SUMMARY OF ENGLISH LESSON

By :
Evi Setyo Darmawati (155040100111066)

PROGRAM STUDY OF AGRIBUSINESS

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
MALANG
2015
 PART OF SPEECH

Definition of part of speech is any of the classes of words of a given language to

which a word can be assigned: different kinds of grammar have different criteria
for classifying words, as form, function or meaning, or combinations of these. In
traditional english grammar, patterned after latin grammar, the parts of speech are
noun, verb, adjective,adverb,pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.
Part of speech can be categorized by :
 One of a group of traditional classifications of words according to their
functions in context, usually including the noun, pronoun, verb, adjective,
adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, and article.
 One of a group of theoretical classifications of words according to their
syntactic, morphological, and semantic properties, such as the noun,
determiner, verb, adjective, adverb, complementizer, preposition, and
conjunction.

1. Noun
This part of a speech refers to words that are used to name persons, things,
animals, places, ideas, or events. Nouns are the simplest among the 8 parts of
speech, which is why they are the first ones taught to students in primary school.
Examples:
 Tom Hanks is very versatile.
 Dogscan be extremely cute.
 It is my birthday.
There are different types of nouns namely:
 Proper.Proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refers to
specific names of persons, places, or things.Examples: Volkswagen
Beetle, Shakey’s Pizza, Game of Thrones, etc.
 Common.Common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just
generic names of persons, things, or places.Examples: car, pizza parlor,
TV series, etc.
  Concrete.This kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your
five senses.Examples: folder, sand, board, etc.
 Abstract. Unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t
perceive through your five senses.Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery.
 Count.It refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural
form.Examples: kitten, video, ball, etc.
 Mass. This is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-
countable nouns, and they need to have “counters” to quantify
them.Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter. Examples of Mass Nouns:
rice, flour, garter.
 Collective. Refers to a group of persons, animals, or things.Example:
faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of
lions).

2. Pronoun
A pronoun is a part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun.
Some examples of pronouns are: I, it, he, she, mine, his, hers, we, they,
theirs, and ours.
Sample Sentences:
 Janice is a very stubborn child. She just stared at me and when I told her to
stop.
 The largest slice is mine.
 We are number one.

3. Adjective
This part of a speech is used to describe a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives can
specify the quality, the size, and the number of nouns or pronouns.
Sample Sentences:
 The carvings are intricate.
 I have two hamsters.
 Wow! That doughnut is huge!
4. Verb
This is the most important part of a speech, for without a verb, a sentence would
not exist. Simply put, this is a word that shows an action (physical or mental) or
state of being of the subject in a sentence.
Examples of “State of Being Verbs” : am, is, was, are, and were
Sample Sentences:
 As usual, the Stormtroopers missed their shot.
 They are always prepared in emergencies.

5. Adverb
Just like adjectives, adverbs are also used to describe words, but the difference is
that adverbs describe adjectives, verbs, or another adverb.
The different types of adverbs are:
 Adverb of Manner. This refers to how something happens or how an
action is done.Example: Annie danced gracefully.
 Adverb of Time. This states “when” something happens or “when” it is
done.Example: She came yesterday.
 Adverb of Place. This tells something about “where” something happens
or ”where” something is done.Example: Of course, I looked everywhere!
 Adverb of Degree. This states the intensity or the degree to which a
specific thing happens or is done.Example: The child is very talented.

6. Preposition
This part of a speech basically refers to words that specify location or a location in
time.Examples of Prepositions: above, below, throughout, outside, before,
near, and since
Sample Sentences:
 Micah is hiding under the bed.
 During the game, the audience never stopped cheering for their team.
7. Conjunction
The conjunction is a part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses
together.Examples of Conjunctions: and, yet, but, for, nor, or, and so
Sample Sentences:
 This cup of tea is delicious and very soothing.
 Kiyoko has to start all over again because she didn’t follow the professor’s
instructions.
 Homer always wanted to join the play, but he didn’t have the guts to
audition.

