Team 12

Introduction to photonics
Y Leela Mani Krishna-16121070(ece)

K Ashok Babu-16121088(ece)

P Vijay Bhaskar Reddy (ece)

2 marks:
1. Define photonics?
A. The branch of technology concerned with the properties and transmission of
photons. For example in fiber optics.
2. What is spread spectrum?
This is a technique in which a telecommunication signal is transmitted on
a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the original
information. Frequency hopping is a basic modulation technique used in spread
spectrum signal transmission.
3. Mention few applications of laser in medical field.
Some of them are photodynamic therapy (PDT), low level laser therapy, Dentistry,
Surgery, Hyperthermia of tumors.
4. Explain young’s double slit experiment?
Young’s double-slit experiment uses two coherent sources of light placed at a small
distance apart, usually, only a few orders of magnitude greater than
the wavelength of light is used. Young’s double-slit experiment helped in
understanding the wave theory of light.
5. Define Total Internal Reflection?
Total internal reflection refers to the complete reflection of a ray of light within a
given medium from the surrounding surface. Here, the ray of light continues to be
reflected within the medium (glass, water etc.) without being refracted off.
6. Photonics in our dailylife.
Photonics play an important role driving innovation in an increasing number of
fields. The application of photonics spreads across several sectors: from optical
data communications to imaging, lighting and displays; from the manufacturing
sector to life sciences, health care, security and safety.

6 marks:
7. What are characteristics of laser?
Laser radiation has the following important characteristics over ordinary light
source. They are: I) Monochromaticity, ii) Directionality, iii) Coherence and IV)
Brightness.

1 Monochromaticity

This property is due to the following two factors. First, only an EM wave of
frequency n 0 = (E2-E1)/h can be amplified, n 0 has a certain range which is called
linewidth, this linewidth is decided by homogeneous broadening factors and
inhomogeneous broadening factors, the result linewidth is very small compared
with normal lights. Second, the laser cavity forms a resonant system, oscillation
can occur only at the resonance frequencies of this cavity. This leads to the
further narrowing of the laser linewidth, the narrowing can be as large as 10
orders of magnitude! So laser light is usually very pure in wavelength, we say it
has the property of monochromaticity.

2. Directionality

Laser beam is highly directional, which implies laser light is of very small
divergence. This is a direct consequence of the fact that laser beam comes from
the resonant cavity, and only waves propagating along the optical axis can be
sustained in the cavity. The directionality is described by the light beam
divergence angle.
3. Coherence

For any EM wave, there are two kinds of coherence, namely spatial and temporal
coherence. We emphasize here that spatial and temporal coherence are
independent. A partial temporal coherent wave can be perfect spatial coherent.
Laser light is highly coherent, and this property has been widely used in
measurement, holography, etc.

4. Brightness

The brightness of a light source is defined as the power emitted per unit surface
area per unit solid angle. A laser beam of power P, with a circular beam cross
section of diameter D and a divergence angle q and the result emission solid angle
is p q 2, then the brightness of laser beam is:

B=4P/ (p Ds )2

8. define electromagnetic spectrum.

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum)

of electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon
energies.

Radio: Your radio captures radio waves emitted by radio stations, bringing your
favorite tunes. Radio waves are also emitted by stars and gases in space.

Microwave: Microwave radiation will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes,
but is also used by astronomers to learn about the structure of nearby galaxies.

Infrared: Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light emitted by our skin and
objects with heat. In space, infrared light helps us map the dust between stars.

Visible: Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies, light bulbs, and stars all emit visible
light.

Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by the Sun and are the reason skin
tans and burns. "Hot" objects in space emit UV radiation as well.
X-ray: A dentist uses X-rays to image your teeth, and airport security uses them to
see through your bag. Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.

Gamma ray: Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see inside your body. The biggest
gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe.

9. Applications of laser.

Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been
developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency,
high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all
properties which allow for these specialized applications.

Scientific applications:
Spectroscopy, Heat treatment, Weather, Lunar laser ranging, Photochemistry,
Laser scanner, Laser cooling, Nuclear fusion, Microscopy.

Military applications:
Directly as an energy weapon, Defensive countermeasures, Disorientation,
Guidance, Target designator, Laser sight, Eye-targeted lasers, Holographic weapon
sight

Medical applications:
Some of them are photodynamic therapy (PDT), low level laser therapy, Dentistry,
Surgery, Hyperthermia of tumors.
Industrial and commercial applications:
Entertainment and recreation, Surveying and ranging, Bird deterrent.

