Journal of Management Development

Developing leadership potential in graduate students with assessment, self-

awareness, reflection and coaching
Eleanor Lawrence, Maggie W. Dunn, Suri Weisfeld-Spolter,
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Eleanor Lawrence, Maggie W. Dunn, Suri Weisfeld-Spolter, (2018) "Developing leadership potential
in graduate students with assessment, self-awareness, reflection and coaching", Journal of
Management Development, https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-11-2017-0390
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Leadership
Developing leadership potential in potential in
graduate students with graduate
students
assessment, self-awareness,
reflection and coaching
Eleanor Lawrence Received 29 November 2017
Revised 12 March 2018
Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA 29 June 2018
Accepted 30 July 2018
Maggie W. Dunn
Department of Management, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale,
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Florida, USA, and

Suri Weisfeld-Spolter
Department of Marketing, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale,
Florida, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present an innovative, research-based approach for stimulating
self-awareness, reflection and intentional leadership development and address a call from the academic and
business community to educate and prepare graduate students for leadership in contemporary complex
workplaces. Building on previous research findings and recommendations, the authors suggest that
leadership potential is understood and facilitated through leadership assessment, increased self-awareness
and faculty coach-supported reflection and development planning by MBA students. Based on three key
constructs in leadership development, a conceptual model depicts the approach to developing potential
leaders at this juncture in their professional development.
Design/methodology/approach – New MBA students completed a leadership potential assessment
instrument designed to target areas for focused leadership development throughout their MBA program and
beyond. The assessment process is followed by faculty coach-supported reflection and development planning
as an assignment during the students’ MBA orientation course. To explore the impact of this innovative
approach to accelerating the development of leadership potential, reflection papers from students who
completed the process were analyzed. Data analysis consisted of content coding with an inter-rater reliability
of 0.99 to classify the responses into four key categories. Survey data were also collected from 504 MBA
students who attended an on-campus orientation course to measure students’ increasing understanding and
awareness of the value of the leadership development opportunity.
Findings – Quantitative and qualitative results provide initial support for this approach to developing
leadership potential. Results suggest that the integrative model stimulates a process of awareness, reflection
and intentional development, and supports the identification and pursuit of goal-directed learning
opportunities throughout students’ MBA program.
Originality/value – Graduate business school students are at a leadership inflection point in their trajectory
as leaders. Business colleges play a key role in closing the leadership gap during the development cycle of the
students’ MBA program. The innovative approach in this paper, which facilitates self-awareness, reflection
and intentional leadership development, offers a model for business colleges exploring how to foster these
necessary leadership insights and capabilities.
Keywords Leadership development, Educational innovation, Assessments, Coaching, MBA, Self-development
Paper type Research paper

Talent and leadership remain at the top of the list of concerns for business leaders. As the talent
gap constrains business growth locally, regionally, nationally and globally (CEO Challenge
Survey, 2015, Conference Board), there is an increasing gap between leadership position
Journal of Management
requirements and the leadership skills of the average incumbent (Eichenger et al., 2015). Development
© Emerald Publishing Limited
0262-1711
This paper is based on Weisfeld-Spolter et al. (2018). DOI 10.1108/JMD-11-2017-0390
 JMD Indeed, graduate business school students face a leadership inflection point in their
trajectory as future leaders and business colleges play a key role in closing the leadership
gap during the development cycle of the MBA program (Korn Ferry, 2016). Academics call
out for a set of pedagogical practices to teach leadership in a context that values
awareness, reflection and development (Roeser and Peck, 2009; Weisfeld-Spolter et al.,
2018). The need for leadership education remains acute with the increasing demands for
accountability and results for higher education (Bureau and Lawhead, 2018). The business
community seeks students prepared for leadership in contemporary complex workplaces.
In response to these demands, this study presents an exploratory, innovative, research-
based approach for stimulating self-awareness, reflection and intentional development.
This can serve as a model for business colleges exploring how to successfully foster these
necessary leadership capabilities in students. Thus, our overarching aim is to contribute
to the literature by introducing and cultivating a reflective and contemplative approach to
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education integrating a set of pedagogical practices, namely, self-awareness, reflection

and coaching for development as a leader.
Self-awareness has been cited as one of the most important competencies for leaders to
develop (Toegel and Barsoux, 2012) particularly for many MBA graduate students (Miller
and Xu, 2017). Self-awareness is conceptualized as the extent to which individuals are
consciously aware of their internal states and their interactions with others (Trapnell and
Campbell, 1999). Brown and Ryan (2003) further delineated two types of self-awareness:
situational and dispositional. In other words, it is an individuals’ understanding of their
strengths, weaknesses and impact on others and has been emphasized as a core leadership
capacity, with some scholars and practitioners suggesting that self-awareness should be the
primary emphasis in initially developing leadership (George and Sims, 2007; Korn Ferry,
2016). Building students’ self-awareness as a critical prerequisite to their successful
development and progression as future leaders is a challenge (Muir, 2014). Designing an
approach to help students understand the socially constructed nature of leadership through
a mindful engagement process based on reflection and learning from their experiences is
needed (Ashford and Ross, 2012).
In the next sections of the paper, the theoretical background and conceptual model
are presented to address three key research questions that emerge from the gaps in
the literature:
RQ1. How can we educate and prepare graduate students for leadership in
contemporary complex workplaces?
RQ2. How can we teach leadership in a context that values awareness, reflection and
development?
RQ3. How can we facilitate leadership potential through leadership assessment,
self-awareness and coach-supported reflection?
A qualitative analysis of student reflection papers and the quantitative results of a student
survey follow. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to maximize in-depth
insight and understanding into students’ perceptions based on their reflections, combined
with an objective and generalizable measure for assessing student learning and reflection.
Discussion of the results and theoretical, managerial, and research implications of the study
conclude the paper.

