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Amount of substance
In chemistry, the amount of substance in a given sample of matter is the number of discrete atomic-scale particles
in it; where the particles may be molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, or other, depending on the context. It is sometimes
referred to as the chemical amount.

The number of particles in macroscopic samples is conveniently expressed as a number of moles. The mole (symbol
"mol") is a unit of the International System of Units defined as exactly N=6.022 140 76 × 1023 particles. The integer N
is called the Avogadro number.[1] This number was chosen so that the mass of one mole of a chemical compound, in
grams, is numerically equal (for all practical purposes) to the mass of one molecule of the compound, in atomic mass
units. For example, a molecule of water has a mass of about 18.015 atomic mass units on average, whereas a mole of
water (which contains 6.022 140 76 × 1023 water molecules) has a total mass of about 18.015 grams.

In chemistry, because of the law of multiple proportions, it is often much more convenient to work with amounts of
substances (that is, number of moles or of molecules) than with masses (grams) or volumes (liters). For example, the
chemical fact "1 molecule of oxygen (O2) will react with 2 molecules of hydrogen (H2) to make 2 molecules of water (H2
O)" can also be stated as "1 mole of O2 will react with 2 moles of H2 to form 2 moles of water". The same chemical fact,
expressed in terms of masses, would be "32 g of oxygen will react with approximately 2.0156 g of hydrogen to make
approximately 18.0152 g of water" (and the numbers would depend on the isotopic composition of the reagents). In
terms of volume, the numbers would depend on the pressure and temperature of the reagents and products. For the
same reasons, the concentrations of reagents and products in liquids are often specified in moles per liter, rather than
grams per liter.

The amount of substance is also a convenient concept in thermodynamics. For example, the pressure of a certain
quantity of a noble gas in a recipient of a given volume, at a given temperature, is directly related to the number of
molecules in the gas (through the ideal gas law), not to its mass.

This technical sense of the term "amount of substance" should not be confused with the general sense of "amount" in
the English language. The latter may refer to other measurements such as mass or volume,[2] rather than the number
of particles. There are proposals to replace "amount of substance" with more easily-distinguishable terms, such as
enplethy[3] and stoichiometric amount.[2]

The IUPAC recommends that "amount of substance" should be used instead of "number of moles", just as the quantity
mass should not be called "number of kilograms".[4]

Contents
Nature of the particles
Derived quantities
Molar quantities (per mole)
Amount concentration (moles per liter)
Amount fraction (moles per mole)
History
See also
Notes
References

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Nature of the particles

To avoid ambiguity, the nature of the particles should be specified in any measurement of the amount of substance:
thus, 1 mol of molecules of oxygen (O2) is about 32 grams, whereas 1 mol of atoms of oxygen (O) is about 16
grams.[5][6]

When not specified, the amount of a substance with discrete covalenty bonded molecules of definite size, like water or
ethylene (C2H4), usually means the number of such molecules. For metallic elements, and some non-metallic elements
like carbon and silicon which have molecules of indefinite size, it usually refers to atoms instead. For element
allotropes with discrete molecules — like iodine, I2, chlorine, Cl2, white phosphorus P4, and octasulfur S8 — the term is
ambiguous, and should be clarified.

For salts (ionic solids) and for polymers of indeterminate molecular size, the term usually refers to the number of
instances of the conventional chemical formula of the substance. Thus, for example, 1 mol of calcium chloride (CaCl2)
2+ −
is understood to contain one mole of calcium cations Ca and two moles of chloride anions Cl , even though the ions
are not bound into separate three-atom molecules. Likewise, 1 mol of solid silicon dioxide (SiO2)n, which has a three-
dimensional covalent lattice structure, is understood to contain one mole of silicon atoms and two moles of oxygen
atoms.

For substances that normally exist in partially dissociated or polymerized form, the amount of substance usually refers
to its nominal formula, without taking those changes into account. For example, "a solution of 1 mol of formaldehyde
(CH2O) in water" is generally understod to contain one mole of carbon atoms, even though some of the formaldehyde
may be in the form of methanediol CH4O2 or oligomers like paraformaldehyde H(CH2O)nOH and metaformaldehyde
C3H6O3. Note that, because of the latter, the number of carbon-containing molecules in the solution may be
substantially less less than one mole.

