CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter will provide information regarding the topics related to the study. The ideas came

from previous studies which the researchers reviewed from previous researches, journals and

books.

Related Literature

The main problem at St. Genevieve Housing is all about flooding and poor drainage

system. Drainage system plays a vital role in the community. According to the Northwest

Environmental Journal 199, drainage system consists of all the elements of the landscape

through which or over water travels. These elements include the soil and the vegetation that

grows on it, the geologic materials underlying that soil, the stream channels that carry water on

the surface, and the zones where water is held in the soil and moves beneath the surface. Also

included are the constructed elements, including pipes and culverts, cleared and compacted

land surfaces, and pavement and other impervious surfaces that are not able to absorb the

water at all. (The Northwest Environmental Journal, University of Washington, Seattle

Washington 1991)

There are various factors that should be considered in making a drainage system in a

particular area. Some of those factors are location, elevation, geography, and the people. Defra

2004 concluded that human activities have profoundly changed the land on which we live. In

particular, land use and land management change affect the hydrology that determines flood

hazard, water resources and the transport and dilution of pollutants. It is increasingly recognized

that the management of land and water are inextricably linked (e.g. Defra, 2004).
 Flooding can be an extremely dangerous and may cause extensive damage to property

and also to life. According to (Morita, Masaru 2014) many factors contribute to flood risk in

urban catchment areas. Hydrological factors cause rapid flood runoff and flood discharge grows

with an increase in impervious areas. Concentrated population and assets are also important

social aspects of flood risk. Climate change is now considered an important factor that

increases flood risk, with an increase in the frequency and their intensity of torrential storms. To

reduce flood risk, national and local governments have been implementing structural measures,

constructing flood control reservoirs and infiltration and storage facilities with the funds they

have available for flood prevention. Significant non-structural measures must also be employed

to reduce flood risk using such tools as hazard maps and effective forecasting systems. Flood

insurance mitigates flood inundation damage and contributes to relieving flood risk. For urban

flood risk management, these factors should be compared and evaluated in the decision-making

process.

The main reason in making a drainage system is to prevent flooding. When rainfall

intensities are generally lower than the rate at which the soil can absorb it, all of the precipitation

can infiltrate where it first lands. Water still moves downslope, but it also flows below the

surface. This mechanism, known as the sub-surface flow regime, has been most thoroughly

described by Dunne ( e.g., Dunne, Moore, and Taylor 1975).Urban drainage is provided for

prevention of flooding, reduced inconvenience due to surface water ponding, alleviation of

health hazards, a,,nd improved aesthetics, and has been traditionally based on a steady

expansion of the drainage infrastructure without consideration of the impacts of drainage

discharges on receiving waters and without striving to achieve least-cost solutions (Marsalek,

J; Barnwell, T O; Geiger, W; Grottker, M; Huber, W C; et alJun 1993). According to H. Wheater

et al. 2009, there are also major issues of flooding due to surface runoff within the urban

environment. This type of flooding is a major cause of insurance claims for flood damage. Storm

runoff is normally channeled via gully pots, into storm sewers, which are usually designed to
accommodate relatively frequent events. Under more extreme conditions, these sewers will start

to surcharge (flow full under pressure), and as pressures build up, manhole covers can lift and

the sewers discharge to the surface. Such flows combine with surface runoff to generate

flooding of roads and properties. Urban flooding is often complex. Sewer flooding can arise

when pipes exceed their capacity, become blocked, have their capacity limited by river flooding,

or a combination of these factors (H. Wheater, E. Evans / Land Use Policy 2009)

Djordjevi´c et al., 2004 stated that are technical problems in urban flood design. The

frequency of surface flooding for storm sewers is not a design criterion, is often not known, and

will vary greatly for different systems. There has been a lack of technical capability to address

this problem. But in the past few years, models have been developed to represent the surface

routing of overland flows, and associated storm sewer interactions, supported by high resolution

topographic data. (Djordjevi´c et al., 2004). Some standards in designing an urban drainage

system are based on the amount of rainfall in a particular area. Analyses of observed

precipitation time series Easterling et al. 2000; Osborn et al. 2000; Kunkel et al. 1999; Angel and

Huff 1997; Karl et al. 1995 demonstrated an increasing trend of heavy rainfall events at many

locations.