Literature review
The past conventional approaches to teaching leadership
For years, business schools have been criticized for doing a “disservice to students,
organizations and society by churning out graduates who are ill prepared to lead”
 (Bennis and O’Toole, 2005, p. 98). The past decade of business literature is stimulated by Leadership
event after event of questionable to scandalous stories of leaders who had a negative potential in
organizational impact. Disappointment with the conventional state of teaching leadership in graduate
business schools is evident with its unfulfilled promise to deliver motivating and admirable
leaders capable of positive and constructive impact on organizations and society students
(Alajoutsijarvi et al., 2014). There is a clear need for business schools to align and design
curricula which prepare the leaders, followers and organizations they will serve for the
ambiguity and volatility they will face (Petriglieri and Petriglieri, 2015).
The general structure of the MBA curricula documents a focus on functional and
analytic courses and an absence of courses on people skills (Rubin and Dierdorff, 2009).
Most business school leadership programs focus on developing skills and abilities from a
common list of theories: e.g., great man/trait, styles/skills, situational/contingency,
charismatic/transformational, leader–member exchange, servant, spiritual and authentic
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( Jackson and Parry, 2011).

The conventional approach to teaching leadership is informed by the leader-centric
paradigm which presents leaders as inspirational and heroic, capable of powerfully
impacting and influencing the organization and the world (Collinson and Tourish, 2015).
Kellerman (2012) reported that business schools suggest that by studying leadership,
students will become exceptional leaders with the ability to exert extraordinary influence
over others. The student may then develop an exaggerated impression of their ability to lead
organizations and society with little need or regard for the differing opinions and critical
input of others.

Rethinking leadership pedagogy

The critical skills for successful performance in an organization, from managing oneself to
managing teams, to managing the enterprise, involve changes in roles, requirements for new
skills and scope of responsibility (Charan et al., 2011). As leaders’ progress, they need
to realign and redistribute their skills, attention and time from focusing on helping self to
focusing on helping others (Gentry, 2016). It is necessary to go beyond the reshuffling of
competencies, skills and topics; rather, a mindful approach fostering self-awareness,
connections with others and organizations is needed (Nicholson and Carroll, 2013). These
studies indicate that leadership is fundamentally about the interactional dynamics of the
leader and follower and organizational actors as they exist in uncertain environments
(Collinson, 2014).
Teaching leadership today demands a re-conceptualization of leadership that is viewed
as co-constructed and interactional between the organizational actors (leader, follower and
others) in uncertain environments (Collinson and Tourish, 2015). The call here is to start
from the assumption that leading incorporates the whole person, beyond a set of skills,
competencies and knowledge, and to offer students an opportunity to learn about their
experiences, motives, values, aspirations and their interaction with the people around them
that influence who they are and how they lead (Waddock and Lozano, 2013).
The approach to leadership education that will benefit organizations and society
adopts a more critical, questioning, relational and reflective approach. Students are
encouraged to examine their assumptions about leadership, organizations, societies,
leaders and followers. The nature of the relationship between businesses and society has
changed over the past few decades, as business organizations play a more active role in
wider societal issues. The implications impact pedagogy in developing the mindsets and
skills of leaders in a dynamic world (Gitsham, 2012). The approach responds to the need to
further define a set of pedagogical practices to teach leadership in a context that values
awareness, reflection and development designed to foster personal and professional
growth (Roeser and Peck, 2009).
 JMD Based on the context and framing of the present educational approach to teaching
leadership, and to help answer the three research questions, the conceptual model below
depicts our integrative approach to developing leaders. Specifically, we suggest that MBA
students’ leadership potential is accelerated by increased self-awareness, iterative learning
and reflection, and leadership coaching for development utilizing an assessment of
leadership potential with established reliable and valid measures (Figure 1).

Assessment of leadership potential: instrument

The leadership potential assessment used in the current study is a commercially available,
reliable, valid, research-based, self-assessment. In selecting this instrument, consideration
was given to the practical value for students as they are aiming to increase their future
marketability and career success. This instrument was developed by a global firm that
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specializes in executive search and leadership development. Key scales of this assessment
are based on the Five-Factor Model and designed specifically to identify which personality
constructs and traits are strongly correlated with performance as a leader (Barrick et al.,
2001). The Big Five has demonstrated global applicability and has been established as the
premier descriptive framework for personality science (Hurtz and Donovan, 2000).
The construct of leadership potential means examining student skills, abilities,
experiences and values to effectively perform and advance in their careers normed against
already successful leaders at the targeted level (Korn Ferry, 2016). Therefore, the
assessment of leadership potential is measured as future oriented, focused on objective
measures related to what could be. The results are intended to explore the potential to
assume higher level expanded scope leadership roles in the future. Specifically, there are
seven scales designed to capture individual differences on those aspects most related to
leadership potential. As leaders’ careers progress there is a need to realign and redistribute
their skills and perspective from helping self to helping others.

