Atomic structure and the periodic table:

The atom structure is accepted as:

Electrons
Electron shells
Neutrons
Protons
Nucleus
Empty space

Isotopes of elements have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons (same atomic number but
different mass number)
Allotropes are the same chemical with a different structure, they have the same chemical properties but different
physical properties. Eg carbon has 2 allotropes – graphite (soft) and diamond (hard)
Isomers the same molecular formula but different structural formula – organic only.
Atom Number the number of protons in an element
Mass Number the number of protons + number of neutron in an element
Number of protons are found from the atomic number on the periodic table, the number of electrons are equal to
the number of protons for an atom (add or remove electrons to account for any charge).
Number of neutrons in an atom can be determined by Mass number – Atomic number.
Electron configuration of first 20 element – 2, 8, 18 but 2 in 4th before fill 3rd shell – from H 1. to Ca 2, 8, 8, 2.
o Trends in the periodic table:
Δ Melting and boiling points
Generally increase to group 14 then decrease
Δ Types of substances
Change from metallic to amphoteric (semi-metals) to non-metallic
Δ Number of valance electrons
Consistent down a group
Increases across a period
Δ Atomic radius
Decreases across a period
Increases down a group
Δ First ionisation energies
Increases across a period
Decreases down a group
Δ Electronegativity (Electronegativity is the atoms ability to hold onto its electrons)
Increases across a period
Decreases down a group
Ionisation energy for the same atom in increases as you remove an electron (ie 2nd is higher than 1st and 3rd is
higher again), there is a large jump when you have removed an entire shell.
Bonding capacity of the main group elements

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 1

MATTHEW PATRONI
https://highschooltutors.com.au/tutor/3206
https://www.linkedin.com/in/matthewpatroni
 Group Number of valance Usual ionic bonding Usual covalent
number electrons capacity bonding capacity
1 1 +1 Nil
2 2 +2 Nil
13 3 +3 Nil
14 4 -4 or +4 4 bonds
15 5 -3 3 bonds
16 6 -2 2 bonds
17 7 -1 1 bond
18 8 Nil Nil

Position on the periodic table – organised in terms of the number of valence electrons – 1 = group 1, 2 = group 2, 3
= group 3 etc
Physical properties of metals
o Good conductors of heat
o Good conductors of electricity
o Malleable and ductile
o Shiny
o Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
o Relatively high melting and boiling points
Chemical properties of metals
o Tend to be oxidised in chemical reactions
Physical properties of non-metals
o Poor conductors of heat
o Poor conductors or electricity (except graphite)
o Most are gases at room temperature (those that are solids are brittle-except the covalent network
substances)
o Large range of melting and boiling points
Chemical properties of non-metals
o Tend to be reduced in chemical reactions

Bonding
The properties of different substances can all be related back to the bonding between the atoms and between the
molecules (in covalent molecular substances)
3 types of intermolecular bonding – the strong bonding type.
o Metallic bonding
Δ Formed when the outer shell electrons of a metal atom are removed from the positive centre of
the atom and these electrons ‘float’ around the positive centres creating a ‘sea of electrons’ all
the properties of metals can be related to this sea of electrons.

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 2

 Δ Properties of metals are related to their structure
Conductors – as the valance electrons can carry the charge and the heat along the
metal lattice
Malleable and ductile – the layers of the metal can slide past each without breaking the
bonds that hold them together.
High melting and boiling point – strong attractive forces between the metal ions and the
sea of electrons, so a high temperature is needed to disrupt the lattice and allow the
metal to melt.
Δ Alloy is a mixture with metallic properties, formed when a metal is combined with other
elements, such as carbon or other metals.
o Ionic bonding
Δ Metal and non-metal atoms joined together by the transfer of electrons from the metal to the
non-metal
Δ The resulting positive and negative ions arrange themselves into a 3-D ionic lattice held
together by strong electrostatic attraction between neighbouring positive and negative ions

Δ Properties of ionic compounds:

Poor conductors of electricity in the solid phase but good conductors in the molten or
aqueous phases – in the molten and aqueous phases there are ions that are free to
move around and therefore conduct the electricity. The positive ions will move towards
the negative electrode and the negative ions will move towards the positive electrode.
Hard and brittle – if a large force causes the ions to shift and therefore the like ions will
line up and the repulsive forces of like ions will cause a fracture in the lattice.
High melting and boiling points – due to the strong electrostatic attraction between ions
which extend throughout the lattice a large amount of energy (in the form of
temperature) is required to disrupt (melt) the ionic lattice.
o Covalent bonding
Δ When non-metal and non-metals join together by the sharing of electrons. Can be single (2
shared electrons), double (4 shared electrons)
or triple (6 shared electrons.
Δ Two types of covalent bonds in which the
bonding arrangements and properties are
different.
Δ Covalent molecular:
Are made from most non-metals
including the diatomic gases.
Forms strongly bonded clusters of
atoms called molecules.

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 3

 Properties of covalent molecular compounds:
o Non-conductors – no free electrons or ions available to carry the charge.
o Soft and weak – there are strong bonds are between the atoms in the
molecules but there are weaker bonds between the molecules.
o Low to medium melting and boiling points – only the weaker intramolecular
forces will be disrupted when the substance melts or boils.

