CHAPTER 1   4.

Organ level
Organization of the Human Body  - Organs​, recognizable shapes,
composed of ​two or more different
Anatomy and Physiology​ - foundation for types of tissues​. (stomach, heart, liver,
understanding the structures and functions of lungs, and brain)
the human body. - Serous membrane​, a layer around the
outside of the stomach that protects it
Anatomy​ - science of​ structure ​and the and reduces friction when the stomach
relationships among structures. moves and rubs against other organs.
● Smooth muscle tissue ​layers,
Physiology​ - science of body ​functions​, how contract to churn and mix food
the body parts work. and push it on the next
digestive organ, small
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND BODY  intestine.
SYSTEMS   ● Epithelial tissue layer​,
  innermost lining of the
1. Chemical level stomach, contributes fluid and
- Atoms​, ​smallest units of matter​ that chemical that aid digestion.
participate in chemical reactions.
- Molecules​, two or more atoms joined 5. System level
together. - System​, consist of related organs that
- DNA​ (deoxyribonucleic acid), genetic have a common function.
material passed on from one - Digestive system,​ breaks down and
generation to another. absorbs molecules in food.

2. Cellular level 6. Organism level

- Cells​, basic structural and functional - Largest level of organization
units of an organism - smallest living - Systems of body combine to make up
units in the body. an organism
● Muscle cells
● Nerve cells COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE 
● Blood cells ELEVEN PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN 
- Organelles​, cells contain specialized BODY 
structures such as nucleus,
mitochondria, and lysosomes 1. Integumentary system
- Skin and structures​ associated with =
3. Tissue level hair, nails, and sweat and oil glands,
- Tissues​, groups of cells and the and subcutaneous layer.
materials surrounding them that work - Functions:
together to perform a particular > helps regulate body temperature
function. > protects body
● Epithelial tissue > eliminates wastes
- Covering of > helps make vitamin D
tissues > detects sensations (touch, pressure,
● Connective tissue pain, warmth, and cold)
- Support > stores fat and provides insulation
● Muscular tissue
- Movement 2. Skeletal system
● Nervous tissue - Bones and joints​ and their associated
- Controlled & cartilages.
Coordination - Functions:
 > supports and protects the body
> provides area for muscle attachment
> assists with body movements
> stores cells that produce blood cells
> stores minerals and lipids (fats)
3. Muscular system
- Refers to the muscle tissue/ muscles
attached to bones (​smooth and
cardiac)​
cardiac muscle​: involuntary (heart)

skeletal muscle​: voluntary (tendons to bones)

used to effect skeletal movement such as
locomotion. - Functions:
smooth muscle​: Involuntary (intestines, > regulates body activities
throat, uterus, and blood vessel walls) through hormones transported
by the blood to various target
- Functions:
organs.
> participates in bringing about body
movements (walking)
6. Cardiovascular system
> maintains posture
- Blood, heart, and blood vessels
> produces heat
- Functions:
4. Nervous system
> heart = pumps blood through blood
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense
vessels
organs (eyes & ears)
> blood = carries oxygen and nutrients
- Functions:
to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes
> regulates body activities through
away from cells
nerve impulses by detecting changes
> helps regulate acidity, temperature,
in the environment
and water content of body fluids
> interpreting the changes
> blood components help defend
> responding to the changes by
against disease and mend damaged
bringing about muscular contractions
blood vessels
(​glandular secretions​ =​any chemical
produced by a gland)
7. Lymphatic system and Immunity
5. Endocrine system
- Lymphatic fluid (​lymph)​ and vessels
- Hormones, Glands and
(​spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and
tissues that produce chemical
tonsils​)
regulators of the body.
- (​hypothalamus, pineal gland,
Pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal
gland , pancreas, testis.
ovary)
 - Cells that carry out immune responses > produces, stores, and eliminates
(​B cells, T cells​) urine
- T cells​ (thymus ​cells​) and B ​ cells > eliminates wastes and regulates
(bone marrow c ​ ells​) volume and chemical composition of
- T cells​ are involved in c​ ell-​ mediated blood.
immunity, whereas ​B cells​ are > regulates acid-base balance of body
primarily responsible for humoral fluids
immunity (relating to antibodies). > maintains body’s mineral balance
- Functions: > helps regulate red blood cell
> returns proteins and fluid to blood production
> carries lipids from ​gastrointestinal
tract​ to blood 11. Reproductive systems
> contains sites of ​maturation and - Gonads ​(testes in males and
proliferation of B cells and T cells ​that ovaries in females), ​uterine
protect against disease-causing (fallopian) tubes​, ​uterus,
microbes vagina, epididymis,​ d ​ uctus
(vas) deferens​, penis, &
8. Respiratory system mammary glands​ (females)
- Lungs and air passageways = - Functions:
pharynx (throat), larynx (voice > gonads produce gametes
box), trachea (windpipe), & (sperm or oocytes) that unite
bronchial tubes. to form a new organism and
- Functions: release hormones that
> transfers oxygen from regulate reproduction and
inhaled air to blood and other body processes
carbon dioxide, > organs transport and store
(blood to exhaled air) gametes, mammary glands
> helps regulate acidity of (milk)
body fluids
> air flowing out of lungs
through vocal cords produces
sounds
9. Digestive system
- Organs of gastrointestinal tract
(mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestines,
rectum, & anus.)
- Includes accessory digestive organs
that assist in digestive processes
(salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas)
- Functions:
> physical and chemical breakdown of
food
> absorbs nutrients
> eliminates solid wastes