8. Interjection
This part of a speech refers to words which express emotions. Since interjections
are commonly used to convey strong emotions, they are usually followed by an
exclamation point.
Examples of Interjections:
 Ouch! That must have hurt.
 Hurray, we won!
 Hey! I said enough!

9. Determiners
Determiners are used to identify things in further detail. Determiners are different
to pronouns in that a determiner is always followed by a noun. Personal
pronouns ( I , you , he , etc.) and possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, etc.) don't
act as determiners.They are used in front of nouns to indicate whether you are
referring to something specific or something of a particular type.The definite and
indefinite articles a/an/the are all determiners. Use a specific determiner when
people know exactly which thing(s) or person/people are talking about.
Determiners include:
the articles : a / an / the
demonstratives : this / that / these / those
possessives (aka possessive adjectives): my / your /his / her / its / our / your
/ their
For example :
 The dog barked at the boy
 These apples are rotten
 Their bus was late
 Have you seen my keys?

More general determiners are quantifiers:

few
A few both fewer neither
A little each less no
All either little other
Another enough many several
Any every more some
most
much
For example :
~ Have you got any english books I could borrow?
~ There is enough food to feed everyone
~ I don’t teach online everyday

Numbers act as determiners too, they show how many things or people there are:
1, 2, 3...
For example:-
~ I teach online for 3 days a week.

Either and Neither

Either and neither are used in sentences concerning a possible choice between two
items.Either can mean one or the other (of two) or each of two.
For example :
 I've got tea and coffee, so you can have either. (One or the other)
 The room has a door at either end. (Both)
Neither means not the first one and not the second one.
For example: Neither of the students were listening.

THE PART OF A PLANT AND THEIR FUNCTION

A plant is a living organism. It is made up of different parts, if one part of a plant

is not functioning properly the whole plant will suffer. The parts of plant can be
classified by six parts. They are :

Roots
The basic parts of a plant are the root system, which is below the ground.Roots
act like straws absorbing water and minerals from the soil. Tiny root hairs stick
out of the root, helping in the absorption. Roots help to anchor the plant in the soil
so it does not fall over. Roots also store extra food for future use.The structure and
growth habits of roots have a pronounced effect on the size and vigor of the plant,
method of propagation, adaptation to certain soil types, and response to cultural
practices and irrigation. The roots of certain vegetable crops are important as
food. Roots typically originate from the lower portion of a plant or cutting. They
possess a root cap, have no nodes and never bear leaves or flowers directly.
Type of roots :
A primary (radicle) root originates at the lower end of the embryo of a
seedling plant.
A lateral or secondary root is a side or branch root which arises from
another root. A fibrous root system is one in which the primary root ceases
to elongate, leading to the development of numerous lateral roots.
Parts of roots :
The meristem, is at the tip and manufactures new cells. It is an area of cell
division and growth.
 The zone of elongation, in which cells increase in size through food and
water absorption. These cells by increasing in size, push the root through
the soil.
The maturation zone, in which cells undergo changes in order to become
specific tissues such as epidermis, cortex, or vascular tissue.

Stems
Stems are structures which support buds and leaves and serve as conduits for
carrying water, minerals, and sugars. The three major internal parts of a stem are
the xylem, phloem, and cambium.
The xylem and phloem
The xilem and phloem are the major components of a plant’s vascular
system. The vascular system transports food, water, and minerals and
offers support for the plant. Xylem vessels conduct water and minerals, while
phloem tubes conduct food. The vascular systems of monocots and dicots
differ.In the stem of a monocot, the xylem and phloem are paired into
bundles, these bundles are dispersed throughout the stem. But in the stem
of a dicot, the vascular system forms rings inside the stem.
The cambium
The cambium is a meristem, which is a site of cell division and active
growth. It is located between the xylem and phloem inside the bark of a
stem and is the tissue responsible for a stem’s increase in girth, as it produces
both the xylem and phloem tissues. Stems may be long, with great
distances between leaves and buds (branches of trees, runners on
strawberries), or compressed, with short distances between buds or leaves
(fruit spurs, crowns of strawberry plants, dandelions).
Stems can be above the ground like most stems with which we are familiar, or
below the ground (potatoes, tulip bulbs). All stems must have buds or leaves
present to be classified as stem tissue.