Derived quantities

Molar quantities (per mole)

The quotient of some extensive physical quantity of a homogeneous sample by its amount of substance is an intensive
property of the substance, usually named by the prefix molar.[7]

For example, the ratio of the mass of a sample by its amount of substance is the molar mass, whose SI unit is kilograms
(or, more usually, grams) per mole; which is about 18.015 g/mol for water, and 55.845 g/mol for iron. From the
volume, one gets the molar volume, which is about 17.962 milliliter/mol for liquid water and 7.092 mL/mol for iron at
room temperature. From the heat capacity, one gets the molar heat capacity, which is about 75.385 J/K/mol for water
and about 25.10 J/K/mol for iron.

Amount concentration (moles per liter)

Another important derived quantity is the amount of substance concentration[8] (also called amount concentration, or
substance concentration in clinical chemistry[9]; which is defined as the amount of a specific substance in a sample of a
solution (or some other mixture), divided by the volume of the sample.

The SI unit of this quantity is the mole (of the substance) per liter (of the solution). Thus, for example, the amount
concentration of sodium chloride in ocean water is typically about 0.599 mol/L.

It must be noted that the denominator is the volume of the solution, not of the solvent. Thus, for example, one liter of
standard vodka contains about 0.40 L of ethanol (315 g, 6.85 mol) and 0.60 L of water. The amount concentration of
ethanol is therefore (6.85 mol of ethanol)/(1 L of vodka) = 6.85 mol/L, not (6.85 mol of ethanol)/(0.60 L of water),

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which would be 11.4 mol/L.

In chemistry, it is customary to read the unit "mol/L" as molar, and denote it by the symbol "M" (both following the
numeric value). Thus, for example, each liter of a "0.5 molar" or "0.5 M" solution of urea (CH4N2O) in water contains
0.5 moles of that molecule. By extension, the amount concentration is also commonly called the molarity of the
substance of interest in the solution. However, as of May 2007, these terms and symbols are not condoned by
IUPAC.[10]

This quantity should not be confused with the mass concentration, which is the mass of the substance of interest
divided by the volume of the solution (about 35 g/L for sodium chloride in ocean water).

Amount fraction (moles per mole)

Confusingly, the amount concentration, or "molarity", should also be distinguished from "molar concentration", which
should be the number of moles (molecules) of the substance of interest divided by the total number of moles
(molecules) in the solution sample. This quantity is more properly called the amount fraction.

History
The alchemists, and especially the early metallurgists, probably had some notion of amount of substance, but there are
no surviving records of any generalization of the idea beyond a set of recipes. In 1758, Mikhail Lomonosov questioned
the idea that mass was the only measure of the quantity of matter,[11] but he did so only in relation to his theories on
gravitation. The development of the concept of amount of substance was coincidental with, and vital to, the birth of
modern chemistry.

1777: Wenzel publishes Lessons on Affinity, in which he demonstrates that the proportions of the "base
component" and the "acid component" (cation and anion in modern terminology) remain the same during reactions
between two neutral salts.[12]
1789: Lavoisier publishes Treatise of Elementary Chemistry, introducing the concept of a chemical element and
clarifying the Law of conservation of mass for chemical reactions.[13]
1792: Richter publishes the first volume of Stoichiometry or the Art of Measuring the Chemical Elements
(publication of subsequent volumes continues until 1802). The term "stoichiometry" is used for the first time. The
first tables of equivalent weights are published for acid–base reactions. Richter also notes that, for a given acid,
the equivalent mass of the acid is proportional to the mass of oxygen in the base.[12]
1794: Proust's Law of definite proportions generalizes the concept of equivalent weights to all types of chemical
reaction, not simply acid–base reactions.[12]
1805: Dalton publishes his first paper on modern atomic theory, including a "Table of the relative weights of the
ultimate particles of gaseous and other bodies".[14]

The concept of atoms raised the question of their weight. While many were skeptical about
the reality of atoms, chemists quickly found atomic weights to be an invaluable tool in
expressing stoichiometric relationships.