10. Urinary system

- Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
- Functions:
Life processes of humans 
1. Metabolism
- Sum of all the chemical
reactions/​ processes that
occur in the body
- Breakdown of and building up
of large, complex molecules
into smaller, simpler ones
2.​ Responsiveness (Irritability)
- Body’s ability to ​detect and respond t​o
changes in its environment
- Nerve cells responds to changes in
the environment by generating
electrical signals (Nerve Impulses)
- Muscle cells respond to nerve
impulses by contracting
3. ​Movement
- Motion​ of the whole body, individual
organs, single cells, and even the tiny
organelles inside a cell.
4​. Growth
- Increase in body size
- May be increased in;
(1) size of existing cells
(2) number of cells
(3) amount of material surrounding
cells
5. ​Differentiation
- Unspecialized cells become
specialized cells.
6.​ Reproduction
- The formation of new cells for growth,
repair, or replacement
- Ability of cells to reproduce
Homeostasis <<<<<<3   the input it receives from receptors,
- Maintenance of relatively stable
conditions
- State of internal constancy
- Ensures that the body’s internal
environment remains constant despite
changes inside and outside the body.
- Is dynamic, it can change over a
narrow range that is compatible with
maintaining cellular life processes.
Interstitial fluid
- Large part of the internal environment
consists of the fluid surrounding body
ceellsssss.
> The Nervous System
- Detects changes from the balanced
state and sends messages in the form
of ​nerve impulses​ to organs that can
counteract the change.
- Typically rapid corrections
> The endocrine system
- Corrects changes by secreting
molecules = hormones
> Hormones
- Affect specific body cells, to cause
responses that restore homeostasis
- Work more slowly
Feedback System/ loop
- Cycle of events in which a condition in
the body is continually monitored,
evaluated, changed, remonitored,
reevaluated, chuchcuhcu etc.
Controlled condition
- Monitored conditions such as body
temperature, blood pressure,
glucose…
Stimulus
- Disruption that causes a change in a
controlled condition
> External environment = heat/ lack of oxygen
> Internal environment = blood glucose level
> COMPONENTS (Feedback System) 
1. Receptor​ - monitors change in a
controlled condition and sends
information = ​Input (nerve impulses)
2. Control center​ - the brain, evaluates
and generates ​output (information)
commands when they are needed.
3. Effector ​- body structure that receives
output from the control center and
produces ​a response that changes the
controlled condition.
Negative Feedback system
- Reverses a change in a controlled
condition.
> ​blood pressure (BP)​, force exerted
by blood as it presses against the
walls of ​blood vessels (BV)
- Baroreceptors,​ pressure-sensitive
nerve cells located in the walls of
BVss
 > send nerve impulses to the brain,
which interprets and responds by
sending nerve impulses to heart.
Positive Feedback Systems
- Strengthen or reinforce a change in
the body’s controlled condition.
- The effector produces a physiological
response in the controlled condition.
Homeostasis and Disease
Disorder
- Abnormality of structure and/or
function
Disease
- Term for an illness characterized by a
recognizable set of symptoms & signs.
Symptoms
- Subjective changes in body that are
not apparent to the observer.
- Ex. headache, or nausea
Signs
- Objective changes
- Ex. bleeding, vomiting, fever, rash
Aging and Homeostasis  through body parts (planes)
- normal process characterized by a
progressive decline in the body’s ability to
restore homeostasis.
- ex. Wrinkled skin, white hair
Anatomical Terms  - Divides midline; unequal sides
- Specific vocabulary
Anatomical position
- Description of any human body part in
a specific stance (Body is upright)
Prone position
- Body is lying face down
Supine position
- Body is lying face up
 
