Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Techno-economic assessment of the sustainability of an integrated T

biorefinery from microalgae and Jatropha: A review and case study
⁎
Adewale Giwaa, , Idowu Adeyemia, Abdallah Dindia, Celia García-Baños Lopeza,
Catia Giovanna Loprestob, Stefano Curciob, Sudip Chakrabortyb
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Masdar Institute, P.O. Box 54224, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
b
Department of DIMES, University of Calabria, Via- P. Bucci, Cubo 42/A, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this paper, a detailed review on the recent advances in the production of biofuels and biochemicals from
Sustainability microalgae and Jatropha is presented. This review includes critical elements of the sustainability of microalgae
Biorefinery and Jatropha biorefineries such as technical analysis, socioeconomic considerations, and environmental impact
Microalgae, Jatropha assessments that are reported in recent studies. The integration of microalgae and Jatropha as viable feedstock
Biodiesel
for the production of biofuels and biochemicals which may serve as sustainable alternatives to fossils fuels and
Biofuel
petrochemicals is also modeled using SuperPro designer. A technoeconomic assessment of the integrated bior-
efinery is carried out. United Arab Emirates (UAE) is considered as a geographical reference for the technoe-
conomic assessment. Three scenarios are examined. All scenarios involve the production of biodiesel and gly-
cerol. In addition to these two products, the production of animal feed, organic fertilizer and biogas is considered
in scenario 1. In scenario 2, the biorefinery products include bioethanol, organic fertilizer and biogas. Scenario 3
involves the production of hydrogen and animal feed. Scenario 1 is the base case, with which other scenarios are
compared. Scenario 1 is profitable but scenarios 2 and 3 are not profitable. In addition, emissions from scenario 2
make it less attractive when it is compared to other scenarios. The integrated biorefinery with microalgae and
Jatropha as feedstock is technically feasible and economically profitable in scenario 1, as modeled.

1. Introduction
The environmental impact of carbon emissions is costing the world
more than $1.2 trillion a year, removing 1.6% annually from global
GDP [1]. Global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) increased by 3% as
at 2011, reaching an all-time high of 34 billion tonnes [2]. Alongside
other greenhouse gases (GHGs), carbon emissions absorb the sun's heat
that is radiated back from the earth's surface and warm the planet.
These gases are said to have caused a global mean temperature rise of
0.8 °C since the early 20th century. The rise in temperature has resulted
in greater melting of polar ice caps, elevated sea levels, extreme
weather conditions, and severe health problems [3]. CO2 accounts for
about 80% of the world's GHGs and despite agreements of countries in
treaties such as United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCC), carbon emissions into the environment remain sig-
nificantly high as evident. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) has predicted a global temperature rise of 0.3 °C per
decade for the next two decades and a mean global temperature in-
crease of up 2–6 °C on the 2000 levels by the end of the 21st century
(Fig. 1) [4]. Fig. 1 shows the projection obtained via climate models for
the business-as-usual emissions scenario, with different equilibrium
climate sensitivities categorized as high, best and low estimates. About
four-fifth of the world's total energy is obtained from fossil fuels [5].
GHGs from fossil fuels allow the incoming solar radiation to pass
through the atmosphere but are opaque to the outgoing terrestrial ra-
diation, thereby heating up the space between the surface and mid-
troposphere.
The future of carbon emission reduction seems to lie in cutting-edge
technologies that can ensure innovative energy generation. What the
world needs now in order to forestall the imminent dangers of climate
change and pollution health impact is to provide advanced technologies
and innovative engineering solutions to curtail the release and spread of
carbon emissions in the environment. The adverse outcomes of the
exploitation and application of fossil fuels have necessitated the de-
velopment of renewable energy sources. Sequel to the rapid population
increase and massive industrialization in many parts of the world, there
is also a need for the development of clean energy sources to meet
energy demand, halt unstable fuel prices, and preserve non-renewable

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: agiwa@masdar.ac.ae (A. Giwa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.02.032
Received 7 February 2017; Received in revised form 29 November 2017; Accepted 27 February 2018
Available online 12 March 2018
1364-0321/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Giwa et al.