Reliable and
valid
assessment of
leadership
potential

Self- Development Leadership

awareness as a leader coaching

Figure 1.
Conceptual model:
developing the leader
within through
assessment, Learning and
self-awareness, reflection
reflection
and coaching
 Design of instrument and scales Leadership
The instrument is designed to provide data to differentiate traits, characteristics and potential in
experiences needed to be successful future leaders. The critical skills measured for graduate
successful performance in an organization cover managing oneself to managing the
enterprise and involve changes in job descriptions, requirements for new skills and scope of students
responsibility (Charan et al., 2011). The instrument was developed based on prior academic
and business journals, consulting firm assessments, surveys, and primary and secondary
research identifying individual attributes linked to long-term potential (Korn Ferry, 2016;
Corporate Leadership Council, 2005). The instrument assesses leadership across seven
scales: drivers, experiences, awareness, learning agility, leadership traits, capacity and
derailment risks. The goal is to evaluate potential for informing the development of skills
and experiences over a period required for future roles of greater accountability, complexity
and scope. Table I delineates the definitions of the seven scales that are measured with this
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instrument, all of which imply face validity.

Psychometric properties and objective measures

Reliability, relationships with other measures and relationship with advancement support
the instrument as a reliable and valid instrument (Korn Ferry, 2016). The developers of the
scales report extensive testing. The reliability estimates range from 0.67 to 0.91 for each
scale, with most scales having reliability estimates above 0.8, suggesting adequate
reliability (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1978). Specifically, the values of the estimates for each
scale are as follows: advancement drive, 0.92; role preferences, 0.67; self-awareness, 0.67;
situational self-awareness 0.72; mental agility, 0.81; people agility, 0.89; change agility,
0.91; results agility 0.81; focus, 0.80; persistence, 0.84; tolerance of ambiguity, 0.85;
assertiveness, 0.88; optimism, 0.84; capacity, 0.87; volatile, 0.89; micromanaging, 0.91; and
closed, 0.91. Construct validity and criterion validity were also established by the scale
developers following established criteria.

Norms
The norms represent already successfully global leaders at each level from individual
contributor to chief executive officer. To establish the comparison norm level for each student,
the student enters demographic data at the beginning of the assessment and this determines
the target norm group level to which they will be compared. This allows for customized and
targeted norm levels for each student, comparing the student to a norm group that is two
levels above their current level. The target levels are chief executive officer/top organizational

Scale Definition

Drivers The drive and motivation to serve as a leader drive includes how much energy individuals
are prepared to dedicate to their career and how clear they are on their career goals
Awareness Self and situational awareness to include individual’s understanding of their strengths,
weaknesses, developmental needs and impact and effect they have on people and situations
and use of that knowledge to manage and influence people
Experience A track record of formative experiences
Learning Ability and willingness to learn from experience and subsequently apply that learning to
agility succeed under new, first-time conditions
Leadership Leadership traits associated with advancement leadership traits include orientation toward
traits the big picture, persistence, assertiveness, optimism and tolerance of ambiguity
Capacity Aptitude for logic and reasoning and includes how individuals spot patterns and solve problems Table I.
Derailment Managed derailment risks include tendencies to micromanage, being closed or open to others’ Instrument scales
risks points of view and volatility and definitions
 JMD executive, top business or organizational group executive, senior/top functional executive,
business/organizational unit/division leader, functional leader, mid-level leader, first-level
leaders, team lead and individual contributor/professional.

Items
In the development of the instrument a Classical Test Theory (CTT) approach followed by a
Forced-Choice Item Response Theory (FC-IRT) approach was used. Items were written by
a global team to represent each trait. Items were refined using traditional item analysis
through multiple waves of data collection focusing on factor structure and internal
consistency of scales. Retained items were then tested using FC-IRT.
Factor structure was tested using exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor
analysis for both the CTT and IRT versions of the scales. The final item set resulted in
scales with primary loadings on the intended factor for all scales for GFI ¼ 0.904 and
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SRMSR ¼ 0.064, both within the range of acceptable model fit as discussed in the
psychometric literature.

Self-assessment bias
The instrument integrates the FC-IRT to minimize bias in the scores, FC-IRT offers some
advantages over more traditional approaches to measurement, such as Likert-type response
scales or Forced-Choice measures grounded in CTT (Korn Ferry, 2016).