Body Regions  between transverse and sagittal/
Head​ - skull and face
> skull, protects the brain
> face, front portion (eyes, nose, mouth, ...)
Neck​ - supports head and attached to trunk
> trunk, (chest, abdomen, and pelvis)
Upper limb
- Attached to the trunk (shoulder,
armpit, arm, forearm, wrist and hand)
Lower limb
- Attached to the trunk (buttock, thigh,
leg, ankle, and foot)
Groin​ - front surface, crease each side (thigh)
Directional Terms
- Words that describe the position of
one body part relative to another.
> ​Anterior​, front
> ​Posterior​, back
> ​superior​, upper part of the body
> ​inferior​, lower part of the body
> ​Medial​, midline/ imaginary vertical line
> ​Lateral​, farther from midline
> ​Intermediate,​ between two structures
> ​Ipsilateral​, same side as another structure
> ​Contralateral​, opposite side from “ “ “ “
> ​Proximal​, nearer to a limb/ origin/ beginning
> ​Distal,​ farther to a limb/ origin/ beginning
>​Superficial,​ toward/on the surface of the
body
> ​Deep,​ away from the surface of the body
PLANES AND SECTIONS 
- Imaginary flat surfaces that pass
Sagittal plane
- Vertical plane; right angle
> Midsagittal plane
- Midline of the body; equal sides
> Parasagittal plane
Frontal plane (Coronal plane)
- Divides into anterior and posterior
- Right angle
Transverse plane (cross-sectional/
horizontal)
- Divides superior and inferior
- Right angle
Oblique plane
- Passes through, with an ​angle
transverse and frontal
Section ​- cut of the body/organ along one
plane
BODY CAVITIES 
- Spaces within the body that contain, protect,
separate, and support internal organs.
 > ​Cranial cavity​ - formed by cranial (skull)
bones and contains brain
> ​Vertebral (spinal) canal​ - formed by
vertebral column and contains spinal cord

> ​Thoracic cavity (TC)​ - chest cavity

- Pericardial cavity​, surrounds heart
- Pleural cavity,​ each surrounds a lung
- Mediastinum​, central portion of TC
> ​Abdominopelvic cavity ​- ​diagram to groin
- Abdominal cavity​, (stomach, spleen,
liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and
most of the large intestine);​ t​ he serous
membrane = peritoneum
- Pelvic cavity​, (urinary bladder,
portions of the large intestine, and
internal organs of reproduction)

ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS  

Diaphragm ​- dome-shaped muscle

Viscera​ - organs inside thoracic & abdominal
Membrane​ - thin, pliable tissue that covers,
lines, partitions, or connects structures Umbilicus​ - belly button divide the abdominal
>​ Serous membrane cavity into ​quadrants.
- slippery double-layered; parts;
- Parietal layer​, which lines the walls of
the cavities
- Visceral layer​, covers and adheres to
the viscera within the cavities
- Serous fluid, ​lubricating fluid between
two layers & allows viscera to slide
- Pleura, ​the serous membrane of the
pleural cavities
- Pericardium,​ the serous membrane of
the abdominal cavity

