7.

3 Linear and Angular E

H
Electrohydraulic
actuator
Single mode
controller
Positioning of Machinery
M Motor
Three-mode
D. S. NYCE (2005)
Position controller
PT
transducer

Velocity
VT
transducer

Flow sheet symbols

Range: Linear position: Linear motion is typically driven through the use of a leadscrew,
ballscrew, or worm drive, which are available with ranges from less than an inch
(< 25 mm) to over 20 ft ( > 6 m). Linear sensors for position feedback in the lower
range include LVDTs, magnetic, and optical encoders. Longer stroke linear feedback
devices include encoders and magnetostrictive position transducers. Optical encoders
are practical up to 6 ft (2 m). Magnetostrictive position transducers can be used up
to 60 ft (20 m).
Angular position: Gearboxes are normally used to transmit rotary motion, but direct
drive is also used. The motion, often driven by a stepper or DC motor, can be 0–360°,
or can be multiturn or continuous rotation. Typical angular feedback sensors have a
range of 270–360° rotation, and when using a 360° sensor, the turns can be counted
for multiturn applications.

Inaccuracy: A complete control loop for one axis of motion comprises several components,
typically including a motor, motor driver, controller, and one or more feedback
elements. The position inaccuracy is the sum of errors from all the above-listed
components. There are both static and dynamic sources of error. Generally speaking,
inaccuracy can range from about 1.0%, in systems where speed or cost are the driving
factors, down to less than 0.01% where precision is the main consideration.

Costs: A combination of motor and controller can range from less than $200 for a stepper
motor and open-loop printed circuit controller card, to well over $1000 for a linear
motion stage with motor, driver, controller, and feedback element.

Partial List of Suppliers: Advanced Motion Controls (a-m-c.com)

AMCI (amci.com/motion.asp)
Bosch Rexroth (boschrexroth.com)
Cleveland Motion Controls (cmccontrols.com)
Control Technology Corp. (ctc-control.com)
Galil (galilmc.com)
Heidenhain (heidenhain.com)
Maxon Precision Motors (mpm.maxonmotor.com)
Micromo Electronics (micromo.com)
MTS Systems Corp. (Temposonics.com)
National Instruments (ni.com)
Newport (newport.com)
Oregon Microsystems (omsmotion.com)
Ormec Systems (ormec.com)
Portescap Danaher (Danaher.com)
Revolution Sensor Company (rev.bz)
Simple Step (simplestep.com)
Solutions Cubed (solutions-cubed.com)
The Motion Store (themotionstore.com)

1375

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1376 Regulators and Final Control Elements

OPEN- AND CLOSED-LOOP POSITIONING
Movable components of industrial machinery can require
positioning in relation to the three linear axes (x, y, and z),
and in rotations about these same axes. Normally, for a par-
ticular movable component, the motion is desired in relation
to only one or two axes, and the machine is designed to
minimize unwanted motion in relation to the remaining axes.
Positioning systems can use either an open-loop or a
closed-loop control system. In an open-loop system, such as
can be built utilizing a stepper motor or piezoelectric actuator,
the drive system can output a precise predetermined command
for movement. In such a system, moving to a new position
then is accomplished by consecutively executing a given num-
ber of predetermined steps. In open-loop positioning, there is
no sensor that is continuously detecting the resulting position,
and therefore no control is exercised during the move. The
motion continues until the control input is discontinued, or
until a limit switch is activated.
In closed-loop motion control, the position of the moving
part is continuously detected and reported. Based on this
feedback, the position and velocity of movement can both be
controlled. The reported position can be continuously com-
pared to the desired position, and the component can be
moved in a direction that will reduce the error. This is called
servo control. Figure 7.3a shows a block diagram of a basic
closed-loop motion control loop, which continues to adjust
the component’s positions, from the beginning of the motion
until it is completed as commanded.
The input (or desired) position is compared to the actual
position, which is reported by the feedback device. The dif-
ference between these positions is the error, E. The error
signal can be positive or negative, where the sign indicates
the direction. The error signal is amplified (the amplification
factor is called gain) and used to drive the motor.
The complete control system for positioning on an actual
control axis includes several levels of control loops, which
are acting in a synchronized manner, as shown in Figure 7.3b.
The intermediate control loops are called embedded loops,
and together they guarantee that the original command for a
specified movement is correctly completed.
In this example, the position input (set point) is compared
to the detected actual position by the feedback sensor. The
detected difference is used to generate a velocity command.
A differentiator determines the actual rate of change in
Position loop Velocity loop Motor driver
current loop
+ + +
Motor
− − −
Position FB Velocity
Current FB
FB P
V
FIG. 7.3b
Motion system with embedded loops.
the position of the controlled component. This derivative of
the position feedback signal is used as the velocity feedback.
The velocity error (the difference between the desired and the
actual velocities) becomes the input to the motor driver. The
motor driver is provided with a current feedback from the DC
motor circuit to maintain continuous control of the motor.
Any command for a movement that is executed under
closed-loop control will result in a motion profile. This profile
defines how the component is intended to be moved. Figure 7.3c
illustrates a standard trapezoidal velocity profile.
In Figure 7.3c, the velocity is zero when the component
to be moved is in its starting position, but is not moving yet.
As time passes, the velocity of the component is ramped up
at a constant acceleration until a limiting velocity is reached.
This velocity remains constant until the desired end (stop-
ping) position is approached. When it does, the velocity is
reduced at a constant rate of deceleration until zero velocity
is reached as the moved element arrives at the end position.
POSITIONING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
In closed-loop systems for positioning of industrial machin-
ery, one of the components used is a motor or actuator. The
motor driver receives its commands from a controller. When
the controller receives a command to initiate a move, it com-
pares the real-time readings of position or velocity to the
Constant
velocity