Δ Covalent network
Only very special atoms
make these types of
compounds. Includes Boron,
carbon (diamond and
graphite), silicon, silicon
dioxide and silicon carbide.
These have covalent bonds
between the atoms, but they
do not exist as individual
molecules but as a
continuous array of
covalently bonded atoms.

Properties of covalent network substances:

o Non-conductors – the electrons are in fixed positions within the atoms shells
and thus are not free to move preventing conduction of electricity and heat.
Exception: Graphite – as each carbon atom has 1 delocalised electrons that
is free to move between the layers of carbons it is able to conduct electricity.
o Very hard and brittle – due to the strong covalent bonded array that are very
hard to break they are hard. Exception: graphite which is in layer that can
slide past each other making it a soft material
o Very high melting and boiling points – as the bonds throughout the substance
as so strong a very high temperature is needed to disrupt this continuous
array.
3 types of intramoleular bonding – the weaker types – only in covalent molecular bonds
o Dipole-dipole bonding….
Δ Medium strength Intramolecular forces
Δ Occurs between a polar molecules and when they are brought close together they will attract
each other by the alignment of opposite poles.
Δ Each molecule has two poles (a positive and a negative end) and so are known as dipoles.
Δ Very weak interaction and when the thermal energy is not great the attraction maybe enough
to keep in liquid or solid state.

o Dispersion forces…
Δ Weakest of all intramolecular forces
Δ Occurs when there is induced polarity, causing the molecule to
attract each other.
Δ Usually occurs in larger molecules when the electrons are more
complicated. Eg CCl4. And in like atoms that have no poles

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 4

 o Hydrogen bonding…
Δ Strongest of the intramolecular forces.
Δ Occurs between hydrogen attached to nitrogen,
oxygen or fluorine in one molecule and nitrogen, oxygen
or fluorine attached to hydrogen in another molecule.
Δ The hydrogen atoms are attracted to these
atoms because of their high
electronegativity.

o Ion- dipole bonding

Δ The electrostatic attraction between an ion and a polar molecule
Δ Is what leads to solubility of ionic substances in water

o Shapes of molecules
Δ can also be explained and predicted by use of the Valence Shell
Electron Pair Repulsion theory (VESPR theory).
Δ The key idea of this theory is that pairs of valence electrons in molecules repel each other to
positions as far apart as possible.
Δ Repulsion occurs between:
Bonding pairs of electrons
Bonding and non-bonding (lone) pairs of electrons
Non-bonding pairs of electrons
Single, double and triple pairs of electrons (single, double and triple bonds)
Δ To predict or explain the shape of a molecule it is necessary to establish:
The central atom – the atom with the highest covalence
The number of bonding and non-bonding pairs of valence electrons around the central
atom
The repulsion pattern of these valence electrons.

Formula type Number of bonding Number of non- Molecular shape Examples

pairs bonding pairs
AB 1, 2 or 3 3, 2 or 1 A----B HCl, O2, N2
Linear
2 2 .. .. H2O, H2S
A

B B
V-shaped
4 0 B=A=B CO2
AB2 (2 double bonds) Linear
4 1 .. SO2
(2 double bonds) A

B B
V-shaped

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 5

 3 0 B BCl3
|
A

B B
Trigonal planar
3 1 .. NH3, PCl3
A
AB3 B B
B
Trigonal pyramidal
6 0 B SO3
(3 double bonds) ||
A

B B
Trigonal planar
4 0 B CH4, SiCl4
|
AB4 A
B B
B
Tetrahedral

o Polarity of molecules
o For diatomic molecules (Cl2, N2, HF, HCl, O etc) if the bond is polar then the molecule is
polar and if the bond is non-polar then the molecule is non-polar.
o Other molecules fall into two categories,
Δ where the bonds are non-polar and therefore the molecule is non-polar,
Δ where the bonds are polar the molecule will be polar unless the bonds can cancel
each other out ie it is a symmetrical molecule.
Summary of determining van der waal forces

Is the bond polar?

No Yes

Is the molecule
Dispersion forces
symmetrical?

No Yes

Does it have FON?

Dispersion forces

No Yes

Dipole - dipole Hydrogen bonding

Intramolecular forces and physical properties:
o Overall strength in the intramolecular forces equals higher melting and boiling points.
Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 6
 o For similar mass the strength increases dispersion dipole-dipole hydrogen.
Δ Particularly important when considering the trends in melting and boiling points of the hydrides
of groups 15, 16, and 17. And for NH3, H2O and HF.
o As the mass increases the dispersion forces will increase thus the melting and boiling points will
increase.
o Solubility is affected by the type of intramolecular forces.
o Solubility (in water) increases dispersion dipole-dipole hydrogen.
o Remember “like dissolves like” so:
Δ Those capable of hydrogen bonds will be soluble in water.
Δ Those with dispersion forces only are likely to be soluble in non-polar substances.