Fig. 1. IPCC's projection of global temperature increase [6].
crude oil reserves. The development of these renewable energy sources
requires the consideration of the food-fuel competition. Although,
nowadays, renewable energy economy can be based on wind, sun,
water, biomass, and nuclear materials, biomass is of particular interest
because of the gains of carbon neutrality from biomass sources when
environmentally friendly processes and equipment are used in biomass
generation (such that the energy returned on energy invested is also
sufficiently high) [7].
The intricate carbon linkages and organic functionality imparts
important attributes of relevance to biomass [8]. These biochemical
attributes and alignments in biomass can be used to synthesize func-
tional chemicals or bio-based products, which can enormously decrease
the energy required in the chemical synthesis chain. The environmental
credit allocated to these chemicals will also ensure significant pollution
reduction, when compared with other renewable energy materials and
processes. However, authenticating the credit allocation requires com-
prehensive investigation and assessment. The success of biofuels and
bio-chemicals as alternative energy sources will depend on the avail-
ability of required biomass in the location of choice. A sustainable
biofuel should offer a net energy gain and be producible in abundant
amounts without hindering food supplies.
Many countries have announced plans to increase the share con-
tributed by renewable energy to the total energy consumed in the
countries. For example, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) plans to gen-
erate 24% of its electricity from clean energy sources by 2021, ac-
cording to the agreement signed by the country at the COP21 United
Nations Climate Change Conference in December 2015 [9]. One person
is added to the population of the largest emirate – Abu Dhabi Emirate –
alone every two minutes, necessitating increasing energy demand over
the years [10]. But why would Abu Dhabi, an emirate which generated
52 TW h of electrical power as against consumption of 49.3 TW h in
2013 (and has generated more energy than that demanded over the
years), be interested in increasing its energy surplus via renewables
[11]? The answer to this question is not far-fetched – the 8% of global
crude oil reserves resident in Abu Dhabi can only last for 100 years if
current production rate is sustained coupled with threats of environ-
mental pollution. And even if the argument for the deployment of re-
newables seems credible, why should the emirate venture into biomass
processing for sustainable energy supply when there is availability of
vast solar resource, i.e. global horizontal irradiance up to 1000 W/m2 in
the emirate [12]? The development of biomass processing techniques in
the emirate seems economically viable as a result of the higher Energy
Return on Energy Invested (EROI) offered by biomass, depending on the
type of feedstock and farming technique, as compared to solar panels
[13,14]. Therefore, the search for inedible biomass that does not need
fresh water or high energy input is important for the contribution of
biomass to UAE's energy sustainability.
Therefore, the overall objective of this paper is to provide a detailed
overview of microalgae and Jatropha biorefinery independently and
propose the integration of microalgae and Jatropha as viable feedstocks
for the production of biofuels and biochemicals which may serve as
sustainable alternatives to fossils fuels and petrochemicals in the UAE.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257
The techno-economic feasibility of the integrated biorefinery is also
modeled and analyzed, i.e. in terms of the bioenergy generated,
quantities and economic values of bio-products, and cost-benefit ana-
lysis. Microalgae and Jatropha have been selected as feedstock for the
production of biofuels and biochemicals for the UAE in this paper be-
cause of the special benefits they can offer to the country. The UAE's
climate is characterized by low precipitation and high evaporation rate
[15]. The consequence of the aridity in the UAE is the highly limited
availability of fresh water resources and the sourcing of the largest
percentage of treated water from saline groundwater and seawater.
Microalgae are well suited for these conditions because they can grow
on non-arable land using saline water or treated wastewater and under
plenty of sunlight available in the UAE. Microalgae growth also requires
CO2; therefore, the autotrophic nature of microalgae aids the seques-
tration of CO2 from air. Microalgae can be planted near petroleum re-
fineries which are abundant in UAE. Similarly, Jatropha can withstand
very arid conditions and can capture up to 25 t of atmospheric CO2 per
hectare every year for 20 years [16]. The special characteristics of
microalgae and Jatropha for the peculiar environmental conditions in
the UAE make them to be viable biorefinery feedstocks in the country.
