Direct Variation

Directly Proportional. A relationship between two variables in

which one is a constant multiple of the other. In particular, when one
variable changes the other changes in proportion to the first. If b is
directly proportional to a, the equation is of the form b = ka (where k is
a constant). Denoted by y = kx

Example: If y varies directly as x, and y = 12 when x = 6, find y when

x = 3?

Sol.

y = kx y = (2)(3)

12 = k (6) y=6

2=k
Inverse Variation

When the relationship between two variables which can be

expressed by an equation in which the product of two variables is equal
𝑘
to a constant. Denoted by y =
𝑥

Example: If y varies inversely as x, and x = 2 when y = 10, find y when

x=5?

Sol.
𝑘 20
y=𝑥 y= 5
𝑘
10 = 2 y=4

20 = k
Logarithm Functions

Logarithmic functions are the inverses of exponential functions.

The inverse of the exponential function y = ax is x = ay. The logarithmic
function y = loga x is defined to be equivalent to the exponential
equation x = ay. ... It is called the logarithmic function with base a.

Properties of Logarithm:
Logarithm of a product: logb (MN) = logb M + logb N
𝑀
Logarithm of a quotient: log𝑏 = log𝑏 𝑀 - log𝑏 𝑁
𝑁
Logarithm of power: log𝑏 𝑀𝑛 = nlog𝑏 𝑀

Example: Simplify.

1. log2 ((4) ( 8)) = log2 4 + log2 8

= log2 22 + log2 23
=2+3=5

𝑥
2. log2 ( ) = log2 𝑥 - log2 2
2
=log2 𝑥 − 1

3. log3 94 = 4 log3 9 = (4)(2)

= log 3 94 = 8
Joint Variation

Jointly Proportional. When we say z is jointly proportional to a set

of variables, it means that z is directly proportional to each variable
taken one at a time. If z varies jointly with respect to x and y, the
equation will be of the form z = kxy (where k is a constant).

Example: If y varies jointly as x and z, and y = 12 when x = 9 and z = 3,

find z when y = 6 and x = 15.
4 9
Sol. y = kxz y = xz =z
9 10
4
12 = k (9)(3) 6 = (15)(z)
9
60
12 = k 27 6= z
9
4
=k 54 = 60z
9
Arithmetic Sequence

An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the

difference between the consecutive terms is constant. Difference here
means the second minus the first. For instance, the sequence 5, 7, 9,
11, 13, 15, . . . is an arithmetic progression with common difference of
2. If the initial term of an arithmetic progression is 𝑎1 and the common
difference of successive members is d, then the nth term of the
sequence (𝑎𝑛 ) is given by:

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (n - 1)d

Example: Find the next term in the sequence below.

7, 15, 23, 31, ___

First, find the common difference of each pair of consecutive numbers.

15−7 = 8

23−15 = 8

31−23 = 8

Since the common difference is 8 or written as d = 8, we can find the

next term after 31 by adding 8 to it. Therefore, we have 31 + 8 = 39.

7, 15, 23, 31, 39

Counting Principle
The Fundamental Counting Principle (also called the counting
rule) is a way to figure out the number of outcomes in a probability
problem. Basically, you multiply the events together to get the total
number of outcomes. If you have an event “a” and another event “b”
then all the different outcomes for the events is a * b.

Example: A company puts a code on each different product they sell.

The code is made up of 3 numbers and 2 letters. How many
different codes are possible?