Reactions, equations, stoichiometry and solutions:

Must be able to write ionic equations and observations for a range of chemical reactions, including, but not limited
to:
o Precipitation
o Salvation of ions (when a solute molecule or ion forms a weak bond (dispersion force, hydrogen bond,
ion-dipole bond etc) with a polar solvent.
o Organic reactions
o Redox reactions
o The basic equations:
Δ Acid + base salt + water
Δ Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
Δ Metal + oxygen metal oxide
Δ Acid + hydrogen carbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water
Δ Reactive metal (group 1) + water salt + hydrogen gas
Δ Acid + metal salt + hydrogen gas
Δ Carbon compound + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
o Observations:
Δ Ions that are not colourless are listed on the data sheet
Δ Solid colours are listed on the data sheet – if it is not there then it is white
Δ Say it bubbles or fizzes or a gas is produced (if you know what it is give the colour or a smell
but not the specific gas)
Δ If you know it is exothermic say heat is produced
Δ Give before and afters
Δ Sates are not required but may help you with your observations.
Polyatomic ions to be aware of include:

Name Ion Name Ion

Ammonia NH4+ Nitrate NO3-
Chlorate ClO3- Nitrite NO2-
Chlorite ClO2- Permanganate MnO4-
Hypochlorite ClO- Carbonate CO32-
Perchlorate ClO4- Chromate CrO42-
Cyanide CN- Dichromate Cr2O72-
Dihydrogenphosphate H2PO42- Hydrogenphosphate HPO42-
Ethanoate (acetate) CH3COO- Oxalate C2O42-
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3- Sulphate SO42-
Hydrogensulfate HSO4- Sulphite SO32-
Hydroxide OH- Phosphate PO43-

Calculations

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 7

 n= mass OR n= m.
molar mass MM
1°C = 273.1K

N= V . N = no. of particles PV=nRT

22.41 6.022 x 1023 n = C xV

C (mol L-1) = number of moles C (g L-1) = Mass of solute (g)

Volume Volume

C (ppm) = mass of solute (mg) C (%) = mass of solute (g) x 100

mass of solvent (kg) mass of solvent (g)

% purity= mass of pure substance (g) x 100

Total mass of impure substance (g)

C1 = concentration before dilution

V1 = volume before dilution C1V1 = C2V2
C2 = concentration after dilution
V2 = volume after dilution

Reaction calculations – what ever form your reactants or products (gases, solids, liquids or aqueous solutions)
are in you can use the same procedure to calculate what is required, the only tick is working out which moles
formula to use!
o Write a balanced equation
o Find moles of known – n = m/MM or n = CV or n = V/22.4 or even PV = nRT
o Find moles of unknown – use the ratio of a correctly balanced equations (see why balancing is so
important)
o Find the quantity asked for in the question – may be n, m, V, C or even P
Limiting reagent problems – use the same method as above except you have 2 known moles and you must work
out which is in excess and which is not before you proceed to the next step – use the limiting moles for the
calculation.
Concentration of ions in solution
o NaCl Na+ + Cl- mole ratio is 1:1:1 as the coeffiecient of the balanced equation
o CaCl2 Ca+ + 2Cl- mole ratio is 1:1:2 (ie 2 x the moles of chlorine ions as there was of the
compound.

Rate of reaction:
Endothermic reaction
o A reaction where the products have more
energy than the reactants
o ΔH has a positive value
o Heat is taken into the reaction
o The temperature of the surroundings decreases
o (a) is Ea(forward)
Reaction Pathway
Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin R Page 8
 o (b) is Ea(reverse)
o (c) is ΔH

Exothermic reaction
o A reaction where the products have less energy
than the reactants
o ΔH has a negative value
o Heat is released from the reaction
o The temperature of the surroundings increases
o (a) is Ea(forward)
o (b) is Ea(reverse)
o (c) is ΔH

Rate of reaction is affected by:

o Concentration
Δ Increasing concentration, increases reaction rate
Δ As the increasing concentration increases the rate of collisions between particles – more
collisions = greater chance of productive collisions = faster rate of reaction.
o Pressure (for gas reactants)
Δ Increasing the pressure, increases the reaction rate
Δ As the pressure increases the rate of collisions between the particles – again more collisions =
faster reaction rate
o Temperature
Δ Increasing the temperature, increases reaction rate
Δ As the temperature increases the number of particles with energy equal to or greater than the
activation energy. Thus greater percentage of collision will be successful and the rate of
reaction will increase.
o Catalyst
Δ Adding a catalyst increases the reaction rate
Δ The catalyst provides an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation energy. Thus a
larger number of particles will have energy equal to or greater to the new activation energy and
therefore a greater percentage of collision will be successful and the rate of reaction will
increase.
o State of sub-division
Δ The greater the sub-division of the reactants when they are in different phases the faster the
rate of reaction
Δ The particles can only collide on the surface that the 2 phases meet. So if you increase the
amount of the surface exposed then the number of collisions will increase and then the rate of
reaction will increase.
o Nature of reactants
Δ Generally the more complex the reaction, the slower it is.
Δ As the number of bonds that must be rearranged increases then the slower it is. This is
difficult to predict.

Chemical Equilibrium:

Many chemical reactions are reversible and when they occur in a closed system where they reach a point where
they are said to be in equilibrium in that the forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same rate and
there is no visible change in the reaction vessel – the colour, pressure and temperature remain constant.
The system is said to be dynamic as the reactions are still happening as opposed to static where the reactions
have stopped.