2. Overview of microalgae and Jatropha biorefineries
2.1. Microalgae as biomass for biorefinery
Microalgae exhibit higher growth rate and faster biomass re-
production than most energy crops. This biomass is commonly doubled
within 24 h and the doubling time during exponential growth could be
about 3.5 h [17,18]. Microalgae are photosynthetic biomass that can be
produced from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. Biodiesel derived
from microalgal oil, biomethane produced by the anaerobic digestion of
microalgae biomass, and biohydrogen are some of the biofuels that can
be obtained from microalgae. The cultivation of microalgae does not
require agricultural land; hence the environmental strain resulting from
land use during microalgae cultivation is reduced. Proteins, carbohy-
drates, lipids, and nucleic acids are contained in microalgae in different
amounts, according to microalgal species [19–21]. Proteins and car-
bohydrates can be used for ethanol production whereas lipids can be
converted into biodiesel. The carbohydrate content in microalgae can
be up to 50% while the lipid content can be greater than 70% by weight
of dry algal in some cases [22,23].
These cases are the situations whereby appropriate type of micro-
algal strain, suitable photobioreactor design, and proper cultivation
conditions are employed. Some species such as Chlorella, Dunaliella,
Chlamydomonas and Scenedesmus have been reported to accumulate
more than 50% starch based on their dry cell weight [24]. In particular,
Chlorella vulgaris can accumulate a large amount of carbohydrates, up to
55% of its dry biomass [25]. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Scene-
desmus obliquus can also exhibit carbohydrate content of more than 50%
[26,27]. Various cultivation strategies, such as nitrogen depletion, use
of appropriate irradiance, temperature and pH variations, and CO2
enhancement have been shown to boost the carbohydrate content of
microalgal strains [24]. Nitrogen starvation is one of the most efficient
approaches because proteins or peptides are converted to carbohydrates
or lipids under this condition. For example, C. vulgaris has been shown
to exhibit 55% carbohydrate content after 14 days cultivation in a low-
nitrogen medium [25]. Also, the carbohydrate content of S. obliquus
could reach 51.8% after 3 day under nitrogen depletion [27]. The
cultivation of Tetraselmis suecica under nitrogen starvation could ensure
significant increase in the cellular carbohydrate content from 10% to
57% [28]. The effect of temperature and pH on carbohydrate accu-
mulation in microalgae depends on the microalgal strains used. For
example, the maximum carbohydrate accumulation in D. bardawil and
C. ellipsoidea was reported to occur at pH 7.5 and 9.0, respectively [29].
Carbohydrate accumulation in microalgae can also be improved by
increasing the percentage of CO2 in the inlet gas [30].
A. Giwa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257

Table 1 density are required [35,36].

Lipid contents (% dry wt) of microalgae species [40]. The lipid contents (% dry wt) of microalgae species are shown in
Table 1. After recovery of lipids, the residual biomass from biodiesel
Microalgae specie Oil content (% dry wt)
production processes can be utilized as animal feed or used in produ-
Botryococcus braunii 25–75 cing biomethane through anaerobic digestion. The methane obtained
Chlorella sp. 28–32 can then be used to produce the electrical power required to run the
Crypthecodinium cohnii 20
biodiesel processing facility. In some cases, excess power is produced
Cylindrotheca sp. 16–37
Dunaliella primolecta 23 and this can be sold to augment the cost of biodiesel production. This
Isochrysis sp. 25–33 means that biodiesel, biogas, animal feed and electrical power can be
Monallanthus salina ˃20 produced at the same time from microalgal biorefinery [37–39].