Leaves
The principal function of leaves is to absorb sunlight for the manufacturing of
plant sugars in a process called photosynthesis. Leaves develop as a flattened
surface in order to present a large area for efficient absorption of light energy.
They are the food makers of the plant. They contain the green pigment
called chlorophyll, they absorb sunlight needed by the plants. A plant needs to
breathe. To help it do this, the leaf on a plant has very small slit-like openings
shaped like a mouth. These are called stomata (or stoma for a single opening). The
name was actually derived from the Greek word for mouths. The stomata are
located on the underneath side of the leaf. The function of the stomata is to allow
water vapor and gases to pass in and out of the leaf. The stomata are also
responsible for the process of transpiration, the rate at which a plant loses water.
Air enters the plant through the stomata. The air contains carbon dioxide which is
used in the photosynthesis process. Oxygen, the by-product of photosynthesis, is
then passed out of the leaf through the stomata.

Flowers
The sole function of the flower, which is generally the showiest part of the plant,
is sexual reproduction. Its attractiveness and fragrance have not evolved to please
man but to ensure the continuance of the plant species. Fragrance and color are
devices to attract pollinators that play an important role in the reproductive
process.
Parts of the flower :
 The pistil is the female part of the plant. It is generally shaped like a
bowling pin and located in the center of the flower. It consists of the
stigma, style, and ovary. The stigma is located at the top, and is connected
to the ovary by the style. The ovary contains the eggs which reside in the
ovules. After the egg is fertilized the ovule develops into a seed.
 The stamen is the male reproductive organ. It consists of a pollen sac
(anther) and a long supporting filament. This filament holds the anther in
position so the pollen it contains may be disbursed by wind or carried to
the stigma by insects, birds or bats.
  Sepals are small green, leaflike structures on the base of the flower which
protect the flower bud. The sepals collectively are called the calyx.
 Petals are highly colored portions of the flower. They may contain
perfume as well as nectar glands. The petals collectively are called the
corolla. The number of petals on a flower is often used in the identification
of plant families and genera. Flowers of dicots typically have sepals and/or
petals in multiples of four or five. Monocots typically have these floral
parts in multiples of three.

Fruits
Fruit consists of :
The fertilized and mature ovules, called seeds, and the ovary wall, which may be
fleshy, as in the apple, or dry and hard as in a maple fruit. The only parts of the
fruit which are genetically representative of both the male and female flowers are
the seeds (mature ovules). The rest of the fruit arises from the maternal plant, and
is therefore genetically identical to that parent. Some fruits have seeds enclosed
within the ovary (apples, peaches, oranges, squash, cucumbers). Others have
seeds that are situated on the periphery of fruit tissue (corn, strawberry).
Type of fruit :
 Simple fruits are those which develop from a single ovary. These include
cherries and peaches (drupe), pears and apples (pome), and tomatoes
(berries). All of these fruits develop from a single ovary. Other types of
simple fruit are dry. The fruit wall becomes papery or leathery and hard.
Examples are peanut (legumes), poppy (capsule), maple (samara), and
walnut (nut).
 Aggregate fruits come from a single flower which has many ovaries. The
flower appears as a simple flower with one corolla, one calyx and one
stem, but with many pistils or ovaries. The ovaries are fertilized separately
and independently. If ovules are not pollinated successfully the fruit will
be misshapen and imperfect. Strawberry and blackberry are also aggregate
fruits with the addition of an edible, enlarged receptacle.
  Multiple fruits are derived from a tight cluster of separate, independent
flowers borne on a single structure. Each flower will have its own calyx
and corolla. Examples of multiple fruits are pineapple, fig and the beet
seed.