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 9

 Equilibrium constant :
o K= [products]/[reactants] but only include the aqueous and gases not solid or liquids.
Eg For the reaction
aA + bB cC + dD
Kc = [products]
[reactants]
= [C]c [D]d
[A]a [B]b
o Size of K gives an indication of the composition of the mixture at equilibrium
Δ Large K (close to 1) means that the reaction has progressed a fair way and the products are
favoured
Δ Small K (around 0.1) means that the reaction has hardly progressed and the reactants are
favoured.
The equilibrium position can be shifted by an imposed change of:
o Changing the concentration of any one species by adding or removing it from the system – only gases
and aqueous, solids and liquids have a fixed concentration irrespective of the amount present.
o Changing the total pressure in a gaseous equilibrium by reducing its volume
o Changing the temperature by adding or removing heat to or from the system.
Le Châtelier’s principle states that: If a change is made to a system at equilibrium so that it is no longer at
equilibrium, a net reaction will occur (if possible) in the direction that counteracts the change.
The changes and effects:
External change Internal change Why
Increase concentration Shift to right (forward reaction To consume the extra reactants - The shift
of reactant favoured forms more products.
Decrease concentration Shift to left (back reaction To replace removed reactants - The shift
of reactants favoured) uses up products.
Increase concentration Shift to left (back reaction To consume the products – shift towards
of products favoured) formation of reactants
Decrease concentration Shift to right (forward reaction To replace removed products – shift
of products favoured towards formation of products
Increase pressure Shift to smaller number of Reduce pressure strain
molecules
Decrease pressure Shift to larger number of Fill space
molecules
Increase temperature Shift to endothermic reaction To consume extra heat
Decrease temperature Shift to exothermic reaction To release heat
Addition of a catalyst No effect Both reactions (forward and reverse) occur
faster

Addition of an inert gas – if you are not given any info about pressure and volume assume constant volume and
therefore no change
o At constant volume there is no change
o At constant pressure – the volume will increase and therefore look at the reaction and it will favour the side
with less molecules.

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 10

Application of rate and equilibrium: the Haber process.

This is just an application of equilibrium so you need to be able to apply your knowledge of equilibrium and rate to
this system.
o Effects of increasing temp, pressure adding a catalyst
Be able to think about the reasons between the compromise between ideal and actual conditions used in reversible
reactions
o To maximise the rate of the reaction with still getting a satisfactory yield without excessive cost.
o Temperature: high temp would increase the rate but decrease the yield as it promotes the decomposition of
the ammonia – therefore it is carried out at moderate temp. (350 - 550°C) to get a reasonable rate without
excessively decreasing the yield.
o Pressure: increases the rate of reaction and yield but is excessively expensive – therefore it is carried out at
high but not excessive pressure (15-35 atm)
o Catalyst: increases the rate of the reaction, has no effect on yield and reduces cost – therefore a catalyst of
iron – iron oxide fused with magnesium, aluminium and silicon oxides is used.

Acids and bases:

Review of the general reactions of acids and bases:

o Acid + base/metal hydroxide salt + water
o Acid + carbonate/hydrogen carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
o Acid + metal salt + hydrogen (gas)
o Acid + metal oxide salt + water
o Acid + metal sulphite salt + water + sulphur dioxide (gas)
o Base + ammonium salt salt + water + ammonia (gas)
o Base + non-metal oxide salt + water
Electrolyte: a substance that produces a liquid that can conduct an electric current. In particular, a substance that
can form ions when dissolved in water
Dissociation: The process by which ions separate when an ionic solid dissolves in a solvent.
Ionisation: The reaction of 2 or more uncharged molecular substances to form ions.
Self-ionisation: A process where a substance can react with itself to form ions.
+ -- + --
H O(aq) H (aq) + OH (aq) 2H O(aq) H3O (aq) + OH (aq)
o Eg for water 2 OR 2
Arrhenius theory of acids and bases
o An acid will ionise in solution producing H+(aq) ions
Eg HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
o A base will dissociate in solution releasing OH-(aq) ions
Eg NaOH(s) OH-(aq) + Na+(aq)
Bronsted-Lowery theory of acids and bases
o An acid donates a proton in a reaction
Eg HNO3
o A base accepts a proton in a reaction
Ionisation constant of water
o At 25°C the KW = 1 x 10-14
o c(H+) = c(OH-) = 1 x 10-7 mol L-1
o As KW = [H+][OH-1] (H2O is ignored as it is in liquid state)
o KW = (1 x 10-7)(1 x 10-7) = 1 x 10-14
o Remember that the ionisation constant is dependent on temperature and that it may change – giving
different [H+] and [OH-] and therefore a different pH but the water is still neutral as [H+] = [OH-] . [H+] =
[OH-] = √KW
o KW can be used to calculate the [H+] or the [OH-] given the other one.
pH calculations