Velocity

Input + E Gain Motor Output

− Constant
acceleration

Feed Time
back Start position End position

FIG. 7.3a FIG. 7.3c

Basic block diagram of a closed-loop motion control system. The standard velocity profile is trapezoidal.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták


desired values in the move command and sends the appro-
priate signal to the motor driver.
The motor driver adjusts the driving current (or other
power source used) to operate the motor in the direction and
at the rate that are commanded by the controller. The motor
moves the machine axis, and one or more feedback devices
report the actual position and speed back to the controller.
The components in such control loops will be described in
more detail in the following paragraphs.
Motors and Actuators
The power supply required for moving components can be
electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic. Of the three, electric
drives are the most popular.
Hydraulic actuators are fast and powerful and can provide
stiffness. These properties result from the incompressibility of
the hydraulic fluid and from the energy stored as the momen-
tum of the moving fluid, but the use of hydraulic actuators also
necessitates the use of hydraulic pumps and plumbing. The
disadvantages of hydraulic actuators is their greater space
requirement, audible noise, and potential for leakage.
Pneumatic actuators are not as powerful or fast as hydrau-
lic ones, but can still handle the less demanding applications
that do not require much stiffness in the holding position.
Compared to hydraulic designs, one advantage of the pneu-
matic actuators is that they do not leak oil.
Electric motors and actuators are the most widely used
and are available in the largest variation of designs. The elec-
tric motor can either be synchronous types of stepper motors
utilizing permanent magnet, variable reluctance and hybrid
designs, or DC motors of the brushed or brushless types.
Electric Motors
Permanent Magnet Stepper Because opposite magnetic poles
attract and like ones repel each other, stepper motors can use
magnetic fields to move a rotor with respect to a stator by the
exploitation of magnetic attraction and repulsion. An electrical
pulse sent to a stepper motor causes it to rotate by a small
amount, or step. The number of pulses received results in a
corresponding amount of motion, and the frequency of the
pulses determines the speed of that motion.
In a permanent magnet-type stepper, the permanent mag-
nets are located on the rotor. The movement of the rotor
magnets is caused by the magnetic fields of the stator coil
windings. By energizing four stator fields in sequence, rota-
tion at 90° intervals is achieved. Some permanent magnet
steppers use 45° steps.
Externally mounted electronic circuits direct which stator
windings will receive each pulse. This pulse direction or
switching is called commutation. When at rest and receiving
no pulses, the stepper has a holding torque that tends to main-
tain the last position, even when no power is being applied.
Variable Reluctance Stepper Variable reluctance steppers
have many more poles of permeable material on the rotor. These
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
7.3 Linear and Angular Positioning of Machinery 1377
are formed by teeth, each of which forms a permanent magnetic
pole when energized by the nearby stator coil. The teeth align
themselves with the respective poles of the stator windings.
This provides a finer resolution per step, typically 15° or less.
Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Hybrid synchronous steppers
have a high number of permanent magnetic teeth on the rotor,
with an equally high number of teeth magnetized by the stator
windings. The stator windings can be driven in either direc-
tion, forming either a North or South magnetic pole. This
further improves resolution over either the permanent magnet
or variable reluctance types of stepper motors.
Microstepping Even higher angular resolution is possible
through a technique called microstepping. Instead of applying
full power to one set of windings and no power to the others,
microstepping involves the provision of percentages of power
to more than one set of windings. This enables the determina-
tion of positions in-between the normal steps. When microstep-
ping, more power is used due to the powering of more coils
at any given time. Also, there is no holding torque in a
microstepped position when power is lost (the holding torque
will act to maintain the closest normal step position).
Brushed DC Motors The brushed DC motor has been
around for a long time. It is simple and cheap, and its speed
and torque are easily controlled. The magnetic field of the
stator (stationary field) is produced by field windings or by
permanent magnets.
Most DC motors of up to a few horsepower are made by
using permanent magnets for the stator field. The armature
field is the moving field associated with the rotating shaft. It
is generated by windings on the rotor. Due to the two mag-
netic fields of the stator and rotor, the rotor moves toward
alignment of the fields (North attracting South poles). A
larger number of poles in the rotor and stator fields results
in a more smoothly operating motor.
The electric current powering the rotor fields must be
constantly switched as pole alignment is approached, in order
to maintain rotation. The switching is called commutation.
A set of stationary conductive brushes rubs onto contacts
near one end of the rotating shaft to provide connection to
the rotor coils.
Torque is easy to control because it is directly related to
the armature current. Speed is easy to control because it is
related to the voltage. One disadvantage of DC brushed
motors is the wear of the brush material, requiring mainte-