Administration and scoring

The assessment is administered online and takes 35–40 min to complete. The instrument is
primarily a FC-IRT item administration requiring choices in ranking format. Raw scores for
the sub dimensions are normed against the target role level and reported as percentiles.
Reports have specific feedback for scores at the very highest and lowest scores in the range.
The results are presented to show above or below the average of the normative group of
successful leaders at the target (Korn Ferry, 2016).
Self-awareness. Awareness of one’s strengths and development needs is considered a
foundational leadership capacity (Toegel and Barsoux, 2012). Effective leaders are aware of
how they respond to different situations, they are aware of their impact on others, they
understand human interaction and the role their behavior plays in bringing about effective
outcomes (Ashkanasy and Dasborough, 2010; Vohra et al., 2015). Lacking self-awareness
may create blind spots that erode confidence and trust and reduce effectiveness as a leader
(Cunliffe, 2009).
Self-awareness is a process of discovery which can be aided by using validated
assessment tools to provide data to consider and digest for reflection (Miller, 2015). Using
assessment instruments can help to stimulate self-awareness and form the foundation of
understanding one’s leadership (Cunliffe, 2009; Lovett, 2017). Building an awareness of
oneself as a leader using assessments normed against already successful leaders forms a
basis for thinking differently about oneself and one’s experiences. This awareness focuses
upon comparing one’s leader behaviors, characteristics and experiences from the individual
contributor to the senior executive level (Cunliffe, 2009). Awareness of one’s aspirations and
current skills, strengths, weaknesses, patterns and style of influencing is an integral element
of the formula for intentionally developing leadership effectiveness and preparing for
success in a variety of leadership situations. With greater self-awareness, leaders can be
more intentional in seeking situations that capitalize on their strengths and experiences that
help to address their development needs.
Reflection. The process of critically thinking about one’s behaviors, attitudes, beliefs,
experiences, strengths, development opportunities and about one’s hopes for the future is a
 key factor in the development of future leaders, and strategies for integrating this reflection Leadership
in leadership education are encouraged (Roberts, 2008; Tyran, 2017). Focused reflection, and potential in
developing a reflection practice, stimulates increased self-awareness and supports graduate
intentional development. Leadership educators can serve as facilitators of the learning
and leadership development process by engaging students in meaningful reflective practice, students
helping them develop a practice of looking inward to clarify personal values, goals and
opportunities as well as outward to understand how they connect to a larger whole (Roberts,
2008; Moen and Brown, 2017).
Reflection can be used to integrate theory with practice, facilitate insight and foster
self-discovery, in the classroom and in professional life. Reflection has been associated with
higher levels of student learning (Peltier et al., 2005) whereby students develop their ability
to contemplate, integrate and improve upon their learning (Rogers, 2001) which benefits
both faculty and students (Ash and Clayton, 2004). By encouraging students to question and
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examine personal assumptions, focused reflection can enhance perspectives which help in
understanding the complex and ambiguous situations facing leaders. Leadership
development programs require a more comprehensive approach that fosters personal
integration of theory and practice that is reiterative and reflective. Learning what it means
to be an effective leader is a process to be taught early and often and the practice of
reflection supports this process (Roberts, 2008).
Coaching for development. Leadership coaching is a supportive, typically one-on-one,
partnership that aims to deepen self-awareness and enhance the self-efficacy and overall
leader effectiveness of the coachee in a competitive and evolving marketplace (Bono et al.,
2009; Anthony, 2017). Leadership coaching can be very helpful to participants with
developing greater insight from assessment reports and can increase confidence and clarity
with moving forward in achieving development goals (Stawiski et al., 2016). A growing body
of literature has shown that coaching can have a significant positive effect on performance
and skills, well-being, goal-directed self-regulation, and that value is derived from both
tangible and intangible outcomes of coaching (Sharma, 2017). Research on the positive
outcomes of leadership coaching with student populations has demonstrated enhanced goal
setting, achievement, resilience and well-being (Hastings and Kane, 2018). The literature also
shows that coaching can be effective even when the number of coaching sessions is
relatively small (Theeboom et al., 2013). The practice of workplace and leadership coaching
is evolving and now focuses more on enhancing both the performance and the well-being of
the individual and their organizations in ways that are sustainable and personally
meaningful (Grant, 2017). Coaching that helps participants to focus not only on development
opportunities but also on leveraging strengths is associated with goal progress and with
well-being (Linley et al., 2010).

Methodology
The integrative model served as the basis for designing the student experience to accelerate
leadership development during an MBA program at a nonprofit, independent research
university in the Southeast USA. Building on the literature findings, the concept was to
encourage students to reflect, question and rethink their leadership capabilities, behaviors
and development in new and innovative ways as they participate in supported discovery
and design of their learning and growth as leaders. Assessment, feedback and coaching
challenge students to begin to think critically and reflect about themselves as leaders in
relation to others. By deepening their awareness of their own leadership behaviors and
impact, the interactions between leaders and followers, and the underexplored tensions,
paradoxes and contradictions students are urged to dig deeper; however, uncomfortable
they may feel. The process stimulates student reflection upon their leader identity and how
 JMD they think of themselves as a future leader. This begins the reflection process to integrate
their leadership identity with their intentional leadership development as they embark upon
and then fully leverage the opportunities to learn and grow as leaders throughout their
MBA program and beyond.

Leadership self-awareness, supported reflection, coaching and development process

Students entering the MBA program learn about and complete a leadership assessment
instrument as an assignment during their MBA orientation course. The instrument is a
world-class, research-based self-assessment which measures leadership potential. The
results are intended to explore the question of readiness to assume higher level expanded
scope leadership roles and aids in identifying areas for focused leadership development.
An introduction to leadership potential using a reflection activity with the assessment
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scales occurs during the orientation program. This is followed by completing the instrument, a
leadership coaching session with a certified faculty coach and several facilitated reflection
exercises to deepen self-awareness and support development planning. This process informs
and empowers students to select experiences and develop leadership competencies during
their academic program that contribute to their leadership effectiveness, career success and
enjoyment. While the process begins with the assessment, the focus of the experience is on
self-awareness, guided reflection and development as indicated in the model.
Student experience. The student experience begins with an overview during the first week
of the MBA program, when they learn about the university’s investment in this strategic
initiative, designed to enhance their self-awareness and accelerate their leadership
development and career success. The definition of leadership potential is presented as
“Your capacity and interest to develop the qualities required for effective performance in a
significantly more challenging leadership role.” Students learn that the assessment measures
key dimensions of leadership normed against and compared to already successful leaders at
levels ranging from individual contributor to top executive. These dimensions can be
identified, measured and then – with intentional focus – developed through the MBA program
and over the course of a career. Students are given a visual of the model and a checklist of the
dimensions of leadership potential and are invited to reflect on their own leadership and to
anticipant where they may have strengths and development opportunities. This is the first of
four reflection exercises built into the experience. To support students’ optimism about their
own leadership potential, the relevance of motivation and focus while making informed
choices about where to invest their development energy is emphasized.
As the introduction and overview are wrapped up during orientation (and as a process
enhancement after capturing a year’s worth of data) “testimonials” are shared from students
who have completed the assessment, coaching and development process. Hearing from their
peers further clarifies the value students can derive from this process. Testimonials
highlight the immediate benefit of receiving the assessment results and the momentum
created with an informed development plan. Students appreciate the balanced consideration
of both developmental opportunities and the strengths that they can already leverage.
An evaluation of the orientation experience, including insights about the value of the
upcoming assessment and coaching process, is built into the orientation program to
stimulate further reflection. It is critical at this juncture that students understand the goal
and role of the leadership assessment and the steps that follow to maximize the subsequent
benefits of the assessment results, the coaching session and reflection exercises. Results of
this evaluation are reported later in the paper.
The week after the orientation and process overview, students receive an e-mail with a
link to complete the assessment instrument. Once the assessment is completed, each student
is invited to a leadership coaching session with a member of the MBA faculty who has been
 trained and certified on the assessment instrument as a feedback coach. Students are Leadership
matched with faculty coaches in their program of study. The one-on-one sessions with potential in
faculty coaches form mentorships which continue through the MBA program and beyond. graduate
When students accept the invitation, their faculty coach sends an e-mail confirming the
appointment. The e-mail includes the student’s assessment report and a Learning and
students
Action Guide. The Guide walks the students through their report and provides exercises to
help increase their self-awareness and prepare for a productive coaching session. The
exercises include identifying and reflecting on strengths, development needs, derailment
risks that could stall a career, and gaps that may become more relevant at their target career
level. This is the second of four reflection exercises built into the experience. Reflection
questions include: “Which of my strengths are most important for my current success in my
organization now?” “Which of my strengths are most important for my continued success?”
“Which of my developmental needs are most important to address for my current success in
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my organization now?” “Which of my developmental needs are most important to address