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 11

 o pH = -log[H+] or pH = -log[H2O+]
o A strong acid can be calculated directly once [H+] is known – look at the ionisation equation HCl
H+ + Cl- then [H+] = [HCl] and H2SO4 2H+ + SO42- then [H+] = 2 x [H2SO]
o For a strong base you need to find [OH-] from the ionisation equation as per the acid, then find the [H+]
by using KW and then the pH equation can be used
o For a combination of a 2 strong acids you need to add the concentration together, for 2 strong bases
you again add the concentrations together and if you have an acid and a base you treat it as an excess
reagent and find the excess and use this to calculate the pH
Hydrolysis of Salts
o The acid-base nature of a salt is a combination of the nature of its parts that make it up. Eg. NaCl is
made from Na+ and Cl- ions and NaCH3COO is made from Na+ and CH3COO- ions. You must consider
the acid-base nature of the ions that make a salt to determine if it is acidic or basic.
Acidic component and neutral component = acidic salt
Basic component and neutral component = basic salt
Neutral component and neutral component = neutral salt
Acidic and basic component = dependant on the relative strengths of the components (usually
neutral as both weak acid and bases cancel eg NH4CH3COO)
A component of a salt is acidic if it can react with water and produce a H 3O+ ion. Eg
+ --
A H2O + H2S H3O + S component of a salt is basic if it can react with
-- --
HCO3 + H2O H2CO3 + OH water to produce a OH- ion. Eg.
Multiprotic acids are confusing – you need to write equations for the reaction with water and
decide. But some hints:
HSO4- and H2PO42- are acidic
SO42- is neutral
HPO42-, PO43-, HCO3- and CO32- are all basic
General rules that may be of assistance
Salt components from strong acids are neutral (Cl-, NO3- etc)
Salt components from strong bases are neutral (Na+, Mg2+ etc)
Salt components from weak bases are acidic (NH4+ etc)
Salt components from weak acids are basic (CH3COO-, HCO3- etc)
Salts components of group 13 and transition metals are acidic – complex ion formation
and a hydronium ion.
Buffers:
o Are solutions of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid. Usually
equal volume and concentration of each.
Eg CH3COOH and CH3COONa
o They work as the acid-base pair can co-exist in solution without neutralising each other, yet can still
react to neutralise any strong acid or base added to the solution.
+ --
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) H3O (aq) + CH2COO (aq)
o If you add a base to a buffer solution the acid component will act to donate a proton to the OH -
producing water, thereby neutralising the base and preventing the added base from changing the pH of
the buffer solution
-- --
CH3COOH(aq) + OH (aq) CH3COO (aq) + H2O(l)
o If you add an acid to a buffer solution the base component will acid to accept a proton from the H3O+
ion producing water and thereby neutralising the acid and preventing the added acid from changing the
pH of the buffer solution.
-- +
CH3COO (aq) + H3O (aq) CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)
Buffering capacity: The ability of a buffer to neutralise excess acid or base without major change in its pH. Effected
by the relative concentrations of each component and the actual concentration of each component.
Common buffer system: Human blood

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 12

 o Involve 2 major buffer system: HCO3-/H2CO3/CO2 and HPO42-/H2PO3- the first one involves 2
equilibrium reactions and they work together to prevent the pH of human blood changing too much and
preventing essential reactions from occurring.
+ --
H3O (aq) + HCO3 (aq) H2O(l) + H2CO3(aq) 2H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Volumetric Analysis (titration):

The usual purpose of a titration is to find the concentration of a solute in a solution. A standard solution and a
solution of unknown concentration are combined until equilivalence is achieved.
Primary Standard: A substance that can be used directly to prepare a standard solution – has a known formula, is
obtained in pure form, has a relatively large molar mass and is stable over time. Sodium Carbonate and Oxalic acid
are common primary standards.
End Point: The point during a reaction where an indicator changes colour to show that the reaction is complete.
Equivalence Point: The point during a reaction at which stoichiometric amounts of reactants have been reacted.
Experimental procedure:
o A standard solution is prepared by first weighting the mass accurately then made up to the required
volume in a volumetric flask – bottom of meniscus on the line.
o An aliquot is measured by a pipette which has been rinsed with the solution that goes in it, and is
placed in a conical flask that has been pre-rinsed with distilled water. A few drops of a suitable indicator
is added to the conical flask
o The other solution is placed in a burette that has been pre-rinsed with the solution going in it.
o The solution is released carefully from the burette into the conical flask until the end point is reached.
o The initial and final burette readings are taken and the titre volume is calculate – final – initial volumes.
o This is repeated until 3 concordant titre volumes are obtained
Steps for minimising errors:
o Ensure bottom of meniscus is on the line for the volumetric flask and the pipette
o Read the burette from the bottom of the meniscus – up to 2 dec pl.
o Ensure that you are eye level with the equipment when reading volumes
o Ensure that all glassware is rinsed correctly
Burette – distilled water and final rinse with solution going in it.
Pipette – distilled water and final rinse with solution going in it.
Conical flask – distilled water only
Volumetric flask – distilled water only
Choice of indicators
o Acid and base titrations:
Acid / base combination Equilivalence pH Suitable indicator Colour change (acid in flask
– reverse for base in flask)
Strong acid / weak base Acidic Methyl Orange Red to yellow
Strong acid/ strong base Neutral Phenolphthalein Colourless to pink
Weak acid/ weak base Neutral Phenolphthalein Colourless to pink