SEEDS

The seed, or matured ovule is made up of three parts. The embryo is a miniature
plant in an arrested state of development. Most seeds contain a built-in food
supply called the endosperm (orchid are an exception). The endosperm can be
made up of proteins, carbohydrates or fats. The third part a hard outer covering
called a seed coat. It protects the seed from disease and insects, and prevents
water from entering the seed which would initiate the germination process before
the proper time. They grow and become new plants. The food that the seeds need
in order to grow are in a part of the cotyledon.

PHRASE, CLAUSE, AND SENTENCE

Phrases
A phrase is a small group of words that forms a meaningful unit within a clause.
There are severaldifferent types, as follows:
 Noun phrase
A noun phrase is built around a single noun, example:
- A vase of roses stood on the table.
- She was reading a bookabout the emancipation of women.

 Verb phrase
A verb phrase is the verbal part of a clause, example:
- She had been living in London.
- I will be going to college next year.
  Adjective phrase
An adjective phrase is built around an adjective, for example:
- He’s led a very interesting life.
- A lot of the kids are really keen on football.

 Adverbial phrase
An adverbial phrase is built round an adverb by adding words before
and/or after it, example:
- The economy recovered very slowly.
- They wanted to leave the country as fast as possible.
 Prepositional phrase
In a prepositional phrase the preposition always comes at the beginning,
example:
- I longed to live near the sea.
- The dog was hiding under the kitchen table.

Clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains a verb (and usually
other components too). A clause may form part of a sentence or it may be a
complete sentence in itself. For example:
He was eating a bacon sandwich.[clause]
She had a long careerbut she is remembered mainly for one early work
[clause] [clause]

 Main clause
A main clause may form part of a compound sentence or a complex sentence, but
it also makes sense on its own, as in this example:
He was eating a bacon sandwich.[main clause]
  Subordinate clause
A subordinate clause depends on a main clause for its meaning. Together with a
main clause, a subordinate clause forms part of a complex sentence. Here are two
examples of sentences containing subordinate clauses:
After we had had lunch, we went back to work.
[subordinate clause] [main clause]
I first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early nineties.
[main clause] [subordinate clause]

 Conditional clause
A conditional clause is one that usually begins with if or unless and describes
something that is possible or probable:
If it looks like rain a simple shelter can be made out of a plastic sheet
[conditional clause] [main clause]
I'll be home tomorrow unless the plane's delayed for hours.
[main clause] [conditional clause]

 Relative clause
A relative clause is one connected to a main clause by a word such
as which, that, whom, whose,when, where, or who:
I first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early nineties.
[main clause] [relative clause]
She wants to be with Thomas, who is best suited to take care of her.
[main clause] [relative clause]
I was wearing the dress that I bought to wear to Jo's party.
[main clause] [relative clause]

 Restrictive relative clause

A restrictive relative clause (also known as a defining relative clause) gives
essential information about a noun that comes before it: without this clause the
sentence wouldn’t make much sense. A restrictive relative clause can be
introduced by that, which, whose, who, or whom. You should not place a comma
in front of a restrictive relative clause:
She held out the hand which was hurt.
She held out the hand that was hurt.
[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]

 Non-restrictive relative clause

A non-restrictive relative clause (also called a non-defining relative clause)
provides extra information that could be left out without affecting the meaning or
structure of the sentence. Non-restrictive relative clauses are normally introduced
by which, whose, who, or whom, but never bythat. You should place a comma in
front of them:
She held out her hand, which Rob shook.
[main clause] [non-restrictive relative clause]

Sentences
A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense, contains a main verb,
and begins with a capital letter.
 Simple sentence
A simple sentence normally contains one statement (known as a main clause). For
example:
The train should be here soon.
His father worked as a journalist.

 Compound sentence
A compound sentence contains two or more clauses of equal status (or main
clauses), which are normally joined by a conjunction such as and or but. For
example:
Joe became bored with teaching and he looked for a new
career.
 [main clause] [conjunction] [main clause]
Boxers can be very friendly dogs but they need to be trained
[main clause] [conjunction] [main clause]

 Complex sentence
A complex sentence is also made up of clauses, but in this case the clauses are not
equally balanced. They contain a main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. Examples :

The story would make headlines if it became public.