for my continued success?” Working through the Guide also helps students draft a
development plan to fine-tune with their faculty coach.
We have found that prior to the coaching session, students tend to focus primarily on
their deficits and low scoring scales in their reports. The faculty coaches help the students
to recognize the relevance of their strengths in achieving their development goals as
leaders. The coaching session includes the third reflection exercise that is integral to the
experience. Using inquiry, faculty coaches support the student in thinking about their
goals, where they may like to focus their development planning, and how to get started.
Insights from the assessment report are integrated into the students’ real-world leadership
experiences and goals.
The individualized nature of the coaching relationship with a member of the faculty in the
early weeks of the students’ MBA program provides an enriching educational experience for
the students and deepens their connection with the program and engagement with the
development opportunity. In the role of coach, faculty are not serving as content experts.
Instead, they serve in an adaptive, inquiry-based role, focusing on the unique goals, strengths
and development opportunities of each student, supporting the students in thinking more
deeply. The coaching enhances the students’ self-awareness through an exploratory, reflective
conversation about their assessment results in the context of their goals.
To support students’ further progress with their development goals and to increase the
immediate, real-world value of this experience, the Guide also provides a template to help
students prepare for a conversation with their boss. After reviewing the report and
reflecting on their strengths and development opportunities with their faculty coach, many
students find it helpful to have a conversation with their boss. The intent of this
conversation is to share insights from the assessment, coaching and reflection experience,
involve their boss in the development planning and integrate the new insights with their
overall development process.
To further stimulate the insights and value, and to reinforce the reflective practice,
students are given an assignment to write a reflection paper on their assessment and
coaching experience as part of an assignment in their organization behavior course, taken
by all MBA students early in their program. This is the fourth reflection exercise that is
integral to the experience following the one-on-one coaching session. They are encouraged
to reflect on what they learned about themselves as leaders from the assessment and the
coaching and their student experience working in groups. They share insights about their
strengths, growth opportunities and development plans. They also comment on the process
experience, including what worked well and what could have been better. Figure 2
summarizes the student experience and portrays the alignment with the conceptual model.
 JMD Student Experience
Coaching and 4th reflection
3rd reflection exercise
ss exercise
arene
self-aw
asing
Incre
2nd reflection
exercise Take advantage
of University
Fine-tune resources and
development continue
1st reflection plan, write reflection
exercise Meet with faculty practice,
coach for reflection paper
and integrate development
facilitated planning and
reflection and into academic
Receive invitation and career progress
development
to coaching session, planning
planning
Complete the assessment report
assessment and guide. Continue
Figure 2. reflection process
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Participate in
Student experience orientation and
aligned with learn about the
leadership
the model assessment and
coaching process

Faculty development to support the strategic initiative

The process, designed to support students’ development as leaders, also supports faculty
development. In total, 39 members of the MBA faculty volunteered to become faculty coaches.
To become certified on the assessment instrument as faculty coaches, faculty members
completed the self-assessment to deepen their own leadership self-awareness, followed by a
two-day training and certification process. The certification process includes education on the
assessment instrument and technical manual, the model on which the assessment was
developed, coaching principles and techniques, practice and feedback. Once certified, the
faculty coaches work one-on-one with MBA students to engage and support the students with
understanding their assessment results, reflecting on their strengths and development
opportunities, and embarking on development plans to achieve each student’s unique goals.
Faculty coaches form a community of practice within the university. Coaching experiences,
techniques and process improvements are shared. Refreshers are offered as current coaches
are invited to attend all or part of ongoing certification sessions. The process is evaluated for
continuous improvement, based on feedback from students and faculty.