Weak acid/ strong base Basic Phenolphthalein Colourless to pink

o Redox titration: Usually self-indicating (potassium dichromate added from burette goes colourless to
purple at equilivalence) or Iodine can be used for titrations involving starch.
Steps for calculations:
o Calculate concentration of the standard solution first if required (n = m/Mr then C = n/V)
o Calculate the average titre volume if required
o Follow the general 4 steps for any calculation question: Write your BALANCED equation, calculate
moles of known substance, calculate moles of unknown substance, calculate quantity (usually
concentration in this case).
o If it is a purity or other question type – ensure that you answer that question.
Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 13
 If it is a complex procedure a flow chart or diagram may help you identify the procedure carried out and make it
easier to do the calculation.
Remember the main difference between acid-base and redox titration is the equation that you need to write – acid
base or redox equation...

Oxidation and Reduction:

REDOX is an electron transfer process

Oxidation:
o Addition of Oxygen
o Removal of Hydrogen
o Loss of electrons
o Increase in oxidation number
Reduction:
o Removal of Oxygen
o Addition of Hydrogen
o Gain of electrons
o Decrease in oxidation number
Oxidant (or Oxidising agent): The species that causes oxidation and itself is reduced.
Reductant (or Reducing agent): The species that causes reduction and itself is oxidised.
Disproportionation: A redox reaction where a reactant undergoes simultaneous oxidation and reduction
producing different products. Eg: Sn2+, Cu+, H2O2.
Using the Standard reduction potential table (the back of the data sheet)
o the top is the strongest oxidising agent to the bottom being the weakest oxidising agent – conversely
the bottom is the strongest reducing agent up to the weakest reducing agent.
o Metal activity series goes bottom to top (Potassium at the bottom is the most active metal)
o Halogen activity goes top to bottom (Fluorine is the most active halogen)
Oxidation numbers – Rules
o Elements in the elemental state the oxidation number is 0
o For monoatomic ions the oxidation number is the same as the charge on that ion
o Oxygen is –2 except in Hydrogen peroxide where it is –1
o Hydrogen is +1 except in hydrides where it is –1
o Group 1 is +1 and group 2 is +2
o For polyatomic ions the oxidation number of the elements add up to the charge on that ion.
Balancing half equations – Rules
o Balance atoms other than oxygen or hydrogen – use numbers
o Balance oxygen atoms – use water
o Balance hydrogen atoms – use hydrogen ions
o Balance charge – use electrons (add to the more positive side)
Adding half equations
o Ensure the number electrons are equal (multiply if necessary)
o Cancel out like terms on both side – or add up common terms
Join the two half equations ensuring that there are no electrons left on either side

Electrochemical (galvanic) cells:

Can be considered as 2 half- cells connected by a pathway for the electrons to flow
Use redox reactions to produce a direct electric current. The most common of these are the small ‘batteries’ used in
portable electrical appliances and the ‘lead-acid’ battery used in motor vehicles

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 14

 The size of the electoral current produced can be estimated by the use of the standard reduction potential table. –
remember these are all reduction values so “lower down swap around” then add them together to determine the
theoretical voltage produced by the cell.
o All vales are measured against the hydrogen half cell – voltage of exactly 0.
o All at standard conditions of - 25°C, 101.3 kPa and 1 mol L-1 solutions any deviation from this will affect the
voltage of the cell.
General diagram
Electron flow

V
+ive ions from salt bridge -ive ions from salt bridge

Cathode
Anode Salt
bridge

Oxidation Reduction
half-cell half-cell

In general:
o Reduction occurs at the cathode
o Oxidation occurs at the anode
o Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode
o Anode is negatively charged
o Cathode is positively charged
o Negative ions move towards the anode
o Positive ions move towards the cathode
The half-cells maybe in 3 forms
o A metal in a solution containing ions of that metal
o An inert electrode in a solution that can oxidise/reduce
o A gas passing over an inert electrode
Steps for doing the questions
o Draw the general diagram
o Determine the oxidation and reduction half-cell identities (one that is higher on the standard reduction
potential is the reduction half-cell and the one that is lower down on the table is the oxidation half-cell. Add
this information to your diagram
o Write the oxidation and reduction half-equations including the voltages (remember “lower down swap
around”
o Add the half-equations to get the overall equation and add the voltages to get the total cell voltage.

Redox Applications:
Battaries
o There are many different types of batteries in existence. You need to know how to apply redox principles to
these cells to be able to:
Balance any equations
Give half-equations, given the overall equation

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 15

 Give the overall equation, given the half-equations
Identify the anode and cathode
Identify electron flow
Corrosion
o Is the ‘rusting’ of iron caused by its oxidation to ions.
o Occurs in the presence of oxygen and water
o Can be prevented by
Physical barrier
By attaching a more active metal that will corrode in preference to the iron and hence protect the
iron – termed “sacrificial anode”
By attaching a power supply and making the iron a cathode of an electrolytic cell. Use a scrap
metal as the anode (it will need to be replaced) and the current flowing will prevent the iron from
rusting.
o Is not prevented by:
Attaching a less active metal – this actually speeds up the corrosion as it will corrode in place of the
less active metal.