There are 5 stages (number 1, number 2, number 3, letter 1 and letter

2).
There are 10 possible numbers: 0 – 9.
There are 26 possible letters: A – Z.
So we have:
10 * 10 * 10 * 26 * 26 = 676000 possible codes.
Permutation

A permutation is an arrangement of all or part of a set of

objects, with regard to the order of the arrangement. For example,
suppose we have a set of three letters: A, B, and C. We might ask how
many ways we can arrange 2 letters from that set. Each possible
arrangement would be an example of a permutation. The complete list
of possible permutations would be: AB, AC, BA, BC, CA, and CB. When
they refer to permutations, statisticians use a specific terminology.
They describe permutations as n distinct objects taken r at a time.
Translation: n refers to the number of objects from which the
permutation is formed; and r refers to the number of objects used to
form the permutation. Consider the example from the previous
paragraph. The permutation was formed from 3 letters (A, B, and C),
so n = 3; and the permutation consisted of 2 letters, so r = 2.

Example: If three alphabets are to be chosen from A, B, C, D and E such

that repetition is not allowed then in how many ways it can
be done?

Sol. The number of ways three alphabets can be chosen from five will
be,

35P = 5! (5−3)! 53P = 5! (5−3)! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 12 × 15 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 12 ×

1 = 60.

Hence, there are 60 possible ways.

Combination

Combinations refer to the combination of n things taken k at a

time without repetition. To refer to combinations in which repetition is
allowed, the terms k-selection, k-multiset, or k-combination with
repetition are often used.

Example: Pool Balls (without order)

16! 16!
Sol. =
3!(16−3)! 3!13!

20,922,789,888,000
(6)6,227,020,800
= 560

Or we could do it this way:

(16)(15)(14) 3360
(3)(2)(1)
= = 560
6
Binomial Theorem

Statement that for any positive integer n, the nth power of the
sum of two numbers a and b may be expressed as the sum of n + 1
terms of the form

in the sequence of terms, the index r takes on the successive values 0,

1, 2,…, n. The coefficients, called the binomial coefficients, are defined
by the formula

Example: What is the fourth term in the expansion of (3x – 2)10?

(3x – 2)10 = 10C0 (3x)10–0(–2)0 + 10C1 (3x)10–1(–2)1 + 10C2 (3x)10–2(–2)2

+ 10C3 (3x)10–3(–2)3 + 10C4 (3x)10–4(–2)4 + 10C5 (3x)10–5(–2)5

+ 10C6 (3x)10–6(–2)6 + 10C7 (3x)10–7(–2)7 + 10C8 (3x)10–8(–2)8

+ 10C9 (3x)10–9(–2)9 + 10C10 (3x)10–10(–2)10

Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction is a technique for proving a statement --
a theorem, or a formula -- that is asserted about every natural
number. By "every", or "all," natural numbers, we mean any one that
we name.
Example: Use mathematical induction to prove that
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n (n + 1) / 2
for all positive integers n.
Sol. Let the statement P (n) be
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n (n + 1) / 2
STEP 1: We first show that p (1) is true.
Left Side = 1
Right Side = 1 (1 + 1) / 2 = 1
Both sides of the statement are equal hence p (1) is true.
STEP 2: We now assume that p (k) is true
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = k (k + 1) / 2
and show that p (k + 1) is true by adding k + 1 to both sides of the
above statement
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k + 1) = k (k + 1) / 2 + (k + 1)
= (k + 1)(k / 2 + 1)
= (k + 1)(k + 2) / 2
The last statement may be written as
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k + 1) = (k + 1)(k + 2) / 2
Which is the statement p(k + 1).
Probability

Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will

occur. Probability quantifies as a number between 0 and 1, where,
loosely speaking, 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty. The
higher the probability of an event, the more likely it is that the event
will occur. A simple example is the tossing of a fair (unbiased) coin.
Since the coin is fair, the two outcomes ("heads" and "tails") are both
equally probable; the probability of "heads" equals the probability of
"tails"; and since no other outcomes are possible, the probability of
either "heads" or "tails" is 1/2 (which could also be written as 0.5 or
50%).

Example:

there are 5 marbles in a bag: 4 are blue, and 1 is red. What is the
probability that a blue marble gets picked?