[main clause] [subordinate clause]
He took up the project again as soon as he felt well enough
[main clause] [subordinate clause]

THE LIFE CYCLES OF A PLANTS

The life cycle of a typical annual plant can be divided into several stages.The first
stage is germination. Germination is the growth of a plant contained within a seed,
it results in the formation of the seedling. Seed germination depends on both
internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include
right temperature, water, oxygen orair and sometimes light or darkness.Seeds
remain dormant, or in a resting state, if they are kept cool and dry. When the
amount of moisture and the temperature level are right, the seeds germinate and
start growing. If dry seeds are planted in a dry soil, they will not germinate until it
rains. On the other hand, if there is too much water in the soil, the seeds will not
germinate either. Seeds not germinating is that badly drained soils may lack
sufficient oxygen. In the first stage of germination the primary root, or radicle,
emerges. The root system grows downward, and begins to spread through the soil.
Next, the plant enters the stage of rapid growth. In this stage of the life cycle, the
plant begins to grow to its full size. When it is mature enough, it flowers have
pollination and fertilization ready to take place. In the process of pollination the
pollen is crried by wind or insect from the stamens to the stigma of the carpel.
Pollination is the process whereby pollen grains are transferred from the male
parts of the flower to the female parts. The male sexual organ, or stamen produce
the pollen which contains two male gametes. It is carried by wind or insect from
the stamens to the stigma of the carpel. The next stage is fertilization.
Fertilization is the process whereby one of the male gametes from the pollen
unites with the female gamete in the ovule. One of the male gametes goes down
the style into the ovary chamber. The pollen carrying the male gametes
germinates on the stigma. Then, fruits and seeds are produced. As soon as the
stem appears above the ground, photosynthesis begins. Photosynthesis is the
process whereby the plant manufactures food for itself.The seeds are dispersed by
insect, animals or wind, and tthen the palnt dies. The photosynthesiss needs
sunlight to bind 𝐶𝑂2 and 𝐻2 O together to form sugars and carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates go to the growing points in the plant, enlarging tissues, and the
becomes plant life cycle.

SIMPLE, COMPLEX, COMPOUND, COMPOUND-COMPLEX

SENTENCES

SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a
verb, and it expresses a complete thought. But they can also contain a compound
subjects or verbs. For examples :
 Some studentslike to study in the mornings.
 Juan and Arturoplay football every afternoon.
 Aliciagoes to the library and studies every day.

COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator.
The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Except for very
short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma.Each sentence
contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a
comma preceding it. For examples :
 Itried to speak Spanish, andmy friend tried to speak English.
 Alejandroplayed football, soMariawent shopping.
 Alejandroplayed football, forMaria went shopping.

COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent
clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since,
after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. When a
complex sentence begins with a subordinator, a comma is required at the end of
the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with
subordinators in the middle, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before
the subordinators , it is wrong. Example of sentences :
 Whenhe handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last
page.
 The teacher returned the homework aftershenoticed the error.
 The studentsare studying becausetheyhave a test tomorrow.
 Aftertheyfinished studying, Juan and Mariawent to the movies.
 Juan and Mariawent to the movies aftertheyfinished studying.

COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex
because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause. The subjects,
verbs, and subordinators are marked the same as in the previous sentences, and in
these sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined. Adjective Clauses
are studied in this site separately, but for now it is important to know that
sentences containing adjective clauses are complex. The following sentences are :
 The womanwho(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics.
 The book thatJonathan read is on the shelf.
 The house whichAbraham Lincoln was born in is still standing.
 The townwhere I grew up is in the United States.

