. Connect one end of
the cable to the Channel 1 BNC T, and the other end to a T and the scope’s channel 2
input. Henceforth, we will refer to Channel 1 as the "near end" (near to the signal generator)
and Channel 2 as the far end. Look at both channels simultaneously. Save the scope
signal image.
Now replace the short cable between the near and far ends with a long (at least one hundred feet)
BNC cable. Surprised by what you see? Save the image.Connect a 50Ω terminator to the far end
T. What happens? Save the signal image. Replace the 50 Ω terminator with a shorting wire on
the far end, and save the signal image. In analogy with the short cable, it should be clear that the
case with no extraneous signals (i.e. just one pulse visible at the near end, and one pulse visible
at the far end, is more correct. Why, even in this case is the signal at the far end delayed relative
to the signal at the near end? (Hint--you have just made your first, approximate, fundamental
constant measurement!)
Now consider the cases where there are extraneous signals. When are the extraneously signals at
the near end largely upright, and when are some upsidedown?

d) Remove any 50Ω terminators or shorts

at the far end. Disconect the cable
attached to the generator output, and
reattach it with
an interposed 200 Ω series resistor. (To
accomplish this, use a T as shown in the
photo to the right. Notice that the photo
does not depict any connection of the
outer conductors. This is OK for the
purposes of this question, but is not ideal
in general. If this bothers you or if you
would like a cleaner signal, you may use
extra cables and minigrabbers to connect
the outer conductors as well).
Now what sort of signals do you see with
the far end of the long cable (the cable
attached to the scope)
connected normally, connected with
the 50 Ω terminator, and shorted with
the bare wire? Save images of all the
signals.
Note that the signal generator's intrinsic
resistance (called the output impedance,
as discussed later in this lab) makes the
signal generator's output appear to be like
a 50 Ω resistor connected to ground.

Series Output Resistor

e) Remove the series resistor, .
and put a 20 Ω resistor in
parallel with the signal
generator output. What do you
see on the scope with the far
end input connected normally,
with a 50 Ω terminator,
and shorted with the bare
wire? Save images of all the
signals.
Try to systemize your results
with the 200 Ω series resistor
and the 20 Ω parallel resistor,
as well as the normal case
without a resistor. When do
you observe only the
"expected" signal? When do
you get extraneous signals?
When are all the extraneous
signals largely upright, and
when are
some upsidedown? Remember
that the signal generator's
output impedance is 50 Ω .
f) The type of coax cable that we use in the 111 lab, and in almost all physics labs, is designated
RG-58 cable, and is the most common member of a broad class of cables
called 50 Ω cables. There are many other types of cables; for instance RG-59 cable is
representative of the class of 75 Ω cables, and is widely used in the broadcast industry; the cable
industry uses 75 Ω cable. Cables need not be coax, sometimes they are flat like the cable shown
at right. This cable which is a type of 300 Ω cable, was once commonly used with rooftop TV
antennas.
Replace the long BNC cable with 50ft of 300 Ω twin lead cable. What do you need to place at
the far end of this cable and at the signal generator to obtain a clean signal (i.e. no extraneous
signals)? Just look at the reflected signals; the far end of the cable is awkwardly far away. If you
were to attach a 50 Ω cable at the far end to look at the transmitted signal, the interaction of the
300 Ω cables and the 50 Ω cables will lead to confusion. Consequently, just put a resistor at the
far end.
Hint: the necessary "trick" is relatively obvious at the far end. At the signal generator end you
will have to use a series resistor of the right value.
The 300Ω cable is helically wound around a cardboard tube. Please be gentle with it and do not
unwind it. Unlike the 50 Ω coax cables, the 300Ω twin cable is not well shielded, and nearby
wires will interfere. This will ruin the desired effects. The helical winding is designed to keep the
wires separate. (It may look like a solenoid, but it is not a solenoid. A solenoid has a single strand
of wire in a helical path and produces a fairly uniform field in the center. Our cardboard tube with
the twin lead cable is fundamentally different because at any location where a pulse is traveling Tw
the local currents are equal in magnitude and oppositely directed.) We are getting off-topic here
with this twin lead cable, so don't worry about the details. Someday when you take a course on
transmission lines you can study the details. In lecture we will give hints about the resistor values
in this problem.