Nannochloris sp. 20–35 The optimum compositions and growth rate of microalgae depend
Nannochloropsis sp. 31–68
on the species. Currently, the microalgal market is dominated by
Neochloris oleoabundans 35–54
Nitzschia sp. 45–47 Chlorella, Spirulina and Dunaliella. Of the factors which affect the bio-
Phaeodactylum tricornutum 20–30 chemical composition and convertibility of microalgae including tem-
Schizochytrium sp. 50–77 perature, CO2, salinity, sunlight, pH, nutrient concentration, O2, and
Tetraselmis sueica 15–23
toxic products for microbes, light and temperature are most crucial
synergistic factors [41,42]. The optimum temperatures for growth are
The strategic advantages of using biodiesel are many: one, it is a 25–27 °C for Rhodomonas sp., and 27–30 °C for Prymnesiophyte (NT19),
renewable source of energy that can be obtained from inedible oils; Cryptomonas sp., Chaetoceros sp., and Isochrysis sp. [43]. The growth
two, it is eco-friendly and less polluting than fossil fuels; and finally, it rates of Nannochloropsis oceanica increased with increasing light in-
can make a significant contribution to develop a nation's energy se- tensity at approximately 28 °C but they are insensitive to variations in
curity. Using biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine substantially light intensity at lower temperatures [44]. Meanwhile, CO2 has also
reduces emissions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sul- been indicated as an important factor – for the production of Bo-
phates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrated polycyclic aromatic tryococcus braunii. A 20% increase in carbohydrate content and 100%
hydrocarbons, and particulate matter [31–33]. The production of bio- increase in Botryococcus braunii biomass was obtained by increasing
diesel from algal oil can ensure a decrease in CO2 emissions by 78% CO2 content from 0.5% to 2% (v/v) [45]. The isolation of Scenedesmus
when compared with emissions from petroleum diesel [34] and is more obliquus and Chlorella kessleri can also ensure good biofixation of CO2 if
suited as aviation fuel when low freezing points and high energy effluent treatment ponds are used and situated near a power plant but
biomass yield would be lower than that which will be obtained from

Fig. 2. Schematic of a simplified microalgae biorefinery showing the material inventory, stages, processes, and operational requirements [37].

241
A. Giwa et al.
closed photobioreactors [46]. The comparison of three microalgae
species (Botryococcus braunii, Chlorella vulgaris, and Scenedesmus sp.) by
Yoo et al. [47] for biodiesel production under very high CO2 input has
suggested that the functionality of the specie is a crucial factor for CO2
biofixation. Scenedesmus sp. showed the least appropriateness for CO2
mitigation whereas B. braunii showed the best appropriateness for CO2
mitigation and biodiesel production. The accumulation of lipids in
microalgae can also be enhanced under limited nitrogen conditions, as
lipids gradually change from free fatty acids to triacylglycerol under
these conditions but lower biomass yield is obtained [48]. The stages,
processes, inputs, outputs, and operational consideration in a typical
microalgal biorefinery are summarized in Fig. 2 and explained in sub-
sequent sections.
2.1.1. Cultivation and harvesting of microalgae
An issue of concern in microalgae cultivation is the reactor config-
uration for growth, i.e. whether to use photobioreactor (PBR) or open
ponds (OP). PBR has the advantages of high productivity and better
culture control while OP has the benefits of reduced construction and
maintenance costs [49,50]. OP systems might also provide high pro-
duction rates of microalgae but inconsistent rates are provided in pre-
vious studies. For example, Jiménez et al. [51] used data from a 450 m2
and 0.30 m deep raceway pond system that produces 8.2 g day−1 dry
biomass to obtain 30 t ha−1 yr−1 of dry weight of algal biomass. Becker
[52] used similar culture depth but biomass concentration of 1 g l−1 to
obtain 10–25 g m−2 day−1 of dry weight of algal biomass. Setlik et al.
[53] used an inclined open pond and obtained 25 g m−2 day−1 of dry
Chlorella from biomass concentration higher than 10 g l−1. A dry weight
of 37 t ha−1 yr−1 of mixed microalgal species was obtained by
Weissman and Tillett [54] using an outdoor open pond. In general, the
yield depends on the operating conditions and reactor configuration. A
schematic of the commonly used OP system is shown in Fig. 3.
After the paddlewheel, algae broth is fed, enabling the broth to
complete a cycle while being aerated mechanically with CO2. The
biomass is harvested before the paddlewheel so that the cycle can be
started again. Selecting the pathway with the best energy yields with a
view to maximizing profitability is of importance [55]. The ideal algal
strain selected for biofuel production should possess high lipid re-
coverability, efficient ability to compete favorably with contaminant
microbes during cultivation, good CO2 absorbing properties, low ni-
trogen requirements, tolerance to pH changes especially if grown under
wastewater conditions and temperature variations, tolerance to SOx
and NOx gases if flue gas is used as CO2 source, minimal difficulty in
harvesting via spontaneous settling and bio-flocculation properties, and
ability to produce co-products [56–58].
A very important phase of the microalgae biorefinery which
Fig. 3. A raceway pond (plan view) [40].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257
accounts for 20–30% of the cultivation costs is the recovery and har-
vesting of the biomass. Some strains such as cyanobacterium Spirulina
are naturally easier to harvest. Cyanobacterium Spirulina has long spiral
shape and can be harvested via energy-efficient microscreen [59,60].