nance and generating dust. Another is the electrical noise
generated during the commutation. In addition, it is difficult
to maintain smooth operation when controlling at low speeds.
Brushless DC Motors Brushless DC motors have most of
the same attributes as the brushed type, except that they do
not have brush wear. They are more expensive and more
complex because of the electronics of the brushless commu-
tation. They operate in the same way as a brushed type, but
1378 Regulators and Final Control Elements
use sensors to indicate the rotational position of the arma-
ture. The armature field is generated by permanent magnets,
and the stator fields use coil windings. When the armature
sensors indicate that the next set of stator field windings
need to be energized, an electronic switching circuit makes
the change.
Motor Drivers
Once the motor type and size are selected, a suitable motor
driver is needed. The motor driver must accommodate the
performance and power requirements of the specific motor
to be used. This relationship can be complex.
The motor driver is an amplifier that converts the signal
from the controller into the voltage and current signals
needed to drive the particular motor type. It is usually best
to select a compatible motor driver model that is supplied or
recommended by the motor manufacturer. Sometimes the
motor driver is mounted inside the motor housing, so that the
motor and drive are purchased as a single unit.
Controllers
The positioning servo controllers can use the types of position
and velocity control loops that were shown in Figures 7.3b
and 7.3c or can use proportional, integral, derivative (PID)
controls.
In a proportional-only controller (P), the controller output
is equal to the error signal multiplied by the gain (the gain
is usually signified as “A”), as was shown in Figure 7.3a. So,
the farther away the positioned component is from the desired
(commanded) position, the greater will be the amplitude of
the motor drive output signal.
The gain can be set high in order to obtain a fast response,
but this can result in more overshoot, which occurs if the
motion continued past the commanded position and has to
come back in order to reach it. If the gain is set low, then the
positioning accuracy may suffer because the positioning is
too slow or there is not enough power to overcome friction
and reach the exact position as commanded.
A PID control solves these problems, because it does not
only respond to the state at the moment, but its integral
mode also looks at the past history or error, while its derivative
mode predicts and corrects for potential future errors. The
derivative mode responds to the rate of change of position so
that the speed of changing the position can be increased faster
than that which is possible with proportional gain control only.
The integral function responds to the lower frequency require-
ments, including that of a steady state, to apply enough restor-
ing force to reach and maintain the desired final position. In
a PID control, the proportional, integral, and derivative modes
are all incorporated into the gain function, A.
Sensors for Feedback
In a closed-loop control system, position feedback to the
controller is required. For velocity feedback either a velocity
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
sensor can be used, or the velocity can be obtained by taking
the derivative of the position signal. Popular position feed-
back devices include potentiometers, optical and magnetic
encoders, linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs),
and magnetostrictive position transducers. Potentiometers
and encoders can be linear or rotary.
A rotary type of LVDT is called a rotary variable differ-
ential transformer (RVDT). It is possible to make rotary
magnetostrictive position transducers, but these are not com-
mon as yet. Magnetostrictive position transducers are nor-
mally used only for linear measurements. They are very cost
effective for longer strokes, because the rod assembly is
relatively inexpensive when compared to the electronics
head.
Potentiometers Potentiometers detect the position by mak-
ing physical contact with the moving component. A potenti-
ometer utilizes a conductive element and a metallic contact
that traverses over the range of positions that the measured
component can travel. It is a contact device, meaning that the
metal contact rubs against the resistive element. This also
means that the contact and element are subject to wear during
normal use.
There are three electrical connections to a potentiometer,
whether it is a linear or a rotary measuring device. Two
connections are made to the ends of the resistive element,
and the third to the moving contact, called the wiper. The
resistive element is mounted in a housing that includes an
internal structure to guide the wiper carrier for even wiper
contact along the element surface. An actuator rod is often
attached to the wiper carrier, and this is used to provide a
mechanical connection to the moving part that is to be mea-
sured (Figure 7.3d).
A DC voltage is normally applied across the resistive
element, and the voltage of the wiper is the position mea-
surement signal. Some potentiometers can have a calibrated
accuracy on the order of 0.1%, but the wear of the rubbing
parts can require frequent maintenance. Potentiometers are
used in lower cost systems where long-term reliability is not
as important as initial system cost. The other position sensors
listed here are noncontact, so they have nearly unlimited
lifetime.
Actuator rod End cap
with nuts
Motion axis
End cap with Movable mounting feet
bearing and wipe
Mounting foot rail
FIG. 7.3d
Components of a linear potentiometer position transducer.
 7.3 Linear and Angular Positioning of Machinery 1379