Problem 1.2.12 - Cable Propagation Calculations

The resistors, capacitors, and inductors that we use in this lab are normally physical small
compared to the distance traveled by a light (or radio) wave over the relevant circuit time scales,
i.e. they are small compared to a wavelength. For example, a sine wave with a frequency of
1kHz has a 300km wavelength, certainly much greater than the size of any component. For high
frequency signals, however, wavelengths can be comparable to the size of the components.
Circuit analysis under these conditions is much more difficult because the opposite ends of the
components experience different signals.
Calculate how long it takes light to travel the length of the long cable you used in Sec.
1.2.10 (Because of the cable's inductance and capacitance, signals propagate on the cable at
about 2/3 the speed of light in vacuum.) Does this account for your measurements? Why do you
see extra pulses on the near end? And why, depending on what we put at the far end, are the
extra pulses sometimes upright, sometimes upside-down, and sometimes not there at all? Hint –
Think about what happens when light travels between two media with different indices of
refraction.

Analysis:
 Problem 1.2.13 - Black Box Output Impedance Calculations

If the output voltage of a black-box decreases by 20% with a load of 1kΩ as compared to the "no-load" output, what is th
box?

Problem 1.2.14 - Light Bulb Resistance

The resistance of a 100W light bulb, as measured with the DMM, is 9Ω. Household power is 110V. Using a power equatio
expect the light bulb to use? What’s going on here? Is the light bulb a linear circuit component? If not, what accounts for
number is right? Why is the other power number wrong?

After completing the lab write up but before turning the lab report in, please fill out the Student
Evaluation of the Lab Report.
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Boundless Physics

Circuits and Direct Currents

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Voltmeters and Ammeters

Voltmeters and Ammeters

Voltmeters and ammeters are used to measure voltage and current, respectively.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Compare circuit connection of an ammeter and a voltmeter

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between

two points in an electric circuit.
 An ammeter is a measuring device used to measure the electric current in a circuit.
 A voltmeter is connected in parallel with a device to measure its voltage, while an
ammeter is connected in series with a device to measure its current.
 At the heart of most analog meters is a galvanometer, an instrument that measures
current flow using the movement, or deflection, of a needle. The needle deflection is
produced by a magnetic force acting on a current-carrying wire.

Key Terms

 shunt resistance: a small resistance R placed in parallel with a galvanometer G to

produce an ammeter; the larger the current to be measured, the smaller R must be; most
of the current flowing through the meter is shunted through R to protect the galvanometer
  galvanometer: An analog measuring device, denoted by G, that measures current flow
using a needle deflection caused by a magnetic field force acting upon a current-carrying
wire.

Voltmeters and ammeters measure the voltage and current, respectively, of a circuit.
Some meters in automobile dashboards, digital cameras, cell phones, and tuner-
amplifiers are voltmeters or ammeters.

Voltmeters and Ammeters: A brief introduction to voltmeters and ammeters for

introductory physics students.

Voltmeters

A voltmeter is an instrument that measures the difference in electrical potential between

two points in an electric circuit. An analog voltmeter moves a pointer across a scale in
proportion to the circuit’s voltage; a digital voltmeter provides a numerical display. Any
measurement that can be converted to voltage can be displayed on a meter that is
properly calibrated; such measurements include pressure, temperature, and flow.

Voltmeter: Demonstration voltmeter from a physics class

In order for a voltmeter to measure a device’s voltage, it must be connected in parallel

to that device. This is necessary because objects in parallel experience the same
potential difference.
Voltmeter in Parallel: (a) To measure the potential difference in this series circuit, the voltmeter (V) is placed
in parallel with the voltage source or either of the resistors. Note that terminal voltage is measured between
points a and b. It is not possible to connect the voltmeter directly across the EMF without including its internal
resistance, r. (b) A digital voltmeter in use

Ammeters

An ammeter measures the electric current in a circuit. The name is derived from the
name for the SI unit for electric current, amperes (A).

In order for an ammeter to measure a device’s current, it must be connected in series to

that device. This is necessary because objects in series experience the same current.
They must not be connected to a voltage source — ammeters are designed to work
under a minimal burden, (which refers to the voltage drop across the ammeter, typically
a small fraction of a volt).

Ammeter in Series: An ammeter (A) is placed in series to measure current. All of the current in this circuit
flows through the meter. The ammeter would have the same reading if located between points d and e or
between points f and a, as it does in the position shown. (Note that the script capital E stands for EMF, and r
stands for the internal resistance of the source of potential difference. )

Galvanometers (Analog Meters)

Analog meters have needles that swivel to point at numbers on a scale, as opposed to
digital meters, which have numerical readouts.The heart of most analog meters is a
device called a galvanometer, denoted by G. Current flow through a galvanometer, IG,
produces a proportional movement, or deflection, of the needle.
The two crucial characteristics of any galvanometer are its resistance and its current
sensitivity. Current sensitivity is the current that gives a full-scale deflection of the
galvanometer’s needle — in other words, the maximum current that the instrument can
measure. For example, a galvanometer with a current sensitivity of 50 μA has a
maximum deflection of its needle when 50 μA flows through it, is at the scale’s halfway
point when 25 μA flows through it, and so on.