Harvesting can also be achieved through bulk harvesting directed to-
wards the separation of biomass from the bulk suspension using pro-
cesses such as flocculation, flotation or gravity sedimentation, or
thickening aimed at concentrating the suspension via higher energy-
intensive processes such as centrifugation, filtration, or ultrasonic
methods [61]. Gravity sedimentation is far cheaper than many other
harvesting methods but it is only suitable for large microalgae such as
Spirulina with size greater than 70 mm because of shear stress problems
[62]. Gravity sedimentation and filtration may not be used to harvest
microalgae less than 30 mm in size such as Scenedesmus, Dunaliella and
Chlorella [63]. For example, Coelastrum proboscideum with a con-
centration of only 27% solids could be produced using conventional
filtration processes [63]. Harvesting efficiency greater than 95% can be
achieved via centrifugation but this process is energy-intensive and
costly [64]. Newer membrane filtration processes such as ultrafiltration
can be used to achieve harvesting of biomass of smaller sizes but they
can be costlier than centrifugation due to the cost of membrane re-
placement [65]. Ultrasonic harvesting can be achieved without im-
parting shear stress on biomass and it does not cause fouling but it
creates a non-uniform pattern of energy dissipation [66,67]. Therefore,
harvesting techniques should be selected based on shape and size of
microalgal strain, and the economic value of the end products [68].
Generally, the harvested biomass needs to be dehydrated im-
mediately after harvest. Sun drying [69], freeze drying [70], drum
drying [71], spray drying [72], and fluidized bed drying [73] are some
of the typical dehydration methods. Sun drying is the cheapest but re-
quires long duration of drying while spray drying is more efficient but
more expensive. Drying above 60 °C is inefficient for the yield of tria-
cylglycerol and lipid [74]. After drying, disruption of the microalgal
cell walls via solvent extraction methods, acid or alkaline hydrolysis,
autoclaving, and high-pressure homogenisers ensure the recovery of
intracellular products from the biomass [75]. Solvent extraction tech-
niques are commonly used to extract lipids and other metabolites such
as b-carotene and astaxanthin from algal biomass. b-carotene and as-
taxanthin can be used for human immune enrichment, as sources of
pro-vitamin [76,77], and agents for food coloring [78]. b-carotene can
be obtained most abundantly from D. salina i.e. 14% dry weight [18]
whereas 1–8% astaxanthin dry weight can be obtained from H. pluvialis
[79]. The solvent used attacks the cell membrane, alters the physiolo-
gical properties of the membrane, and ensures release of the bio-pro-
ducts [79].
Astaxanthin has unique chemical properties because it contains
hydroxyl (OH) and keto (C = O) moieties on each ionone ring in the
compound [80,81]. These moieties impart unique features to astax-
anthin, such as the capability to undergo esterification, exceptional
antioxidant activity and greater degree of polarity, when compared
with other carotenoids. Microalgal sources that possess the ability to
accumulate secondary carotenoids include: Haematococcus pluvialis,
Botryococcus braunii, Chlamydomonas nivalis, Chlorella sp., Chlorococcum
sp., Chloromonas nivalis, Coelatrella striolata var. multistriata, Dunaliella
sp., Eremospherea viridis, Euglena sp., Neochloris wimmeri, Scenedesmus
sp., S. obliquus, Scenedesmus komarekii, Scotiellopsis oocystiformis, Proto-
siphn botryoides, Tetracystis intermedim and Trachelomonas volvocina. Of
these sources, the green algae Haematococcus pluvialis is very important
as an astaxanthin source because its astaxanthin content represents
90% of total carotenoids [80]. The accumulation of astaxanthin in H.
pluvialis has been observed in encysted cells [80,82,83]. The astax-
anthin in encysted H. pluvialis cells consists of approximately 70%
monoesters, 25% diesters and 5% free form. However, astaxanthin ex-
traction from other species requires many purification steps and high
processing costs; and therefore, relatively unattractive.
A. Giwa et al.
Fig. 4. Simplified microalgae biorefinery.