Qualitative and quantitative measures of success and impact

To explore the preliminary impact of this approach to teaching leadership, and to explore
the research questions, reflection papers from a sample of 67 students who completed the
assessment, reflection activities and coaching process and attended the Organizational
Behavior course during Fall 2016 or Winter 2017 sessions were analyzed.
Students write this reflection paper toward the end of their first term in the program,
after completing the coaching session and during the end of the Organizational Behavior
course, therefore academic growth, maturity over time and personal experiences are
unlikely to affect the results. Students are instructed to reflect on an assigned group
consulting project experience and connect it to concepts and theories presented both in the
course and in the leadership assessment and coaching. Demographics of the students were
like the overall attendees of the 2016 and 2017 orientation, with approximately 60 percent
female, 70 percent employed full time and 60 percent aged 20–30. Data analysis consisted of
content coding to classify the responses into codes or categories (Creswell, 2013). The
analysis focused on students’ perceptions of what they learned and on benefits they derived
from the coaching session and further reflection activities. The responses were retained
verbatim for analysis. Three researchers independently reviewed the entire data set of
 reflections, and each recorded themes present in the responses without prior discussion of Leadership
what may emerge. Through dialogue, the three researchers compared themes and created a potential in
set of five representing all responses. Reading and reviewing responses repeatedly led to graduate
identification of similar ideas or common content that describe students’ reactions and
experiences as they relate to the assessment. To improve accuracy and reliability, the students
researchers discussed discrepancies in the coding and clarified definitions of the themes
( Johnson and Johnson, 1999). The responses were then recoded and redistributed across the
identified themes. A comparison of the classifications was completed, and through
discussion, one theme was removed due to non-consensus. Any other discrepancy was
sorted out through mutual discussion resulting in suitable inter-rater reliability of 0.99
based on the proportional reduction in loss approach (Rust and Cooil, 1994) of four themes.
Several major categories resulted from the data analysis exemplifying students
reflecting on their experiences and learning related to their assessment and coaching
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experience. Students’ responses show insight into both their individual leadership strengths
as well areas for growth and development. Students also discuss how the self-awareness of
these strengths and weaknesses applied to their working as an effective team member in
group projects. Perhaps most importantly, students’ responses demonstrate that they
realized how these insights will assist them in their careers. Students’ responses that
exemplify each of the four categories are listed below to show key learning and insights that
they derived from their experiences.

Reflection and insight into individual leadership strengths and growth opportunities
Comments in these first two categories present students’ insights about their leadership
strengths and growth opportunities and how these capabilities impact their educational
experience, their careers, their leadership and their overall lives. Examples of these
comments are listed in Table II as bullet points for each category.

Insight into individual leadership strengths Insight into leadership growth opportunities

The assessment showed that my strength lies in my
capacity to spot trends or patterns easily
A category in which I scored relatively high was the
drivers category – this trait has allowed me to
succeed in all aspects of my life (sports, college,
relationships, business, etc.) and it was very
satisfying to see that it is reflected on my
assessment results
In terms of self-awareness, I scored an 85, indicating
that I am aware of my personal strengths and
weakness and open to feedback. I completely agree
with this, I am not afraid to admit when I do not
understand something to be able to learn from that
experience; and I also consider myself aware of
my abilities
I got deeper insights about my real strengths …
regarding my strengths, I am a driven person. I get
motivated by challenges and I work hard toward the
plans I establish
My strong area is “drivers,” which means that I am
focused on my career preferences and plans
My assessment suggested that I should be less
focused on details because the higher I go in
leadership, I will need to be able to focus on the bigger
picture instead of tiny details that could prevent me
from going up
This assessment also helped me identify the three
most important development needs to be a successful
leader. First, I need to reflect on my career goals ….
Second, is to not get too absorbed in the details …
Third, I need to think more about what motivates the
people I interact with and adapt my approach
accordingly
Developing learning agility will be beneficial to me
now and in the future
My results illustrated that structure makes work
more efficient and predictable, but it does not always Table II.
suffice, and I would benefit from increasing my Qualitative Comments
tolerance of ambiguity demonstrating
My results also showed that I am not always willing insight into individual
to take the lead in situations and I feel that is true at leadership strengths
times, especially in a topic that I may not feel I know and growth
much about opportunities
 JMD Application to group projects and implications for professional growth
Comments in the next two categories present students’ application of their leadership
insights to their classroom experiences, particularly group work, as well as an
understanding and appreciation for integrating these insights in their professional
careers to facilitate leadership growth and advancement (Table III).
To further supplement insight into the research questions, a quantitative and secondary
measure of impact of the orientation workshops on leadership and understanding the
process benefits was performed. MBA students were given a brief survey at the end of
orientation day, to stimulate reflection on their learning and insights. They were asked to
indicate their agreement or disagreement with three statements using a five-point Likert
scale designed to assess the following learning objective identified by the leadership
orientation committee based on the research questions: increase student self-awareness
through the use of an assessment suite on how to develop and enhance leadership style and
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skills for excelling in a competitive work environment. The three statements were developed
by the faculty led orientation committee and pretested to ensure clarity, face validity and
alignment with the learning objective.
Data were collected from three groups of MBA students who attended our ground
orientation course. All students who attended the orientation completed the survey using
either clicker methodology or paper and pencil, resulting in 504 usable and completed
surveys collected from four orientation events from 2015 to 2018. Among the participants,
35 percent were male, 71 percent were aged 20–30 years while the rest (29 percent) older
than 30 years, and about two-thirds of all subjects (65 percent) were employed full time.
Table IV reports sample demographics and means by year for the three survey items.
The overall mean on a scale from 1 to 5 from the combined sample for the three items was
4.37, 4.30 and 4.49 for Q1, Q2 and Q3, respectively. The three individual items were also
averaged to form a leadership self-awareness factor (α ¼ 0.87), with a factor mean of 4.39.
A closer examination of the results over time using ANOVA F(1, 254 ¼ 34.23, p ¼ 0.00)
reveals that between the 2015 and 2017 orientation, all three individual items and the overall