Based on Wenzel 1982 and J. Hydro. Eng. 2006, storm sewers make up the majority

of the constructed urban drainage system. In the design of storm sewers, the rational method is

commonly used to estimate the peak flows resulting from storms of specific return periods. The

rational method is expressed as

Q = CiA Eq. 1

Where:

Q=peak flow required for sizing storm sewers

C=runoff coefficient which is usually empirically determined based on land use and soils of the

catchment

i=intensity of rainfall of chosen return period for a duration equaling the time of concentration of

the catchment

A=area of the catchment.

Average rainfall intensities for durations of 5 min to several hours are needed in estimating

design flows for urban drainage systems. In Eq.1, the i values of various durations and return

periods for a geographical location is usually derived by statistically analyzing observed

historical precipitation time series from a weather station within or close to that location. For that

purpose, the observed precipitation time series are treated as stationary time series with no

upward or downward trends. Statistical frequency analyses are performed on the observed

precipitation time series to derive the intensity–frequency relationships for different durations.

The resulting rainfall intensity–duration–frequency _IDF_ relationships are often expressed

using equations similar in format to the following _Chow et al. 1988_:

a
i= Eq. 2
(t d +c )b

Where:

i=average rainfall intensity within a given duration td for a specific return period;

a, b, and c=parameters taking on constant values for a location and a return period of interest.

This form of rainfall IDF relationships is widely used in drainage design practice.
Related Studies

The problem in St. Genevieve Village Tagpuro Guiuan Eastern Samar can be

reduced by connecting the drainage system to the nearby drainage of the town proper.

In doing this, the researcher conducted a study on the fundamental solution that have

been work on similar project. Study was based on the gathered articles on the previous

years that have been proven

and tested.

The first step in doing the research was determining how St. Genevieve Village

problem came to exist. According to the study conducted by Chittisak Utana, (Utana,

1990) drainage problems consist of clogged canals, poor maintenance of canals and

manholes, pumping of solid wasters, over flowing of canals, leakage of culverts,

absence of culverts, absence of grid iron covers or uncovered manhole. In the case of

St. Genevieve Village, The existing drainage cannot accommodate the water sewage

that leads the water to be stagnant and cause flood on the area.

Disposal of water can be done through land and also in water. The land sewage

includes spreading on the ground surface distributing it to the ground surface through a

system of subsurface distribution or a drainage system pipes, discharging it under

favorable conditions into leaching pits or drainage wells or discharging it into dry stream

beds from which it may soak into the ground or flow ultimately into a body of water (Fair

and Geyer, 1970).

The study of Derek B. Booth (1991) to understand the ultimate causes of urban

impacts to drainage system, the elements of hydrologic system must be described. First

among these elements is storm runoff, that part of the rainfall that reaches a stream

channel quickly-within a day or so of first falling on the ground.

 Drainage systems are needed in developed urban areas because of the

interaction between human activity and the natural water cycle. This interaction has two

main forms: the abstraction of water from the natural cycle to provide a water supply for

human life, and the covering of land with impermeable surfaces that divert rainwater

away from the local natural system of drainage. These two types of interaction give rise

to two types of water that require drainage. The first type, wastewater, is water that has

been supplied to support life, maintain a standard of living and satisfy the needs of

industry. After use, if not drained properly, it could cause pollution and create health

risks. Wastewater contains dissolved material, fine solids and larger solids, originating

from WCs, from washing of various sorts, from industry and from other water uses. The

second type of water requiring drainage, stormwater, is rainwater (or water resulting

from any form of precipitation) that has fallen on a built-up area. If stormwater were not

drained properly, it would cause inconvenience, damage, flooding and further health

risks. It contains some pollutants, originating from rain, the air or the catchment surface.

(David Butler† and John W. Davies, 2000)

The drainage systems work as large water collectors which shorten residence

time conducting the water directly into a recepient (Zajíček et al., 2016) without further

use or retention in the landscape. The presence of drainage interferes with all supported

activities aimed at restoring wetlands and small water bodies, revitalizing water courses,

etc. with significant impacts. In drained areas, such activities cannot be implemented in

the same manner as in undrained land. Damage to drainage resulting from these

activities leads to changes in its function and consequently the deterioration of soil

properties due to unwanted waterlogging and the initialization of soil erosion by water as
a subsurface runoff product (Kulhavý and Fučík 2015; Spaling and Smit 1995). (Lenka

Tlapáková1, 2017)