1808: Publication of Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy, containing the first table of atomic weights
(based on H = 1).[15]
1809: Gay-Lussac's Law of combining volumes, stating an integer relationship between the volumes of reactants
and products in the chemical reactions of gases.[16]
1811: Avogadro hypothesizes that equal volumes of different gases (at same temperature and pressure) contain
equal numbers of particles, now known as Avogadro's law.[17]
1813/1814: Berzelius publishes the first of several tables of atomic weights based on the scale of O =
100.[12][18][19]
1815: Prout publishes his hypothesis that all atomic weights are integer multiple of the atomic weight of
hydrogen.[20] The hypothesis is later abandoned given the observed atomic weight of chlorine (approx. 35.5
relative to hydrogen).
1819: Dulong–Petit law relating the atomic weight of a solid element to its specific heat capacity.[21]

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1819: Mitscherlich's work on crystal isomorphism allows many chemical formulae to be clarified, resolving several
ambiguities in the calculation of atomic weights.[12]
1834: Clapeyron states the ideal gas law.[22]

The ideal gas law was the first to be discovered of many relationships between the number of
atoms or molecules in a system and other physical properties of the system, apart from its
mass. However, this was not sufficient to convince all scientists of the existence of atoms and
molecules, many considered it simply being a useful tool for calculation.

1834: Faraday states his Laws of electrolysis, in particular that "the chemical decomposing action of a current is
constant for a constant quantity of electricity".[23]
1856: Krönig derives the ideal gas law from kinetic theory.[24] Clausius publishes an independent derivation the
following year.[25]
1860: The Karlsruhe Congress debates the relation between "physical molecules", "chemical molecules" and
atoms, without reaching consensus.[26]
1865: Loschmidt makes the first estimate of the size of gas molecules and hence of number of molecules in a
given volume of gas, now known as the Loschmidt constant.[27]
1886: van't Hoff demonstrates the similarities in behaviour between dilute solutions and ideal gases.
1886: Eugen Goldstein observes discrete particle rays in gas discharges, laying the foundation of mass
spectrometry, a tool subsequently used to establish the masses of atoms and molecules.
1887: Arrhenius describes the dissociation of electrolyte in solution, resolving one of the problems in the study of
colligative properties.[28]
1893: First recorded use of the term mole to describe a unit of amount of substance by Ostwald in a university
textbook.[29]
1897: First recorded use of the term mole in English.[30]
By the turn of the twentieth century, the concept of atomic and molecular entities was generally accepted, but
many questions remained, not least the size of atoms and their number in a given sample. The concurrent
development of mass spectrometry, starting in 1886, supported the concept of atomic and molecular mass and
provided a tool of direct relative measurement.
1905: Einstein's paper on Brownian motion dispels any last doubts on the physical reality of atoms, and opens the
way for an accurate determination of their mass.[31]
1909: Perrin coins the name Avogadro constant and estimates its value.[32]
1913: Discovery of isotopes of non-radioactive elements by Soddy[33] and Thomson.[34]
1914: Richards receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "his determinations of the atomic weight of a large
number of elements".[35]
1920: Aston proposes the whole number rule, an updated version of Prout's hypothesis.[36]
1921: Soddy receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his work on the chemistry of radioactive substances and
investigations into isotopes".[37]
1922: Aston receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-
radioactive elements, and for his whole-number rule".[38]
1926: Perrin receives the Nobel Prize in Physics, in part for his work in measuring the Avogadro constant.[39]
1959/1960: Unified atomic weight scale based on 12C = 12 adopted by IUPAP and IUPAC.[40]
1968: The mole is recommended for inclusion in the International System of Units (SI) by the International
Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).[41]
1972: The mole is approved as the SI base unit of amount of substance.[41]