Application to group projects Implications for professional growth

According to my assessment results, I scored well
above average for the people factor of learning agility
… I was able to accommodate the various needs,
motives and feelings of everyone in the group … I
used this agility to assist the members of the group to
seek various ways to get certain tasks done
The factor that I am lacking is self-awareness and the
way that I approach this is asking my team to provide
feedback on the sections that I have completed. Before
reviewing my assessment results with my coach, I
tended to block off feedback from others because I
would take their criticism personally rather than as a
way to help me improve
During the group project, I was able to increase
awareness levels with the help of my group members
Table III. … I was also able to work on results agility through
Qualitative Comments overcoming obstacles we faced in order to achieve
demonstrating student our goals
application of insights I learned that group cohesion; successful outcomes
to group projects and and task delegation are learned behaviors and rely on
professional growth continued practice in order to improve
After completing this assessment, I have already
taken the opportunity to modify my plans for creating
a better me
The areas of strength that will enhance my career
development are drivers and derailment risks
The assessment made me realize that I have the
potential and skills to do great things
I have to continue to identify and focus on my
long-term goals
As a result of the Assessment, I plan on referencing
these results throughout my journey, looking back on
what I have improved and what aspects need more work
I really understand my impact on others and their
impact on me. This will clearly be an advantage for my
future professional career especially in terms of
interpersonal job relationships
Once I am in a professional career, I will remain aware of
areas I need to improve and remain confident that I will
be able to succeed and turn those weaknesses into
strengths. This will ultimately make me the best leader
that I can possibly be
 Combined
Leadership
2015 2016 2017 2018 sample potential in
mean mean mean mean overall graduate
(SD) (SD) (SD) (SD) mean (SD)
students
Q1. I am more aware of ways to enhance my
leadership skills 3.79 (1.29) 4.54 (0.67) 4.64 (0.58) 4.57 (0.73) 4.37 (0.97)
Q2. Helped increase my understanding of how I
can excel in a competitive work environment 3.76 (1.28) 4.42 (0.74) 4.55 (0.68) 4.48 (0.79) 4.30 (0.99)
Q3. I realize how the assessment will help me
identify my personal leadership styles and skills 4.15 (1.14) 4.63 (0.62) 4.59 (0.63) 4.60 (0.78) 4.49 (0.850)
Leadership factor score (average of three items) 3.90 (1.21) 4.53 (0.59) 4.60 (0.56) 4.56 (0.59) 4.39 (0.93)
α ¼ 0.85 α ¼ 0.87 α ¼ 0.85 α ¼ 0.89 α ¼ 0.87
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Gender
Male (%) 39 38 36 39 38
Female (%) 61 62 64 61 62
Age
20–30 (%) 72 75 70 66 71
W30 (%) 28 25 30 34 29 Table IV.
Employed full time (%) 71 74 65 77 73 Sample demographics
n 132 172 122 78 504 and means

factor resulted in a significant score increase (p-value o 0.01). To test for differences
between the years, follow-up contrasts were performed and showed that students in 2017
responded more favorably, with higher mean scores to each of the questions as compared to
the students in 2015. Table IV reports means, variances and results of the testing. Sufficient
evidence was found to conclude that our improvements to and efforts with the orientation
have resulted in a significant increase to the overall leadership factor score as well as the
three individual measures designed to assess students’ increasing awareness and
understanding between the first launch in 2015 and the most recent orientation in 2018, thus
demonstrating initial support for this initiative. No significant differences were found
between the results in 2016 as compared to 2017 or 2018, suggesting that improvements in
communication about the leadership development program have been consistently
perceived by students as very positive since the initial 2015 launch (Table V ).

Question Year Mean Variance t-Statistics Significance

Q1. I am more aware of ways to enhance my 2015 3.79 (n ¼ 132) 1.67 6.90 po 0.01
leadership skills 2017 4.64 (n ¼ 122) 0.35

Q2. Helped increase my understanding of 2015 3.76 (n ¼ 132) 1.64 6.27 po 0.01
how I can excel in a competitive work 2017 4.55 (n ¼ 122) 0.46
environment

Q3. I realize how the leadership assessment 2015 4.15 (n ¼ 132) 1.32 3.87 po 0.01
will help me identify my personal 2017 4.59 (n ¼ 122) 0.41
leadership styles and skills

Leadership factor score 2015 3.899 (n ¼ 132) 1.46 6.002 po 0.01 Table V.
2017 4.596 (n ¼ 122) 0.31 Comparison of means
 JMD As a supplemental insight, the percentage of responses that indicated agree or strongly agree
to the three items (often referred to as “top two boxes”) also revealed support for the
preliminary success of our approach to teaching leadership. As can be seen in Table VI,
between 2015 and 2018, all three questions increased in percentage of responses that indicated
agree and strongly agree by at least 15 percentage points, with almost all (W90 percent)
respondents agreeing or strongly agreeing that they have become more aware of ways to
enhance their leadership skills, how the assessment will help them identify their leadership
skills and how to excel in the competitive work environment.