2.1.2. Biofuel production from harvested biomass and cake re-use
After oil extraction, biodiesel can then be produced from the oil
through trans-esterification – a process that involves the chemical re-
action between fatty acids in algal oil and alcohol in the presence of
catalyst. The residue or cake obtained after metabolites extraction can
then be further processed by thermochemical or biochemical conver-
sion to produce more co-products. Thermochemical conversion involves
the thermal degradation of the residue to generate fuel products via
processes such as direct combustion, liquefaction, gasification and
pyrolysis [84–86]. Biochemical conversion involves transformation
with the aid of micro-organisms through processes such as anaerobic
digestion, alcoholic fermentation, and photobiological production of
hydrogen [87–90]. The unit processes in microalgae biorefinery are
summarized in Fig. 4.
Anaerobic digestion can convert the organic wastes from microalgae
into biogas consisting primarily of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide
[91,92]. Biogas, alcohols, acetic acids, and volatile fatty acids are
produced by methanogens during anaerobic digestion [93]. However,
high protein content in microalgae can result in low C/N ratio in the
waste, and produce ammonia which might inhibit the performance of
the anaerobes [94]. Alcohol fermentation is best suited for wastes still
rich in carbohydrates [95] while hydrogen is best produced when eu-
karyotic microalgae are used [96]. The solid residue from biochemical
conversion can be utilized as animal feed or biofertilizer because of its
high nutrient content, or gasified [94,95]. Improved bio-immunity,
healthier skin, and higher fertility rates of animals can be achieved
when the solid residues of Chlorella, Scenedesmus and Spirulina strains
are used as animal feeds [97], especially for aquatic animals such as
molluscs, shrimps and fish [18].
The pathways for conversion of algal biomass to several end-uses
are summarized in Fig. 5.
2.1.3. Selection of strain and reactor for this study
Local factors need to be considered in algal strain selection. For this
study, Dunaliella tertiolecta has been selected because it is able to use
inorganic nutrients available in saline water or wastewater together
with sunlight and CO2 for growth [85,99]. Moreover, the strain Duna-
liella tertiolecta is a high potential microalga for biofuel production
because it is the by-product from the β-carotene production in the
People's Republic of China. It is a green flagellate with cell size of
10–12 µm which contains up to 65% lipid content depending on the
conditions of cultivation and can produce 37% oil yield [100]. It is well
suited for climatic conditions in UAE because it has high rate of CO2
utilization and possesses high tolerance to salinity, light and tempera-
ture. It is easy to cultivate with a high growth rate. Dunaliela tertiolecta
has a high protein content i.e. about half the total wet weight of the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257
microalgae consists of protein. The lignocellulosic components and
extractives in Dunaliela tertiolecta are provided in Table 2.
An open raceway pond has been selected for this study because of its
economic advantage. In an open pond, water is exposed to the sky and
sunlight, thereby ensuring that CO2 can be directly fixed. Continuous
operation of the system has been selected for this study, whereby fresh
feed is supplied ahead of the paddle. After the algal broth has passed
through the loop, it is then harvested behind the paddle. Compared to
photobioreactors, an open raceway pond is relatively cheap, easy to
clean and maintain, applicable for low energy inputs and useful when
non-agricultural lands are available [98].
2.2. Jatropha as biomass for biorefinery
Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose, perennial plant belonging to
Euphorbiaceae family. The Jatropha plant can reach a height up to 5 m
and its seed yield ranges from 7.5 to 12 t per hectare per year, after five
years of growth [102]. Jatropha is a unique and potential tropical oil
seed plant [103] and it is propagated for augmenting renewable energy
sources due to its several ecological and environmental benefits. Ja-
tropha fruits are 2.5 cm long, ovoid, black and have 2–3 halves and
contain about 35–40 wt% shell and 60–65 wt% seed [104]. It has nearly
400–425 fruits per kg and 1580–1600 seed per kg. Jatropha shells are
available after dehulling of the Jatropha fruit while Jatropha seed husks
are available after decortications of Jatropha seed for oil extraction
[105,106].
