Classification of matter

Image -1

Image 2

Part-1

Structure of an atom

Fundamental particles: An atom consists of three types of fundamental particles namely protons,
electrons and neutrons.
 Protons: Protons are positively charged particle carrying a charge of +1.6 × 10–19 coulombs or +4.8
× 10–10 esu. The charge of one proton is taken as unit positive charge (+1). The mass of proton is 1.67 ×
10–27 kg. The mass of one proton is taken as 1 atomic mass unit.

Electrons: Electrons are negatively charged particles carrying a charge equal to that of proton, that
is, 1.6 × 10–19 coulombs or –4.8 × 10–10 esu. The charge of one electron is taken as unit negative charge
(–1). The mass of electron is very negligible and has a value of 9.1 × 10–31 kg. The mass of an electron is
1
times that of a proton.
1837

Neutrons: Neutrons do not carry any charge. The mass of a neutron is only slightly greater than that
of proton that is equal to 1.72 × 10–27 kg. The mass of one neutron is also taken as 1 amu.

Various scientists proposed various ideas regarding the arrangement of fundamental particles in an
atom which is called structure of atom.

The modern concept of atom envisages the following arrangement of fundamental particles on an
atom:
(i) The protons and neutrons are concentrated in a small region at the centre of an atom. This central
part is known as nucleus. The protons and neutrons present inside the nucleus are called
nucleons.
(ii) The size of the nucleus is very small when compared to the size of the atom. That means, there is
vast empty space in the atom.
(iii) Electrons revolve round the nucleus with high speed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of
attraction by the nucleus in definite fixed paths which are orbits or shells.
(iv) In an atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus. Since
the protons and electrons carry equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus. Since the
protons are electrons carry equal and opposite charges, an atom is electrically neutral.
(v) The various orbits or shells are named as K, L, M, N… or 1, 2, 3, 4….. and so on. The maximum
number of electrons in the various orbits are 2, 8, 18, 32…. Respectively. The energy of the orbit
increases with the increase in distance from the nucleus.
(vi) The outermost shell is called valence shell and it can never have more than 8 electrons in any
atom.
Atomic number and mass number:

The number of protons present inside the nucleus is called atomic number. It is equal to the number of
electrons in the atom. The elements are characterized by their atomic numbers. Atomic number is
denoted by Z.

Example: Sodium, Z = 11, means that an atom of sodium contains 11 protons in the nucleus and 11
electrons outside the nucleus.

Mass number: Mass number indicates the sum of protons (p) and neutrons (n) present inside the
nucleus. It is denoted by A. The difference between mass number and atomic number gives the number
of neutrons.

Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

 Mass number = Atomic number + Number of neutrons.
 A = Z + Number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = A – Z.

Example-1 :
Calculate the number of neutrons in sodium. Given, Na → Z = 11, A = 23.
Solution:
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 23 – 11 = 12

Atomic number is the characteristic of each element. For the sake of convenience and universal
application, all the elements are assigned unique symbols. An element with its atomic number and
mass number is represented as ZXA. The arrangement of electrons in various shells around the nucleus
is called electronic configuration. In the building up of an atom, the electrons are added to the shells
in increasing order of their energy.

Filling up of electrons in the shells follows certain rules. The maximum number of electrons in
an orbit is equal to 2n2 where n denotes the number of the orbit or shell that is 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. However
when M shell is the valence shell, it is filled with 8 electrons first. The next two electrons go to N shell
 and then the M shell gets filled with 10 more electrons because it can accommodate maximum 18
electrons as per 2n2 formula.

For Example:
(i) In hydrogen, there is one electron which is present in K shell and there are two electrons in
K shell of helium. Since the maximum capacity of K shell is 2, the next electron goes into
L shell till it is filled with 8 electrons.
(ii) In scandium, K, L, M, N shells are filled with 2, 8, 8, 2 electrons respectively and the
remaining one electron goes to M shell. Hence the electronic arrangement in scandium is 2,
8, 9, 2.

Geometrical representation
The number and the arrangement of fundamental particles present in an atom can be shown
diagrammatically by geometrical representation.

Electronic configuration based on shells

Example 2: Draw the electronic configuration of oxygen and Phosphorus.

Solution

(i) Oxygen (Z = 8) (ii) Phosphorus (Z = 15)

Electronic arrangement = 2, 6 Electronic arrangement = 2, 8, 5
Valency

Some elements are found to be quite stable as they are inactive towards chemical reactions. The
atoms of these elements are found to possess 8 electrons in their outermost shells. This condition is called
octet and the electronic configuration is called octet configuration. For example, inert gases or noble
gases namely neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon possess octet configuration. Among the noble gases,
only helium has two electrons in the valence shell and the electronic configuration is called duplet
configuration. Therefore, octet or duplet configuration is considered to be responsible for the stability of
elements.

Electronic configuration of Helium, Neon and Argon

The atoms of all other elements do not possess octet or duplet configuration. Hence, the atoms of
these elements have tendency to gain this configuration either by gaining or losing electrons.

The atoms of different elements may lose or gain different number of electrons depending on their
electronic arrangement. This gives rise to the concept of valency.

The number of electrons gained or lost by an atom of an element for attaining stable octet or duplet
configuration is called valency.
 When an atom loses one or more electrons, the number of protons becomes more than the number
of electrons and the ion so formed are with positive charge. This is called positive valency.

When an atom attains stability by gaining one or more electrons, the number of electrons becomes
more than the number of protons and the ion so formed becomes negatively charged. This is called
negatively valency.

