9 Consideration of X/R ratio in the application of high-voltage circuit-breakers

9.1 Introduction

The considerations given in this section are based on the assigned ratings of the circuit-
breaker. Since the asymmetrical current on at least one phase associated with interrupting a
three-phase fault may be the maximum peak current that a circuit-breaker has to interrupt,
this has to be carefully evaluated. The current is said to be asymmetrical since it consists of
two components: an a.c. component and a d.c. component. The d.c. component arises
because there is no instantaneous change in the flux levels possible in magnetic circuits
associated with a sudden short-circuit on the system. The short-circuit requires an
instantaneous change in the current level from what had been the load current to the much
greater short-circuit current. The magnetic circuits are associated with the iron flux circuits
found on the system in the generators and transformers. For asymmetrical current the basis of
rating is a d.c. time constant of 45 ms [1].

The purpose of this section is to explore the implications of applications with d.c. time
constants other than 45 ms. However, in doing this the scope must be limited since the
amplitude, duration and the di/dt at current zero all change as the d.c. time constant changes.
In general higher asymmetry results in a lower du/dt and peak value of the TRV, reducing the
stress during the dielectric recovery. This fact has been disregarded in this section and
therefore the results can be considered conservative. The end result should be a reasonable
approximation of the assigned rating. IEC 62271-100 introduces tolerances for testing
purposes during the arcing interval on peak current amplitude and duration of ±10 % of rating
on the last loop of current prior to interruption. There is an additional restriction if the
tolerances on current amplitude cannot be fulfilled that the product “Ixt”, “I” being the required
peak value of the last short-circuit current loop and “t” being the required duration of the last
short-circuit current loop, is between 81 % and 121 % of the required values.

The application of generator circuit-breakers is beyond the scope of these considerations.

With applications close to generators the possibility of delayed current zeros may occur. This
generally occurs when the generator is lightly loaded and is operating with a leading power
factor. When the generator is carrying load with a lagging power factor the asymmetry is
generally lower and delayed current zeros are not expected. Additional information on this
subject is given in [2].

9.2 Network reduction

The rate of decay of the d.c. decrement is usually expressed as a time constant. As it turns
out the effective X/R ratio at the point of fault defines this time constant. While in reality there
will be a decrement in both the a.c. and d.c. components of the short circuit current, for
purposes of this examination the decrement of the a.c. current is ignored.

It should be noted that the effective X/R ratio is not the simple ratio of the R-jX typically
obtained by network reduction short-circuit programs. Experience has shown that using the R
and X values obtained by the typical network reduction short-circuit program will give the
correct short-circuit current. However, the d.c. time constant based on the ratio of these
values will generally be less than the correct value.

The IEEE application guide C37.010 [3] suggests that the network reduction be done by
making the R and X reductions separately. This greatly simplifies the work when calculations
are done manually. It also results in a conservative time constant. An E lectro M agnetic
T ransient P rogram (EMTP) used for this type reduction should provide a correct answer.
However, this is a very sophisticated program generally requiring personnel skilled in its daily
use to obtain satisfactory results.

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9.3 Special case time constants

With the publication of the first edition of IEC 62271-100 the explicit concept of a circuit-
breaker being able to deal with X/R ratios or time constants other then the standard time
constant of 45 ms was introduced for the first time. IEC 62271-100 specifies additional
“special cases time constants” of 60, 75 and 120 ms in subclause 4.101.2. In 4.101.2 b) the
following insight is provided:

• 120 ms for rated voltages up to and including 52 kV;

• 60 ms for rated voltages from 72,5 kV up to and including 420 kV;
• 75 ms for rated voltages 550 kV and above.

For application of circuit-breakers on power systems IEC 62271-100 calls attention to the fact
that not all applications fall within the confines of existing standards. This is a logical
extension for the following reasons:

- The lower voltage circuit-breakers will frequently be applied close to generation or step
down transformers which exposes the circuit-breakers in such locations to the much
longer time constants. Medium voltage circuit-breakers will most often be applied in
substations with occasionally one being close to a step-down or step-up transformer at the
time of fault initiation. This reflects less expected exposure and lower probability of short-
circuit current levels near the circuit-breaker rating.
- At the higher voltages bundled conductors may be used and the circuit-breaker again may
be close to transformers. The bundled or larger diameter conductors will contribute to the
higher X/R ratio. At the same time in terms of circuit-breaker rating these same circuit-
breakers may be remote enough on the system that the actual short-circuit current seen
by the circuit-breaker is significantly reduced below the actual circuit-breaker ratings.

For the circuit-breaker application engineer this raises the question of how to evaluate the
individual applications. This section tries to provide some guidance.

9.4 Guidance for selecting a circuit-breaker

To evaluate the effect of different d.c. time constants some general observations can be
made. For cases in which the actual short circuit current is less but the d.c. time constant is
greater the di/dt of the current and the amplitude of the minor loop will be less than the rated
value. The arc energy represented by the area of the major loop of current is probably one of
the most important considerations. The amplitude and duration of the major loop of current
are directly related to the d.c. time constant. Also of importance is the total arc energy
represented by the total area measured from the point of circuit-breaker contact separation to
final arc extinction.

In an effort to evaluate the effect of different d.c. time constants the time constants of 45 ms,
the standard, and extended time constants of 60, 75, 90 and 120 ms were examined. The
addition of 90 ms was made to provide a uniform spread in the data to be developed for
comparison.

The methodology to evaluate the effect of different time constants is as follows:

a) Solve Equation 15 for the total current assuming no a.c. decrement over a range of time
(t) sufficient for the period of interest.

⎛ − 2πft ⎞
itotal = ⎜⎜ e τ − cos(2πft ) ⎟⎟ 2 × i (15)
⎝ ⎠
where i total is the total current
f is the power frequency

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