CELLS 
- The basic unit of life
- Basic features: chromosomes, (DNA)-
genetic material, membrane,
ribosome, cytoplasm
Plasma membrane (PM)
- For ​regulation​ & ​communication
- The ​organelles are suspended
- Cytosol​ ​= liquid
- Cytoplasm​ = gel-like fluid/ substance
- Cytoskeleton​ = structure/shape
- Microfilament​ = movements
- Intermediate​ ​filament​ = shape
- Microtubules​ ​= cell division
- Centrosome​ = organelles responsible
for producing microtubules for cell
division
- Ribosomes​ = protein synthesis
Two major macromolecules that make up the
Plasma membrane:
● Lipids
- Phospholipid Bilayer
- Features:
>​ water-loving​ = outside
>​ water-fearing​ = inside
- Amphilipid​ ​= dual nature of the
phospholipid layer
● Proteins
- Two types of protein, on PM
>​ ​Peripheral​ ​= loosely (on
top/​nakapatong​)
> ​Integral​ ​= extend into (​lusot​)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
= a network of folded membranes that extend
throughout the cytoplasm and connect to the
nuclear envelope.
● Rough ER​ = studded with ribosomes
- Function: ​Synthesis of Proteins
● Smooth ER​ = lacks ribosomes
- Function: ​Synthesis of Lipids,
detoxification of harmful substances,
metabolism of carbohydrates, and
calcium storage.
Golgi Complex
- processing units of the cell
- store, modify, package proteins (from ER)
Mitochondria
- the powerhouse of the cell (ATP)
> Endomembrane System
- system/ series of organelles responsible for
protein synthesis
> Endoplasmic Reticulum
- produce the raw materials (proteins and
lipids)
> Nucleus
- Control center of the cell
- Carries DNA
- Sends the​ ​instruction​ t​ o ER
- ER then ​produces the raw materials
(protein)
- Through, ​Transport Vesicle
- And then to the​ ​Golgi (processing)
- And it is ​dispatched through the
Secretory Vesicle
- And​ L ​ ysosome processes the waste
materials
Cells Specialization
● Cilia ​- movement; back & forth
- Function: move substances across the
surface, the substance of the cell
- Stationary (not moving)
● Flagella ​- movement; propeller-like
- Mobilize the entire cell
- Mobile (Capable of moving)
● Pseudopodia​ -​ “false-feet”
- Amoeboid movement; if the cell wants
to move/ Cytoplasmic streaming
● Primary Cilia​ ​- cellular communication
- Detect changes in the cell and allow
for the development
● Specialized Junctions
- Structures that are found between
neighboring cells
- TYPES;
> Tight Junction (Seal)​ -​ encircle cells
prevent the passage of molecules (eg:
stomach)
> Adhesion Junctions (​dikit)​ - link adjacent
cells together;
- Desmosomes = link adjacent cells
- Hemidesmosomes = (“hilalim”/ under),
anchors the cell to the basal lamina
> Communicating Junctions
- Allow passages of small molecules
- Eg: Gap Junction = create channels/
openings for the passage of
substances.
> ​Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- Update of specific molecules
​ 2. ​ xocytosis
E
- The exit of molecules/leave the cell
- Movement of substances out if a cell
in secretory vesicles that force with the
plasma membrane and release their
contents into the extracellular fluid.

Membrane Transport
- Movement of substances through the
membrane Cell Division ​= (preparation)
- Passive​ = high to low;​ does not
require the use of energy
- Active ​= low to high;​ carrier of
proteins and requires energy (ATP)

Passive
1. Diffusion
- Simple diffusion​ ​= area of higher
concentration (substance) to low
- Facilitated diffusion ​= high to low
with the use of carrier proteins
​ 2. ​ Osmosis
- Movement of water from an area of
high to low concentration Mitosis​: two identical diploid daughter cells
> ​Hypertonic Solution (Shrink) Meiosis:​ non-identical haploid daughter cells
- Increase/ higher concentration of
solutes + low water concentration Cell Cycle ​- (​Mitosis)
- Water is outside the cell (raisin shrink)
> Isotonic Solution (equal) Interphase ​= prepare for cell division
- An equal amount of water & solute - 3 phrase;
> Hypotonic Solution (about to burst) > ​G1 phase​ -​ produce functional proteins
- Increase/ higher concentration of (like preparing a copy of its blueprint)
water + low/ decrease concentration of > ​Synthesis phase​ - DNA Replication
solute > ​G2 phase​ -​ structural proteins
- Water is inside the cell (raisin to burst)
Prophase ​= production of chromosomes
*** ~ water will always move towards the - Centrosome → replicate → nucleus
hypertonic area ~*** (thin strands of DNA) = Chromatin
- Chromatin → condensed →
Active Chromatid
1. Endocytosis (Bulk-transport) - Chromatid → condensed →
- The entrance of large molecules chromosomes (spindle fibers)
>​ Phagocytosis
- “Cell-eating”, of large solid particles Metaphase​ ​= what is produced in prophase
> ​Pinocytosis (Bulk-phase endocytosis) - *nuclear membrane disappears
- “Cell-drinking”, cells takes tiny droplets
of extracellular fluid
Anaphase​ = chromosomes will split into
chromatids → chromatids move into opposite
poles

Telophase ​= formation of the cleavage furrow

- (opposite of prophase)
- Cleavage furrow, division of a cell’s
cytoplasm and organelles

Cytokinesis ​= if the cell splits into two

- part of the cell division process during
which the cytoplasm of a single
eukaryotic cell divides into two
daughter cells.

(Meiosis)
Prophase I
= 2 chromosomes will combine to form a tetrad
= 4 chromatids

Metaphase I
= tetrads move

Anaphase
= tetrads split & chromosomes move to the
opposite

Telophase
= formation of cleavage furrow

~ overall ~
Mitosis ​= identical cells, chromosomes form
Meiosis ​= different cells, tetrads form

Diploid ​= 46 chromosomes
Haploid​ = 23 chromosomes