.
Electronic configuration and valency of elements upto Z=18

Charge

The charge on the ion is corresponding to the number of electrons lost or gained. The ion may be
monovalent, bivalent, trivalent and tetravalent which corresponds to the valencies of 1, 2, 3 and 4
respectively.
 Metal generally possess 1 to 3 electrons in their outermost shells and they tend to lose electrons to
form positive ions called cations. Non-metals possess 4 to 7 electrons in their valence shells and they
tend to gain electrons to form negative ions called anions.

Some metals may lose different number of electrons to form ions with different charges. This is called
variable valency.

In some cases, the electrons are also lost from the shell inner to the valence shell. Example: Iron
loses two electrons from its valence shell to form Fe+2 and loses one more electron from the shell inner to
be valence shell to form Fe3+. Thus iron exhibits variable valency.

The ‘ous’ suffix is added to the name of the ion which exhibits lower valency whereas the ion with
higher valency is named by adding ‘ic’ suffix.

The ions present in the tables given above contain only one element. But there are some charged
species which contain more than one element.

A group of atoms possessing either positive or negative charge by losing or gaining one or more
electrons is called a radical. The positively charged radicals are ammonium radical (NH4+) and
hydronium radical (H3O+). All other radicals are negatively charged.
Cationic radicals
Anionic radical

Formation of compounds
In nature, numerous number of compounds are found. These compounds are the combination of positive
and negative ions or radicals. The following example explains the formation of NaCl form its constituent
atoms.

Sodium (Z = 11) has electronic configuration of 2, 8, 1. By losing one electron, it forms Na+ ion
which attains the configuration of neon that is 2, 8. Chlorine (Z = 17) has electronic configuration of 2, 8,
7. By gaining one electrons it forms Cl– ion which attains the configuration of argon that is 2, 8, 8. Since
Na+ and Cl– ions carry opposite charges a strong force of attraction binds the two ions together. Thus, the
compound sodium chloride is formed.

The compounds are represented with the help of the shorthand notations called formulae which are
derived from the symbols of the constituent elements. Formula represents a molecule of an element or
compound and is a combination of the symbols of the constituent elements along with the number of
atoms of individual elements present in a molecule.

Derivation of formulae of compounds from the constituent radicals

Whatever be the valencies of the constituent radical, a chemical compound is always electrically neutral.
That means, in a molecule of a compound, the positive valencies are balanced by the negative valencies.

Example: In a molecule of aluminium chloride, aluminium ion is trivalent and carry +3 charge and
chloride ions are monovalent and carry –1 charge. In order to neutralize +3 charge on aluminium ion,
three Cl– ions are necessary. Thus the formula can be written as AlCl3.

The formula of a compound can be derived by using a short cut method known as criss-cross method.

(i) The positive radical is written first followed by the negative radical.
Example: Ca+2, Cl–.
(ii) The valencies of the ions or radicals are written below the radicals without positive and negative
sign.
Example: Ca+2, Cl–.
2 1
(iii) The valencies should be interchanged and written as subscripts on right side of the respective
ions.

(iv) If the valencies have common factors, they are divided by the highest common factor.
Example:

(v) The radicals containing more than one atom are enclosed in brackets if the number of radicals
present in a molecule is more than one.
Example:

Nature is associated with a wide variety of chemical substances. Each substance has a definite
molecular composition. Based on the molecular composition the ratio of number of atoms of the
constituent elements is indicated by a chemical formula.
1. The number of electrons present in K shells of hydrogen and helium are
(1) 2 and 1 respectively (2) 2 in both the elements
(3) 1 and 2 respectively (4) 1 in both the elements

2. The charge possessed by permanganate is the same as ______ radical.

(1) Magnesium (2) bisulphate (3) sulphate (4) potassium

3. If the formulae of respective chlorides of X and Y are XCl3 and YCl4 respectively, then the
valences of X and Y are
(!) 3 and 2 (2) 3 and 4 (3) 1 and 1 (4) 1 and 4

4. The formula of a compound when a positive radical with valency 2 and negative radical valency 1
combine is _______.
(1) B2A (2) A2B (3) AB2 (4) AB

5. Sugar gets charred when treated with conc. H2SO4. This is an example for ________
(1) Physical change (2) Chemical change
(3) Simultaneous physical and chemical change. (4) Chemical combination reaction.

6. Which of the following elements is chemically inactive?

(1) Nitrogen (2) Neon (3) Hydrogen (4) Copper

7. The formula of chloride of corresponding metal is MCl2. What is the valency of the metal?
(1) 4 (2) 3 (3) 1 (4) 2

8. What will be the formulae of the sulphate and sulphite of a trivalent metal?
(1) M2 (SO4)3, M2 (SO3)3 (2) MSO4, M2 (SO3)3
(3) M2SO4, M2SO3 (4) MSO4, MSO3

9. Identify the atomic numbers of the pair of elements which possesses same number of electrons in
L and M shells.
(1) 12, 18 (2) 19, 20 (3) 18, 16 (4) 17, 18
10. Arrange the following points in sequence for derivation of formulae of compounds.
(a) The valences of the ions or radicals are written below the radicals without positive and
negative sign.
(b) If the valences have common factors, they are divided by the highest common factor.
(c) The magnitude of valences should be interchanged and written as subscripts on the right side
of the respective ions.
(d) The positive radical followed by negative radical are written with their charges.
(e) If the radicals contains more than one atom, they are enclosed in brackets and the appropriate
valency (more than one) written as subscripts outside the bracket.
(1) bcdea (2) dacbe (3) abcde (4) dabce