Number of ways it can happen: 4 (there are 4 blues)

Total number of outcomes: 5 (there are 5 marbles in total)

So the probability = 45 = 0.8

Quadratic Functions

A quadratic function is one of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,

where a, b, and c are numbers with a not equal to zero. The graph of a
quadratic function is a curve called a parabola. Parabolas may open
upward or downward. All parabolas are symmetric with respect to a
line called the axis of symmetry. A parabola intersects its axis of
symmetry at a point called the vertex of the parabola.

Example: Sketch the graph of y = x2/2. Starting with the graph of y = x2,
we shrink by a factor of one half. This means that for each point on the
graph of y = x2, we draw a new point that is one half of the way from
the x-axis to that point.
Relation and Function
A relation is a set of inputs and outputs, often written as ordered pairs
(input, output). We can also represent a relation as a mapping diagram or a
graph. For example, the relation can be represented as:

A function is a relation in which each input has only one output. In the
relation , y is a function of x, because for each input x (1, 2, 3, or 0), there is only
one output y. x is not a function of y, because the input y = 3 has multiple
outputs: x = 1 and x= 2.

Example: Determine whether the following are functions

a) A = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)}

b) B = {(1, 3), (0, 3), (2, 1), (4, 2)}
c) C = {(1, 6), (2, 5), (1, 9), (4, 3)}

Solution:

a) A = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)} is a function because all the first elements are
different.

b) B = {(1, 3), (0, 3), (2, 1), (4, 2)} is a function because all the first elements are
different. (The second element does not need to be unique)

c) C = {(1, 6), (2, 5), (1, 9), (4, 3)} is not a function because the first element, 1, is
repeated.
Exponential Functions
The exponential function is one of the most important functions in
mathematics. To form an exponential function, we let the independent
variable be the exponent. A simple example is the function
f(x)=2x.f(x)=2x.

As illustrated in the above graph of ff, the exponential function increases rapidly.
Exponential functions are solutions to the simplest types of dynamical systems.
For example, an exponential function arises in simple models of bacteria growth

Example:
Graph the function y = 2x + 1.
This will look kinda like the function y = 2x, but each y-value will be 1 bigger than
in that function. Old y is a master of one-upsmanship.
We take the graph of y = 2x and move it up by one:

Since we've moved the graph up by 1, the asymptote has moved up by 1 as well.
It used an asymptote bag to move all its things.
The asymptote is now the line y = 1.
Summation Notation

A simple method for indicating the sum of a finite (ending) number of

terms in a sequence is the summation notation. This involves the Greek letter
sigma, Σ. When using the sigma notation, the variable defined below the Σ is
called the index of summation. The lower number is the lower limit of the index
(the term where the summation starts), and the upper number is the upper limit
of the summation (the term where the summation ends).

Consider This is read as “the summation of (2 k + 3) as k goes from 2 to

7.” The replacements for the index are always consecutive integers

Example: Write out the terms of the following sums; then compute the sum.

1.

2.

Sol.

1.

2.
Circles

A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given

distance from a given point, the centre; equivalently it is the curve
traced out by a point that moves so that its distance from a given point
is constant. The distance between any of the points and the centre is
called the radius. Formula: (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = 𝑟 2

Examples:

1.Find an equation of the circle with radius 3 and center (2, -5).
Sol. Using the equation of a circle with r = 3, h = 2, and k = -5,

we obtain (x - 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 9

2. Sketch the graph of the equation: x2 + y2 + 2x - 6y + 7 = 0

Sol.

x2 + y2 + 2x - 6y + 7 = 0

= (x2 + 2x) + (y2 - 6y) = -7

= (x2 + 2x + 1) + (y2 - 6y + 9) = -7 + 1 + 9
= (x + 1)2 + 9y - 3)2 = 3
k = 3, and r = (3), so the given equation represents a circle with center
at (-1, 3) and radius (3).
Geometric Progression

Geometric progression, also known as a geometric sequence, is

a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is found by multiplying the
previous one by a fixed, non-zero number called the common ratio. For example,
the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, ... is a geometric progression with common ratio 3.
Similar 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, ... is a geometric sequence with common ratio 1/2.
Examples of a geometric sequence are powers 𝑟 𝑘 of a fixed number r, such
as 2𝑘 and 3𝑘 . The general form of a geometric sequence is
a, ar, a𝑟 2 , a𝑟 3 , a𝑟 4 …….