See also
Amount fraction
International System of Quantities

Notes

References
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Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-20.
2. Giunta, Carmen J. (2016). "What's in a Name? Amount of Substance, Chemical Amount, and Stoichiometric
Amount". Journal of Chemical Education. 93 (4): 583–586. Bibcode:2016JChEd..93..583G (http://adsabs.harvard.
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3. "E.R. Cohen, T. Cvitas, J.G. Frey, B. Holmström, K. Kuchitsu, R. Marquardt, I. Mills, F. Pavese, M. Quack, J.
Stohner, H.L. Strauss, M. Takami, and A.J. Thor, "Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry", IUPAC
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20161220125649/https://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/e-resources/ONLINE-IUPAC-GB3-2nd
Printing-Online-Sep2012.pdf) (PDF). p. 4. Archived from the original (https://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
publications/e-resources/ONLINE-IUPAC-GB3-2ndPrinting-Online-Sep2012.pdf) (PDF) on 2016-12-20. Retrieved
2019-05-24.
4. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry,
2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. p. 4. Electronic version. (http://old.iupac.org/publicati
ons/books/gbook/green_book_2ed.pdf)
5. IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version:
 (2006–) "amount of substance, n (http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00297.html)". doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00297 (https://
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6. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry,
2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. p. 46. Electronic version. (http://old.iupac.org/publica
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7. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry,
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8. IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version:
 (2006–) "amount-of-substance concentration (http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00298.html)". doi:10.1351/goldbook.
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Chemistry" (http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1996/pdf/6804x0957.pdf) (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. 68: 957–
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10. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry,
2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. p. 42 (n. 15). Electronic version. (http://old.iupac.org/
publications/books/gbook/green_book_2ed.pdf)
11. Lomonosov, Mikhail (1970). "On the Relation of the Amount of Material and Weight" (https://archive.org/stream/mi
khailvasilevic017733mbp#page/n239/mode/2up). In Leicester, Henry M. (ed.). Mikhail Vasil'evich Lomonosov on
the Corpuscular Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 224–33 – via Internet Archive.
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14. Dalton, John (1805). "On the Absorption of Gases by Water and Other Liquids" (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/d
alton52.html). Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, 2nd Series. 1: 271–87.
15. Dalton, John (1808). A New System of Chemical Philosophy (https://archive.org/details/newsystemofchemi01daltu
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16. Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis (1809). "Memoire sur la combinaison des substances gazeuses, les unes avec les
autres". Mémoires de la Société d'Arcueil. 2: 207. English translation (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/gaylussac.h
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17. Avogadro, Amedeo (1811). "Essai d'une maniere de determiner les masses relatives des molecules elementaires
des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent dans ces combinaisons". Journal de Physique. 73: 58–
76. English translation (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/avogadro.html).
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e.edu/~giunta/berzelius.html).

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(1810). "Forsok rorande de bestamda proportioner, havari den oorganiska naturens bestandsdelar finnas
forenada". Afh. Fys., Kemi Mineral. 3: 162.
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weights of their atoms" (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/PROUT.HTML). Annals of Philosophy. 6: 321–30.
21. Petit, Alexis Thérèse; Dulong, Pierre-Louis (1819). "Recherches sur quelques points importants de la Théorie de
la Chaleur". Annales de Chimie et de Physique. 10: 395–413. English translation (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/
PETIT.html)
22. Clapeyron, Émile (1834). "Puissance motrice de la chaleur". Journal de l'École Royale Polytechnique. 14 (23):
153–90.
23. Faraday, Michael (1834). "On Electrical Decomposition" (http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Faraday-electro
chem.html). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 124: 77–122. doi:10.1098/rstl.1834.0008 (https://doi.
org/10.1098%2Frstl.1834.0008).
24. Krönig, August (1856). "Grundzüge einer Theorie der Gase" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15184h/f327.tabl
e). Annalen der Physik. 99 (10): 315–22. Bibcode:1856AnP...175..315K (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1856AnP...
175..315K). doi:10.1002/andp.18561751008 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18561751008).
25. Clausius, Rudolf (1857). "Ueber die Art der Bewegung, welche wir Wärme nennen" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/
bpt6k15185v/f371.table). Annalen der Physik. 176 (3): 353–79. Bibcode:1857AnP...176..353C (http://adsabs.harva
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Wissenschaften Wien. 52 (2): 395–413. English translation (http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/L
oschmidt-1865.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060207130125/http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdoc
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ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Arrhenius-dissociation.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2009021805212
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Livingston, J.; Morgan, R.). New York: Wiley. p. 6.
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ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen". Annalen der Physik. 17 (8): 549–60.
Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..549E).
doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220806).
32. Perrin, Jean (1909). "Mouvement brownien et réalité moléculaire". Annales de Chimie et de Physique. 8e Série.
18: 1–114. Extract in English, translation by Frederick Soddy (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/perrin.html).
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pac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html). Chemistry International. 26 (1): 4–7.
41. International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), The International System of Units (SI) (http://www.bipm.or
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original on 2017-08-14

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