If such a galvanometer has a 25-Ω resistance, then a voltage of only V = IR = (50

μA)(25 Ω) = 1.25 mV produces a full-scale reading. By connecting resistors to this
galvanometer in different ways, you can use it as either a voltmeter or ammeter to
measure a broad range of voltages or currents.

Galvanometers as Voltmeters

A galvanometer can function as a voltmeter when it is connected in series with a large

resistance R. The value of R is determined by the maximum voltage that will be
measured. Suppose you want 10 V to produce a full-scale deflection of a voltmeter
containing a 25-Ω galvanometer with a 50-μA sensitivity. Then 10 V applied to the meter
must produce a current of 50 μA. The total resistance must be:

Rtot=R+r=VI=10V50μA=200kΩ,Rtot=R+r=VI=10V50μA=200kΩ,

or:

R=Rtot−r=200kΩ−25Ω≈200kΩ.R=Rtot−r=200kΩ−25Ω≈200kΩ.

(R is so large that the galvanometer resistance, r, is nearly negligible. ) Note that 5 V

applied to this voltmeter produces a half-scale deflection by sending a 25-μA current
through the meter, and so the voltmeter’s reading is proportional to voltage, as desired.
This voltmeter would not be useful for voltages less than about half a volt, because the
meter deflection would be too small to read accurately. For other voltage ranges, other
resistances are placed in series with the galvanometer. Many meters allow a choice of
scales, which involves switching an appropriate resistance into series with the
galvanometer.

Galvanometers as Ammeters

The same galvanometer can also function as an ammeter when it is placed in parallel
with a small resistance R, often called the shunt resistance. Since the shunt resistance
is small, most of the current passes through it, allowing an ammeter to measure
currents much greater than those that would produce a full-scale deflection of the
galvanometer.
Suppose, for example, we need an ammeter that gives a full-scale deflection for 1.0 A
and that contains the same 25-Ω galvanometer with 50-μA sensitivity. Since R and r are
in parallel, the voltage across them is the same.

These IR drops are: IR = IGr

so that: IR=IGI=Rr.IR=IGI=Rr.

Solving for R, and noting that IG is 50 μA and I is 0.999950 A, we have:

R=rIGI=(25Ω)50μA0.999950A=1.25×10−3Ω.R=rIGI=(25Ω)50μA0.999950A=1.25×10−3
Ω.

Null Measurements

Null measurements balance voltages so there is no current flowing through the

measuring devices that would interfere with the measurement.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain why null measurements are employed

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Measurements of voltages and current with standard voltmeters and ammeters alter the
circuit being measured, introducing uncertainties. Voltmeters draw some extra current,
whereas ammeters reduce current flow.
 Null measurements are employed to reduce the uncertainty in the measured voltage and
current.
 The potentiometer and the Wheatstone bridge are two methods for making null
measurements.
 The potentiometer is an instrument that measures an unknown voltage by opposing with a
known voltage, without drawing current from the voltage source being measured.
 A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the
unknown component.

Key Terms

 null measurements: methods of measuring current and voltage more accurately by

balancing the circuit so that no current flows through the measurement device
  potentiometer: an instrument that measures a voltage by opposing it with a precise
fraction of a known voltage, and without drawing current from the unknown source.
 Wheatstone bridge: An instrument used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by
balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component.

Null Measurements

Standard measurements of voltage and current alter circuits, introducing numerical

uncertainties. Voltmeters draw some extra current, whereas ammeters reduce current
flow. Null measurements balance voltages, so there is no current flowing through the
measuring device and the circuit is unaltered. Null measurements are generally more
accurate but more complex than standard voltmeters and ammeters. Their precision is
still limited.

The Potentiometer

When measuring the EMF of a battery and connecting the battery directly to a standard
voltmeter, as shown in, the actual quantity measured is the terminal voltage V. Voltage
is related to the EMF of the battery by V=emf−Ir, where I is the current that flows
and r is the internal resistance of the battery.

Voltmeter Connected to Battery: An analog voltmeter attached to a battery draws a small but nonzero current
and measures a terminal voltage that differs from the EMF of the battery. (Note that the script capital E
symbolizes electromotive force, or EMF. ) Since the internal resistance of the battery is not known precisely, it
is not possible to calculate the EMF precisely.
The EMF could be accurately calculated if r were known, which is rare. If the
current I could be made zero, then V=emf, and EMF could be directly measured.
However, standard voltmeters need a current to operate.

A potentiometer is a null measurement device for measuring potentials (voltages). A

voltage source is connected to resistor R, passing a constant current through it. There is
a steady drop in potential (IR drop) along the wire, so a variable potential is obtained
through contact along the wire.