1 2 3 4

A
5V
0V
B

90°

FIG. 7.3e
Incremental encoder pulse trains, showing the output trains A and
B, which are separated by 90°.
Encoders Position can be detected by optical or magnetic
encoders, which generate pulses in proportion to the amount
of movement detected. Encoders can be incremental or abso-
lute reading. An incremental encoder outputs a number of
pulses corresponding to the amount of motion. There are
usually two outputs, called A and B, that are separated in
time by 90° in order to indicate the direction of travel. This
is shown in Figure 7.3e.
The two outputs being separated by 90° are called quadra-
ture outputs. A counter counts up all of the increment and
decrement counts to arrive at the total count that represents
the present position. There are four states of the combination
of A and B levels per the 360° of one cycle. The phase
relationship between outputs A and B during a state change
indicates the direction of motion (increment or decrement of
the count).
The drawback of an incremental encoder is that the count
can be corrupted by power interruption or electrical noise.
Then, in order to restart the system, it needs to be homed in
order to re-establish the zero count position. A pictorial rep-
resentation of an incremental rotary optical encoder is shown
in Figure 7.3f.
In an optical encoder, a linear pattern or rotor disk is
provided with adjacent transparent and opaque sections, allow-
ing pulses of light to reach the detectors as the move progresses.
These light pulses produce the electrical output pulses that
indicate the linear or angular position change and direction.
An absolute encoder is more complex than an incremen-
tal one, in that it must have a number of light paths and light
Motion
axis
Incremental
encoder pattern
Light (top view)
source Transparent
Opaque
FIG. 7.3g
The outside appearance of a typical LVDT-type position sensor.
(Courtesy of Revolution Sensor Company.)
detectors equal to the number of bits of resolution, but it has
the advantage of maintaining an accurate position even
through power loss and other disturbances.
A rotary encoder is often attached to the motor shaft.
Linear encoders can be mounted so that they directly measure
the output axis, eliminating errors due to gear backlash.
Although Figure 7.3f illustrates an encoder with optical
sensors, encoders are also available with magnetic sensors.
In a linear magnetic encoder, a tape is laid out along the axis
of the motion and read by a reading head that moves with
that axis. Alternatively, the tape and reading head can be
incorporated into a slide assembly and purchased as a unit.
LVDT A linear variable differential transformer is suitable
for measuring relatively short travel distances at high accu-
racy, in the range of microinches (or microns) to several
inches (≈100 mm). As shown in Figure 7.3g, an LVDT is
usually cylindrical in shape and is provided with a core that
moves into the center bore of the cylinder.
An LVDT consists of three symmetrically spaced coils,
1
which are carefully wound onto an insulated bobbin. As
shown in Figure 7.3h, the primary coil is in the center and it
is surrounded by the two secondary coils.
The primary coil is driven by an AC waveform, usually
a sine wave of 250 Hz to 10 kHz. The two secondaries are
connected in series-bucking so that the output is also an AC
waveform. The secondary difference output is demodulated
and amplified to produce a DC output voltage. The output
Secondary Secondary
winding A winding B