Discussion
The demand for leadership talent to meet the gap between position requirements and
the skills required to drive business imperatives remains strong across industries at all
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levels of leadership:
RQ1. How can we educate and prepare graduate students for leadership in contemporary
complex workplaces?
Following the call from the business community to adequately prepare students for
leadership in contemporary complex workplaces, content analyses of student reflection
papers and survey results from orientation support the conceptual model that leadership
assessment, reflection and coaching experience help students understand their leadership as
compared to normative sets of executives as well as assists them in planning a career path
and leveraging development opportunities through their master’s studies:
RQ2. How can we teach leadership in a context that values awareness, reflection and
development?
Strengthening the student’s self-awareness of behavioral tendencies begins immediately to
enhance reflection about their leadership potential. Students’ responses show rich insight
into both their individual leadership strengths as well areas for growth and development.
Students demonstrated how the self-awareness of these strengths and weaknesses applied
to their working as an effective team member in group projects. Perhaps most importantly,
students’ responses demonstrate that they realized how these insights will assist them in
their careers:
RQ3. How can we facilitate leadership potential through leadership assessment,
self-awareness and coach-supported reflection?
The use of this leadership assessment and coaching process incorporates resources and best
practices applied by top organizations in developing their own leaders. Students gain
insights about their leadership aspirations, their readiness and how to both leverage their
current strengths and address their development gaps throughout their MBA program and
beyond. This increased clarity supports students on their leadership development journey.
Students’ responses to the reflection and survey suggest a stimulated and focused reflection

2015 2016 2017 2018

Q1. I am more aware of ways to enhance my leadership skills (%) 78 95 98 95

Table VI. Q2. Helped increase my understanding of how I can excel in a competitive work
Frequencies of “top 2” environment (%) 73 91 93 94
boxes (strongly agree Q3. I realize how the leadership assessment will help me identify my personal
or agree) to leadership styles and skills (%) 81 96 96 94
leadership questions n 132 172 122 78
 on their learning. Further, insights through an exploratory, reflective conversation about Leadership
their assessment results in the context of their goals suggest the faculty coaching enhances potential in
the students’ self-awareness. graduate
students
Limitations and future research
The approach designed and implemented by this institution supports students in
reflecting and focusing on the intentional development of their own leadership as they
embark on and fully leverage their MBA experience. However, this research has several
limitations which provide opportunities for future research. First, the initial measure of
the outcomes and value of the leadership assessment and coaching experience for the
students rely solely on self-reports. In addition, the survey responses may have been
biased due to the Hawthorne effect, or demand response. Attempts were made to reduce
social desirability bias with introductory statements included, reinforcing that the survey
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is anonymous and that there were no right or wrong responses (Podsakoff et al., 2003).
Other survey items designed to measure other items not related to the study were included
as well to reduce demand response.
Future studies on the value of leadership assessment and coaching as students are
embarking on their MBA or other graduate studies should include additional sources for
measuring outcomes. These measures could include feedback from other stakeholders,
including co-workers and managers. It could also include longitudinal studies in which
participants are asked to reflect on the value and impact over time.
The need also remains for further research on the paradoxes of leadership dynamics, the
relevance of humility and reflection in leadership, diversity of contexts and cultures, and the
effects of leaders’ practices in global contexts. Developing a clearer understanding of what it
means to teach leadership critically by examining theories, values, assumptions and
practices is necessary. Design of courses that deliver more reflective, relational and inclusive
approaches to leadership is required.
Based on the success of this program to date, future enhancements are in development.
The program is in a kaizen state as the continuous feedback from the students and faculty is
garnered and analyzed. Research measuring the student experience of the program is
currently underway and research measuring outcomes beyond the program is being designed.
The implications of these early findings are encouraging for coupling self-awareness and
assessment, reflection activities and practices, and development and intentional goal focus
to facilitate an integrative experience-based learning approach. This paper reinforces the
importance of awareness and reflection as key components in the development of future
leaders and suggests strategies and mechanisms for incorporating awareness and reflection
in leadership education.

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About the authors

Dr Eleanor Lawrence, Nova Southeastern University, USA, has worked for over 25 years as Executive
in the Healthcare Industry with field expertise in organizational assessment, diagnosis and
intervention at the individual, team, department and whole system levels. She has worked as
Consultant and Executive Coach with senior leaders and their teams for over 10 years. She has been
Assistant Professor of Management in Organizational Behavior, Management and Human Resources
in the College of Business and Entrepreneurship at Nova Southeastern University since 2008. She has
provided executive- and director-level coaching and training for the Center for Creative Leadership
since 2007. She holds BCC and ICF ACC Coaching Certification and has both PsyD and DBA.
Dr Maggie W. Dunn, Nova Southeastern University, USA, is credentialed by the International Coach
Federation (ICF) as a Professional Certified Coach (PCC). Her areas of expertise include executive leader
assessment and coaching, change management and building leadership teams. She spent the first
21 years of her career in talent development and leadership positions in the technology and aerospace
sectors of the Fortune 100. Maggie now serves as an adjunct executive coach for the Center for Creative
Leadership (CCL) and as the Coaching Talent Lead for the Leadership Development Institute at Eckerd
College. She has been on the Management Faculty of Nova Southeastern University’s Huizenga College of
Business and Entrepreneurship since 2002.
Dr Suri Weisfeld-Spolter, Nova Southeastern University, USA, is Professor of Marketing at the
Huizenga College of Business and Entrepreneurship and certified Korn Ferry Coach. She has been
published in Marketing Science, Psychology & Marketing, International Marketing Review and other
premier marketing journals. Dr Suri Weisfeld-Spolter is an accomplished teacher and researcher who
has received teaching and distinguished research awards, her research focuses primarily on different
aspects of consumer behavior and innovative teaching pedagogy approaches. She has been
interviewed by the Sun-Sentinel, featured on live TV by NBC6 in the Mix and referenced in the Daily
Stat by Harvard Business Review. Dr Suri Weisfeld-Spolter is the corresponding author and can be
contacted at: sw887@nova.edu

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