An unknown emfx (represented by script Ex) connected in series with a galvanometer is

shown in. Note that emfx opposes the other voltage source. The location of the contact
point is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. When the galvanometer reads
zero, emfx=IRx, where Rxis the resistance of the wire section up to the contact point.
Since no current flows through the galvanometer, none flows through the unknown
EMF, and emfx is sensed.
Potentiometer: The potentiometer is a null measurement device. (a. ) A voltage source connected to a long
wire resistor passes a constant current I through it. (b.) An unknown EMF (labeled script Ex) is connected as
shown, and the point of contact along R is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. The segment of wire has
a resistance Rx and script Ex=IRx, where I is unaffected by the connection, since no current flows through the
galvanometer. The unknown EMF is thus proportional to the resistance of the wire segment.

Standard EMF is substituted for emfx, and the contact point is adjusted until the
galvanometer reads zero, so that emfs=IRs. In both cases, no current passes through
the galvanometer. The current I through the long wire is identical. Taking the
ratio emfx/emfs, Icancels, and solving for emfx gives what is seen in.
Because a long uniform wire is used for R, the ratio of resistances Rx/Rs is the same as
the ratio of the lengths of wire that zero the galvanometer for each EMF. The three
quantities on the right-hand side of the equation are now known or measured,
and emfx can be calculated. There is often less uncertainty in this calculation than when
using a voltmeter directly, but it is not zero. There is always some uncertainty in the
ratio of resistances Rx/Rsand in the standard EMFs. Furthermore, it is not possible to tell
when the galvanometer reads exactly zero, which introduces error into both Rx and Rs,
and may also affect the current I.

Resistance Measurements

Many so-called ohmmeters measure resistance. Most common ohmmeters apply a

voltage to a resistance, measure the current, and calculate the resistance using Ohm ‘s
law. Their readout is this calculated resistance. Simple configurations using standard
voltmeters and ammeters have limited accuracy, because the meters alter both the
voltage applied to the resistor and the current flowing through it. The Wheatstone bridge
is a null measurement device for calculating resistance by balancing potential drops in a
circuit. The device is called a bridge because the galvanometer forms a bridge between
two branches. A variety of bridge devicesare used to make null measurements in
circuits. Resistors R1 and R2 are precisely known, while the arrow through R3indicates
that it is a variable resistance. The value of R3 can be precisely read. With the unknown
resistance Rx in the circuit, R3 is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero.
Wheatstone Bridge: The Wheatstone bridge is used to calculate unknown resistances. The variable
resistance R3 is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero with the switch closed. This simplifies the circuit,
allowing Rx to be calculated based on the IR drops.

The potential difference between points b and d is then zero, meaning that b and d are
at the same potential. With no current running through the galvanometer, it has no effect
on the rest of the circuit. So the branches abc and adc are in parallel, and each branch
has the full voltage of the source. Since b and d are at the same potential, the IR drop
along ad must equal the IR drop along ab. Again, since b and d are at the same
potential, the IR drop along dc must equal the IR drop along bc. This equation is used to
calculate the unknown resistance when current through the galvanometer is zero. This
method can be very accurate, but it is limited by two factors. First, it is not possible for
the current through the galvanometer to be exactly zero. Second, there are always
uncertainties in R1, R2, and R3, which contribute to the uncertainty in Rx.

LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS

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DMMs measure up to 1000 V

true RMS
Susan Nordyk -July 23, 2018

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Intended to reduce the need for additional auxiliary instruments, the AVO800 series of
digital multimeters (DMMs) from Megger offers true RMS voltage and current measurement
with basic accuracy of 0.1%. The series comprises two models: the AVO830 and the
AVO835, which provide 600 V and 1000 V measurement ranges, respectively, across AC
and DC voltage supplies. Both meters perform AC current measurements from 0.1 mA to 10
A.

The digital multimeters feature two-wire phase sequence detection to identify incorrectly
wired three-phase circuits, motors, and generators. They also perform resistance
measurement from 0.01 Ω to 50 MΩ, conductance and diode measurement, and 10 MΩ
and 10 kΩ input impedance switching without changing the test range.

Each meter is outfitted with a 4-1/2-digit, 10,000-count display with a dual digital readout
and analog arc. The AVO830 carries a CAT IV 600 V safety rating, while the AVO835 offers
a combined CAT III 1000 V/CAT IV 600 V rating for use in high-energy, low-voltage
electrical applications. Units are powered by two AA batteries that typically yield 150 hours
of operation without the backlight.

The AVO830 and AVO835 digital multimeters cost $265 and $299, respectively.

AVO800 series product page

Megger, https://us.megger.com

Find more datasheets on products like this one at Datasheets.com, searchable by

category, part #, description, manufacturer, and more.