10. Maxwell equations for electromagnetic waves.

By assembling all four of Maxwell's equations together and providing the
correction to Ampère's law, Maxwell was able to show that electromagnetic fields
could propagate as traveling waves. In other words, Maxwell's equations could be
combined to form a wave equation. Maxwell's insight stands as one of the
greatest theoretical triumphs of physics. A simple sketch of this result is as
follows:

For simplicity, suppose there is some region of space in which the electric
field E(x) is non-zero only along the z-axis and the magnetic field B(x) is non-zero
only along the y-axis, such that both are functions of xx only. Then Faraday's law
gives

∂x/∂E=−∂t/∂B.
J=0, with the additional term, Ampere's law now gives

∂x/∂B=−1/c2(∂t/∂E).
Taking the partial derivative of the first equation with respect to xx and the
second with respect to t yields

∂2E/∂x2=-∂2B/∂x∂t

∂2B/∂t∂x=-1/c2(∂2E/∂t2)

Therefore,

∂2E/∂x2=1/c2(∂2E/∂t2)
This equation has solutions for E(x) (and corresponding solutions for B(x))) that
represent traveling electromagnetic waves. In fact, the equation that has just
been derived is in fact in the same form as the classical wave equation in one
dimension. In other words, the laws of electricity and magnetism permit for the
electric and magnetic fields to travel as waves, but only if Maxwell's correction is
added to Ampère's law. Indeed, Maxwell was the first to provide a theoretical
explanation of a classical electromagnetic wave and, in doing so, compute the
speed of light.

(The general solution consists of linear combinations of sinusoidal components as

shown below.)

10 marks:
11. Principle of laser device.
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based
on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term "laser"
originated as an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation"
A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently. Spatial
coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such
as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to
stay narrow over great distances (collimation), enabling applications such as laser
pointers and LIDAR. Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows
them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i.e., they can emit a single color
of light. Alternatively, temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light
with a broad spectrum but durations as short as a femtosecond ("ultrashort
pulses").
Fundamentals:
Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial
coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, which
is diffraction-limited. Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a
very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate
their power at a great distance. Temporal (or longitudinal) coherence implies
a polarized wave at a single frequency, whose phase is correlated over a relatively
great distance (the coherence length) along the beam.[8] A beam produced by a
thermal or other incoherent light source has an instantaneous amplitude
and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position, thus having a
short coherence length.
Terminology:
A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical oscillator rather than
an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been humorously noted
that the acronym LOSER, for "light oscillation by stimulated emission of
radiation", would have been more correct.[10] With the widespread use of the
original acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred
to as "laser amplifiers", notwithstanding the apparent redundancy in that
designation.
Design:
A laser consists of a gain medium, a mechanism to energize it, and something to
provide optical feedback. The gain medium is a material with properties that
allow it to amplify light by way of stimulated emission. Light of a specific
wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified (increases in
power).
For the gain medium to amplify light, it needs to be supplied with energy in a
process called pumping. The energy is typically supplied as an electric current or
as light at a different wavelength. Pump light may be provided by a flash lamp or
by another laser.
The most common type of laser uses feedback from an optical cavity—a pair of
mirrors on either end of the gain medium. Light bounces back and forth between
the mirrors, passing through the gain medium and being amplified each time.
Typically one of the two mirrors, the output coupler, is partially transparent.
Some of the light escapes through this mirror. Depending on the design of the
cavity (whether the mirrors are flat or curved), the light coming out of the laser
may spread out or form a narrow beam. In analogy to electronic oscillators, this
device is sometimes called a laser oscillator.
Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties of the
emitted light, such as the polarization, wavelength, and shape of the beam.

12. Discuss photonics and optical communication.

Introduction to Photonics and Optical Technologies Light influences our lives
today in several ways that we could never have imagined just a few decades ago.
Light will play an even more significant role in the future, enabling a revolution in
world fiber-optic communications, new modalities in the practice of medicine,
biotechnology, optical sensing, lighting and exploration of the frontiers of science,
and much more.
Definition of Photonics and Optical Technologies: Photonics is the field of science
and engineering encompassing the physical phenomena and technologies
associated with the generation, transmission, manipulation, detection, and
utilization of light. Three major developments which enabled the developments
during the last 40 years. • Invention of the laser • Fabrication of low loss optical
fibers • Introduction of semiconductor devices
Based on the inventions the following disciplines were created: • Electro-optics, •
Optoelectronics, • Quantum electronics, • Quantum Optics, • Lightwave
technology
Electro-optics is generally reserved for optical devices which electrical effects play
a role (laser and electro-optic modulators and switches)
Optoelectronics typically refers to devices and systems that are essentially
electronics in nature but involve light (examples are light emitting devices, liquid
crystal displays and sensor arrays).
Quantum electronics is used in connection with devices and systems that rely
principally on the interaction of light and matter (e.g. lasers and nonlinear
devices)
Quantum Optics described the studies of quantum and coherence properties of
light.
Lightwave technology is used to describe devices and systems in optical
communication.