Organic Chemistry Basics:

Carbon containing substances.

All carbon atoms can have 4 bonds – either carbon to carbon or carbon to hydrogen or carbon to other atoms
Saturated contains only single bonds
Monounsaturated contains 1 double or triple bond
Polyunsaturated contains more than 1 double or triple bond
Naming

Table 1: the number of carbons and their prefix. Table 2: the type of bond and their suffix
Number of carbons Prefix Type Suffix
1 Meth- Single -ane
2 Eth- Double -ene
3 Prop-
4 But- Table 3: the name for branches
5 Pent- Number of carbons Name
6 Hex- 1 Methyl-
7 Hept- 2 Ethyl-
8 Oct- 3 Propyl-
4 Butyl-

Table 4: the names for multiple branches or functional groups

Number branches Name (prefix)
1 mono-
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra-

Table 5: names of functional groups

What Group General formula Name Example

Alkanes N/A CnH2n+2 -ane Ethane

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 16

 | |
Alkenes -C = C - CnH2n -ene
But-1-ene
CnH2n+1OH OR
Alcohols -O--H CnH2n+2O -ol Methanol

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 17

 O CnH2n+1CHO OR
Aldehydes || CnH2n+2O -al Ethanal
--C--H
O CnH2nO
Ketones || -one Propanone
--C--
O CnH2n+1COOH OR
Carboxylic acids || CnH2nO2 -oic acid Hexanoic acid
--C--OH
O CnH2nO2
Esters || -oate
--C—O--
H CnH2n+1NH2
Primary amines --N -amine Propanamine
H

Esters
Branch – Backbone [branch comes from the alcohol and the backbone is from the acid]
O
||
CH3 – C –OCH3
Methylethanoate – the methyl is from methanol and ethanoate is from ethanoic acid

Remember to count in the direction to give the lowest possible number for branches etc.
Isomers have same molecular formula but different structural formula (remember that cyclo compounds can be
included in isomers. All Organic chemical can exhibit isomerism – alcohols, aldehydes/ketones etc.
Geometric isomerism – for alkenes – the cis version is when the hydrogens are on the same side and the trans
version is when the hydrogens are on different sides
Benzene
o Structure
C6H6
Ring of 6 delocalised electrons
o Reactions
Substitution reactions
Combustion reactions
Alcohols
General formula Description
Primary An OH group is in the primary position if it is bonded to a carbon
atom that is in turn bonded to no alkyl groups or one alkyl
R – CH2 -- OH group.

R’ An OH group is in the secondary position if it is bonded to a

CH –OH carbon atom that is in turn bonded to two alkyl groups
Secondary R
Tertiary R’ An OH group is in a tertiary position if it is bonded to a carbon
| atom that is in turn bonded to three alkyl groups.
R – C – OH
|
R’’

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 18

 Amino acid
H H O
| ||
N C C OH
|
H R
Extended structural formula

Organic Chemistry Physical Properties:

Boiling point
o Dependant on 2 things
The identity of the functional group
The highest boiling points is in carboxylic acids, then alcohols then
amines/ketones/aldehydes/esters then alkane/alkenes
If it can hydrogen bond is higher than dipole-dipole which is higher than dispersion forces.
Carboxylic acid highest as it can hydrogen bond and dipole-dipole
Alcohol next due to strong hydrogen bonding
Amine can hydrogen bond but it is weaker than in the alcohol which puts it with the
aldehydes and ketones and esters that dipole-dipole bond
Alkanes and alkenes only have dispersion forces thus have the lowest boiling points.
The length of the carbon chain
As the chain increases the boiling point increases due to the dispersion forces between the
chains
Solubility
o Dependant on 2 things
The identity of the functional group
If the functional group can hydrogen bond with water (ie is polar) then it will be soluble as
long as the chain is not too long – a rule of thumb is a 1:3 C:OH ratio will be soluble but
any larger and it will not
The length of the carbon chain
As the length of the non-polar parent chain increases, with the same functional group, the
solubility decreases as the non-polar chain decreases the effect that the polar group has
on the solubility of the

Organic Chemistry Reactions:

Alkanes
o Substitution reactions
a hydrogen is replaced by a halogen atom
Require uv light
Slow reactions
Eg will slowly decolourise bromine water with presence of uv light
o Combustion
Burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
Alkene
o Halogenation (addition)
Halogen is added across the double bond
Fast reactions
Eg bromine water will rapidly decolourise

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 19

 Forms a dihalogen alkane
o Hydrogenation (addition)
Hydrogen is added across the double bond in presence of metal catalyst
Turns an alkene to an alkane
o Hydration (addition)
Addition of water across the double bond
Forms an alcohol
Markovnikov’s rule states that “the rich gets richer” that is the hydrogen atom will add to the
carbon with more hydrogen already attached. Eg. A prop-2-ene will become pronan-2-ol as the
hydrogen goes to the carbon 1 and the OH group to the carbon 2.
o Hydrohalogenation (addition)
Addition of a hydrogenhalide (eg HBr, HCl etc) across the double bond
Markovnikov’s rule applies here as well
o Combustion
Burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
Alcohols
o Oxidation
Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols react very differently with oxidising agents.
Primary alcohols:
Alcohol Aldehyde Carboxylic acid
O O
Cr2O72- / H+ || Cr2O72- / H+ ||
R – CH2 -- OH heat heat
R – C -- H R – C -- OH