Incremental Motion Core

Light encoder pattern
detectors (edge view) Primary winding

FIG. 7.3f FIG. 7.3h

Incremental rotary optical encoder. The primary and the two secondary windings of an LVDT.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1380 Regulators and Final Control Elements
Transducer head Position magnet 1 Position magnet 2
Probe
t1 t2
t0
FIG. 7.3i
The components of a magnetostrictive position transducer.
voltage amplitude indicates the magnitude of the position,
and its polarity indicates the direction from the center or null.
The AC waveform generator, demodulator, and amplifier
comprise a signal conditioner. The signal conditioner may be
purchased as a separate component when using an AC LVDT.
Alternatively, if a DC LVDT can be used, it includes the
signal conditioner within the same housing as the LVDT.
Magnetostrictive Position Transducer A magnetostrictive
position transducer can have as high a resolution as 1 µ and
a range from less than an inch (< 25 mm) to over 60 ft (>
20 m). Errors as low as 0.01% of range are typical. Figure 7.3i
illustrates that it consists of a transducer head, a probe sec-
tion, and one or more position magnets.
The transducer probe houses a waveguide made from mag-
netostrictive material and measures the location of a permanent
magnet called the position magnet. A magnetostrictive material
is one that changes shape or size when magnetized.
The operating sequence is such that at time t0 in Figure
7.3i, the electronics module within the transducer head
applies a current pulse to the waveguide, which forms a
magnetic field around it. At the location of the position mag-
net, the interaction of the two fields imparts a mechanical
torsion onto the waveguide due to the vector sum of the fields.
The torsional force travels as a sonic wave along the length of
the waveguide at a speed of approximately 9000 ft/s (3000 m/s).
For each measurement cycle, one current pulse is applied,
which instantaneously forms a magnetic field on the full
length of the waveguide. The torsion pulse is generated at
the location of the position magnet.
At the time of applying the current pulse, an electronic
timer is also started. When the above-mentioned sonic wave
2
is detected at the transducer head, the timer is stopped. The
elapsed time indicates the location of the position magnet
(time t1 or t1 + t2, in Figure 7.3i).
The update sequence can occur at frequencies of up to
4 kHz, depending on the length of the sensing probe. Mag-
netostrictive position transducers are accurate and are very
cost effective, especially for longer stroke lengths of over
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
3 ft (> 1 m). They also have the capability to read the location
of more than one position magnet while using only one
sensing probe. This reduces system cost.
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
Positioning systems can use a network communication config-
uration, where the components operate as nodes on a network.
Alternatively, they can use a direct backplane interface, where
the motion control system uses a PC card that plugs into a
PC bus. Wireless communication networks are not yet fast
enough to allow these sensors to be used in closed-loop
position control.
Network communications protocols include ARCnet,
CANbus, Device net (a version of CANbus), Ethernet, Profi-
bus, IEEE 1394 (Firewire), IEEE 1451, Interbus-S, SERCOS,
and Seriplex, among others.
PC bus-type protocols include the normal backplane
ISA/EISA (PC-XT/AT) connection for a PC, Mac PCI
(Nubus) for Macintosh computers, Multibus, PC 104, PCI
bus, compact PCI (cPCI) bus, PCMCIA, VME bus, and VXI.
Each of the above communication protocols have fairly
sophisticated definitions, and so the reader is directed to
contact the product manufacturers to determine which are
available in the specified product, and to learn about the
advantages offered by each in the particular application. For
a detailed description of network and bus protocols, the
reader can also refer to the third volume of this handbook,
Process Software and Digital Networks.
CONCLUSIONS
A motion control system comprises of a matched set of
components including a motor, motor drive, feedback device,
controller, and software. The best approach to implementing
such a system is to first specify a motor and drive that are
capable of meeting the performance requirements. Once they
are specified, select the remaining parts of the system to
match the requirements of the motor and drive combination
with the help of their manufacturer, because the manufac-
turer can select the compatible components for optimum
performance.
Often a custom system will be used. In addition to the
performance of the control axis, networking capability, user
interface, and environmental considerations should also be
addressed.
References
1. Herceg, E., Handbook of Measurement and Control, New Jersey:
Schaevitz Engineering, 1976, pp. 3–11.
2. Nyce, D. S., Linear Position Sensors, Theory and Application, New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003, p. 140.

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Lloyd, T. C., Electric Motors and their Applications, New York: John Wiley
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7.3 Linear and Angular Positioning of Machinery 1381
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