The Origin and Composition of Soil

Soil is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and the countless
organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is a natural body known as
the pedosphere and which performs four important functions: it is a medium for
plant growth. Itis a means of water storage, supply and purification. Itis a modifier
of , it is a habitat for organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil.The major
categories of soils are gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Gravel and sand are universally
considered as coarse grained soil because of their individual particles that are
large enough to distinguish without magnification. On the other hand, silt and
clays are considered as fine grained soil because of their tiny particles.

Sandy Soil
This soil type has the biggest particles; and the bigger size of the particles in a soil
the better is aeration and drainage of the soil. This soil is granular and consists of
rock and mineral particles that are very small.To check if soil is sandy, moisten a
small sample of soil and try to make a ball using your palms. If the soil is sandy,
then no dirt balls will form and the soil will crumble and fall through the fingers.

Silty Soil
Silty soil is considered to be one of the most fertile of soils. It can occur in nature
as soil or as suspended sediment in water column of a water body on the surface
of the earth. It is composed of minerals like quartz and fine organic particles.To
check if the soil you have is silty, take a small amount of moist soil and rub it
between your fingers. If the soil is silty soil, it will feel slick and stick to your
fingers.

Clay Soil
Clay is a kind of material that occurs naturally and consists of very fine grain
material with very less air spaces. Due to this it is difficult to work with this soil,
because the drainage in this soil is low.To identify if the soil is clay soil, take a
soil sample and damp it with water. Feel it between your palms. You will find
clay soil is sticky and retains a good amount of water.

Loamy Soil
This soil consists of sand, silt and clay to some extent. It is considered to be the
perfect soil for gardening. The texture is gritty and retains water very easily, yet
the drainage is good.

Peaty Soil

This kind of soil is basically formed by the accumulation of dead and decayed
organic matter, it naturally contains much more organic matter than most of the
soils. It is generally found in marshy areas. The decomposition of the organic
matter in this soil is blocked by the acidity of the soil. This kind of soil is formed
in wet climate.

Chalky Soil

Unlike peaty soil, chalky soil is very alkaline in nature and consists of a large
number of stones. The fertility of this kind of soil depends on the depth of the soil
that is on the bed of chalk.
Generalized Influence of Soil Texture Separates on Some Properties/Behavior of
Soils.
Property/behavior Sand Silt Clay
Water-holding capacity Low Medium to High
high
 Aeration Good Medium Poor
Drainage rate High Slow to Very slow
medium
Soil organic matter level Low Medium to High to medium
high
Decomposition of organic Rapid Medium Slow
matter
Warm-up in spring Rapid Moderate Slow
Compactability Low Medium High
Susceptibility to wind Moderate (High High Low
erosion if fine sand)
Susceptibility to water Low (unless fine High Low if aggregated,
erosion sand) otherwise high
Shrink/Swell Potential Very Low Low Moderate to very
high
Sealing of ponds, dams, Poor Poor Good
and landfills
Suitability for tillage after Good Medium Poor
rain
Pollutant leaching High Medium Low (unless
potential cracked)
Ability to store plant Poor Medium to High
nutrients High
Resistance to pH change Low Medium High

The characteristic of soil consists largely of mineral matter formed by the

disintegration or decomposition of rocks. This disintegration into soil may be
caused by the action of water, ice, frost, or temperature changes, or by plant or
animal life. Almost all soils contain water in varying amounts and in free or
absorbed form. Soils in most cases are blends or mixture of particles of many
sizes, and parent rock materials making it very difficult to predict its behavior.

U.S.A Standard Series

Class Particle Passing Retained

Diameter(mm)

Gravel 75-2.0 3 in. No. 10

Course Sand 2.0-0.425 No. 10 No. 40

Fine Sand 0.425-0.075 No. 40 No. 200

Silt 0.075-0.002 No. 200 -

Clay 0.002-0.001 - -

Colloidal clay Smaller than 0.001 - -

Soil structure often gives clues to its texture, organic matter content, biological
activity, past soil evolution, human use, and the chemical and mineralogical
conditions under which the soil formed. While texture is defined by the mineral
component of a soil and is an innate property of the soil that does not change with
agricultural activities, soil structure can be improved or destroyed by the choice
and timing of farming practices.
A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel to the soil surface, whose physical
characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath.