Example: Find the number of terms in the geometric progression 6, 12, 24, ...,
1536
Combining Function
The domain of each of these combinations is the intersection of the
domain of f and the domain of g. In other words, both functions must be
defined at a point for the combination to be defined. One additional
requirement for the division of functions is that the denominator can't be zero,
but we knew that because it's part of the implied domain.

Sum
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
Difference
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
Product
(f · g)(x) = f(x) · g(x)
Quotient
(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x), as long as g(x) isn't zero.

Example: let f(x) = 5x + 2 and g(x) = 𝑥 2 - 1, then evaluate each combination at

the point x = 4. f(4) = 5(4) + 2 = 22 and g(4)=42 – 1 = 15.
Expression Combine, then evaluate Evaluate, then combine

(f+g)(x) (5x+2) + (x2- (f+g)(4) 42+5(4)+1 f(4)+g(4) 22+15

1) =16+20+1 =37
=x2+5x+1 =37

(f-g)(x) (5x+2) - (x2- (f-g)(4) -42+5(4)+3 f(4)-g(4) 22-15

1) =-16+20+3 =7
=-x2+5x+3 =7

(f·g)(x) (5x+2)*(x2- (f·g)(4) 5(43)+2(42)-5(4)-2 f(4)·g(4) 22(15)

1) =5(64)+2(16)-20-2 =330
=5x3+2x2-5x- =330
2

(f/g)(4) (5x+2)/(x2-1) (f/g)(4) [5(4)+2]/[42-1] f(4)/g(4) 22/15

=22/15
Coordinate Plane (Cartesian Plane)

A coordinate plane is a two-dimensional number line where the

vertical line is called the y-axis and the horizontal is called the x-axis.
These lines are perpendicular and intersect at their zero points. This
point is called the origin. The axes divide the plane into four quadrants.
A point in a coordinate plane is named by its ordered pair of the form
of (x, y). The first number corresponds to the x-coordinates and the
second to the y-coordinate.
Polynomial Function
A polynomial function is a function such as a quadratic, a cubic, a quartic,
and so on, involving only non-negative integer powers of x. We can give a general
definition of a polynomial, and define its degree. A polynomial of degree n is a
function of the form f(x) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . . . . + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 x + 𝑎0 where the
a’s are real numbers (sometimes called the coefficients of the polynomial).
Although this general formula might look quite complicated, particular examples
are much simpler.

To sketch any polynomial function, you can start by finding the real zeros of
the function and end behavior of the function

Steps involved in graphing polynomial functions:

1. Predict the end behavior of the function.

2. Find the real zeros of the function. Check whether it is possible to rewrite the
function in factored form to find the zeros. Otherwise, use Descartes' rule of
signs to identify the possible number of real zeros.
3. Make a table of values to find several points.
4. Plot the points and draw a smooth continuous curve to connect the points.
5. Make sure that the graph follows the end behavior as found in the above step.
Graph the polynomial function x3−2x2−3xx3−2x2−3x .
Predict the end behavior of the function.

The degree of the polynomial function is odd and the leading coefficient is positive.

f(x)→−∞, as x→−∞
f(x)→+∞, as x→+∞
The degree of the polynomial is 3 and there would be zeros for the functions.
The function can be factored as x(x+1)(x−3). So, the zeros of the functions are x=
−1 ,0 and 3
Make a table of values to find several points.

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
f (x) -36 -10 0 0 -4 -6 0 20
Plot the points and draw a smooth continuous curve to connect the points