With Heat and excess acidified dichromate or acidified permanganate will go all the way
but with limited, cold dichromate will go only to aldehyde.
Secondary alcohols
Alcohol Ketone

R’ R’
CH – OH Cr2O72- / H+ CH = O
R heat R

With acidified dichromate or acidified permanganate

Tertiary alcohols
No reaction with oxidising agents
Colour changes to indicate reaction are of the oxidising agent, Dichromate changes orange
green and permanganate changes purple colourless
o Reaction with metals
React with active metal as per water but less vigorously and the speed decreases primary
secondary tertiary
o Esterfication
Alcohol + carboxylic acid ester + water
Presence of Concentrated H2SO4 and Heat
O Reflux O
|| + HO ---R’ || H2O
Conc. H2SO4 +
R – C –O---H R –C – O – R’
Form water

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 20

 Aldehydes
o Oxidation
Aldehyde carboxylic acid
Acidified dichromate or acidified permanganate as the oxidising agent
Carboxylic acids
o Esterfication
As per alcohols
o Reaction with other substances
React as normal acids (often slower)
acid + base salt + water
acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
Amino acids
o In an acid
React to accept the proton (onto the amine end)

H H O H H O
| || + | ||
N C C OH H N C C OH
| |
H R H R

o In a base
React and donate a proton (from the carboxylic acid end)

H H O H H O
| || | ||
N C C OH N C C O-
| |
H R H R

o Self-ionisation
A proton is donated from the carboxylic acid end to the amine end
Forms a Zwitterion.

H H O H H O
| || + | ||
N C C OH H N C C O-
| |
H R H R

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 21

Organic Chemistry Applications:

Fatty acids

O O
|| HO – CH2 ||
R --- C—OH R --- C—O --- CH2
O O
|| HO – CH ||
R’ – C – OH + + 3H2O
R’ – C – O – CH
O O
|| HO – CH2 ||
R’’ – C – OH R’’ – C – O – CH2
Soaps
o The above reaction is reversed by boiling in concentrated sodium hydroxide creating 3 fatty acid like
molecules but with a O- on the end. This is then reacted with sodium chloride where the following reaction
occurs creating soap
o Soap has the general structure where there is a polar head and a long non-polar tail.

o Soap has the disadvantage over detergents as it can form a insoluble soap ‘scum’ in hard water which
stops the soap being able to clean.
Detergents
o Have the general structure

o Detergents remain able to clean in hard water but can cause environmental damage.
o Both soaps and detergents work in the same fashion:
The non-polar chains dissolve into the grease with the ionic heads sitting on the surface of the
grease still in contact with the polar water.
With agitation, the grease globules, with soap/detergent ions embedded, are dislodged from the
surface to which they have been attached.

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 22

 They are released into the water as spherical structures called micelles. These micelles repel each
other because they have negatively charged surfaces and thereby prevent the small globules from
joining together to form larger lumps of insoluble grease.

The suspended micelles can then be washed away leaving behind a clean surface.

Polymerisation
o There are 2 types of polymerisation:
Addition polymerisation
Double bonded carbon molecules are “added together” by breaking the double bond
realeasing its electrons to be used to join with the carbon of another molecule etc
Nothing is gained or lost.

Condensation polymerisation
Involves a –OH group and a –COOH group (may be on the same molecule or as a diol and
dioic acid (2 separate molecules)
A small molecule (water) is released with each join, the H on the –OH and the –OH on the
–COOH combine to make water.

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 23

 Polypeptides
o Special case of condensation polymerisation – 2 amino acids join via the –NH2 group on 1 amino acid and
the –COOH group on another amino acid – make a peptide link.
o Water is released for each pair of amino acid that join.

H H O H H O
| || | ||
N C C OH + N C C OH
| |
H R H R
Form water

H H O H R’’ O
| || | | ||
N C C N C C OH
| |
H R H
Peptide link
(amide group)

Silicones
o Polymers with a –O-Si-O- backbone.

o Formed when chlorosilcone reacts with water, which then join in a condensation polymerisation reaction.
o Advantage over the carbon based polymer is that they can remain a liquid over a range of boiling points.
o If different chlorosilicones are used you get polymers with a different properties – a RSiCl3 for example will
allow cross-linking and be a stronger polymer.

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 24

Empirical and Molecular Formula Calculations:

From combustion analysis points to remember:

o Moles of carbon in compound is same as moles of carbon dioxide produced
o Moles of hydrogen in compound is twice the moles of water produced
o Moles of nitrogen in compound is twice the moles of nitrogen gas produced
o Mass of all components in the compound must equal the mass of the sample.
o Think out the different equations and reactions given, draw a flow chart if you need to, you will be able to
find the moles and mass of every element in the compound some way or another.
o Rounding: 1.1 and 1.9 round otherwise multiply to get a whole number!
o Practice, practice, practice

Chemistry 3AB Revision Notes Mr Michael Lin Page 25