O) Organic matter: Surficial organic deposit with litter layer of plant residues in
relatively non-decomposed form.
A) Surface soil: Organics mixed with mineral matter. This layer of mineral soil
contains the most organic matter accumulation and soil life. This layer eluviates
(is depleted of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and other soluble
constituents. When eluviation is pronounced, a lighter colored "E" subsurface soil
horizon is apparent at the base of the "A" horizon. A-horizons may also be the
result of a combination of soil bioturbation and surface processes that winnow
fine particles from biologically mounded topsoil. In this case, the A-horizon is
regarded as a "biomantle".
B) Subsoil: Subsurface layer reflecting chemical or physical alteration of parent
material. This layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds, a
process referred to as illuviation.
C) Parent rock: The parent material in sedimentary deposits. Layer of large
unbroken rocks. This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds .
R) Bedrock: The parent material in bedrock landscapes. This layer denotes the
layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the
above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses of hard rock that
cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities
to this bedrock layer. These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet of the other
profiles.

Profile of Soil A : Red Earth

Profile of Soil B : Laterite

Profile of Soil C : Mountain and hill soil

Profile of Soil D : Black Soil

Profile of Soil E : Red Earth

Profile of Soil F : Alluvial Soil

Passive and Active Voices

Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active forms" and
"passive forms."

Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and
the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
Examples:

Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence
and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence.
We can use the passive form if that the thing receiving the action is more
important or should be emphasized. We can also use the passive form if do not
know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the
action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing
action]

Examples:
Active / Passive Overview
Tense Active Passive
Simple Once a week, Tom cleans the Once a week, the house is
Present house. cleaned by Tom.
Present Right now, Sarah is writing the Right now, the letter is being
Continuous letter. written by Sarah.
Simple Past Sam repaired the car. The car was repaired by Sam.
Past The salesman was helping the The customer was being helped by
Continuous customer when the thief came the salesman when the thief came
into the store. into the store.
Present Many tourists have visited that That castle has been visited by
Perfect castle. many tourists.
Present Recently, John has been Recently, the work has been being
Perfect doing the work. done by John.
Continuous
Past Perfect George had repaired many cars Many cars had been repaired by
before he received his mechanic's George before he received his
license. mechanic's license.
Past Perfect Chef Jones had been The restaurant's fantastic
Continuous preparing the restaurant's dinners had been being
fantastic dinners for two years preparedby Chef Jones for two
before he moved to Paris. years before he moved to Paris.
Simple Future Someone will finish the work by The work will be finished by 5:00
will 5:00 PM. PM.
Simple Future Sally is going to make a A beautiful dinner is going to be
be going to beautiful dinner tonight. made by Sally tonight.
Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will
Continuous washing the dishes. be being washed by John.
will
Future At 8:00 PM tonight, John is At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are
Continuous going to be washing the dishes. going to be being washedby John.
be going to
Future They will have completed the The project will have been
Perfect project before the deadline. completed before the deadline.
will
Future They are going to have The project is going to have been
 Perfect completed the project before the completed before the deadline.
be going to deadline.
Future The famous artist will have been The mural will have been being
Perfect painting the mural for over six painted by the famous artist for
Continuous months by the time it is finished. over six months by the time it is
will finished.
Future The famous artist is going to The mural is going to have been
Perfect have been painting the mural for being painted by the famous artist
Continuous over six months by the time it is for over six months by the time it is
be going to finished. finished.
Used to Jerry used to pay the bills. The bills used to be paid by Jerry.
Would My mother would always The pies would always be
Always make the pies. made by my mother.
Future in the I knew John would finish the I knew the work would be
Past work by 5:00 PM. finished by 5:00 PM.
Would
Future in the I thought Sally was going to I thought a beautiful dinner was
Past make a beautiful dinner tonight. going to be made by Sally tonight.
Was Going to