The seeds contain around 20% saturated fatty acids and 80% un-
saturated fatty acids, and they yield 25–40% oil by weight [107]. The
oil can be extracted by solvent extraction or the use of mechanical
expeller. If the oil is extracted by the solvent method, the oil recovery
might be more than 95% but in mechanical expeller, the oil recovery is
about 85% only. For example, if 100 kg of seed is expelled by expeller,
it will give about 28–30 kg oil [105]. The oil is largely made up of oleic
and linoleic acids. In addition, the seeds might yield other chemical
compounds, such as saccharous, raffinose, stachylose, glucose, fructose,
galactose and protein. Jatropha also contains curcasin, arachidic, li-
noleic, myristic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids; and curcin [107].
The interest in using Jatropha curcas as a feedstock for the produc-
tion of bio-diesel is rapidly growing [108,109]. Other components of
the fruit can be used for energy purposes [110–112]. The properties of
the crop and its oil have persuaded investors and policy makers con-
sider Jatropha as a substitute for fossil fuels to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions [106,113,114].
2.2.1. Cultivation of Jatropha
Jatropha tree is very resistant to aridity so it can be planted in hot
A. Giwa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257

Fig. 5. Conversion processes for algal biomass [98].

Table 2 water consumption rate of Jatropha is 6 L week−1 throughout the

Composition of Dunaliela tertiolecta [101]. growing season, which means that Jatropha can survive and produce
full yield with high quality seeds under minimum water requirements
Constituents % Chemical composition
compared to other crops [119].
Protein 50.3
Lipids 17.8 2.2.2. Production of Bio-diesel and other products from Jatropha
Carbohydrates 21.7 The tree produces seeds containing 27–40% inedible oil, which is
Cellulose 5.24
Others 4.96
easily convertible into biofuels. When Jatropha seeds are crushed, the
resulting Jatropha oil can be processed to produce a high-quality bio-
diesel that can be used in a standard diesel car or further processed into
and dry land in soil unsuitable for food production and in extensive jet fuel [123]. The transesterification process used to obtain biodiesel
plantations on degraded wasteland [115]. Desalinated seawater can be from Jatropha oil is shown in Eq. (1). Glycerol is also obtained from the
made available in coastal areas for Jatropha cultivation [116]. Mean- process. The fuel properties of Jatropha biodiesel are summarized in
while, soil aeration is one of the foremost considerations in the com- Table 3. The properties of Jatropha biodiesel is also compared with
mercial cultivation of Jatropha curcas. Jatropha curcas grows well in those of Jatropha oil and petroleum diesel in Table 3. Jatropha oil offers
aerated sands and loams of at least 45 cm depth. It has been reported almost the same power output with slightly lower thermal efficiency
that heavy clay soils are less suitable and should be avoided, particu-
larly where drainage is impaired or areas more susceptible to flood, as Table 3
Jatropha is intolerant of waterlogged conditions [117]. Nonetheless the Fuel properties of Jatropha oil, Jatropha biodiesel and fossil diesel [124].

plant is also known for its ability to survive in very poor dry soils in Property Jatropha oil Jatropha Diesel Biodiesel standards
conditions considered marginal for agriculture, and can even root into biodiesel
rock crevices [118,119]. However, survival ability does not mean that AST DIN EN
high productivity can be obtained from Jatropha curcas under marginal D 6751- 14214
02
agricultural environments [118]. In addition to the criterion for se-
lecting the preferred chosen land, it is imperative that the selected land Density (15 °C, 940 880 850 – 860–900
doesn't compete with other land uses such as agricultural, residential, kg m−3)
commercial uses or with other sources of energy production [120]. Viscosity (mm2 24.5 4.8 2.6 1.9–6.0 3.5–5.0
s−1)
Various studies have shown that Jatropha curcas is to a large extent
Flash point (°C) 225 135 68 > 130 > 120
drought-resistant. From recent results, it is seen that Jatropha curcas is Pour point (°C) 4.0 2 −20 – –
capable of growing with minimal irrigation in hot deserts where rains Water content (%) 1.4 0.025 0.02 < 0.03 < 0.05
are intermittent and very little [121,122]. Ash content (%) 0.8 0.012 0.01 < 0.02 < 0.02
The system of irrigation has to be carefully looked into with a Carbon residue 1.0 0.20 0.17 – < 0.30
(%)
consideration of the potential cost, the availability of water, the type of
Acid value 28.0 0.40 – < 0.80 < 0.50
soil, the region where the plantation is sited, the possibility of salini- (mgKOH g−1)
zation of the soils, and some other factors that may affect the optimal Calorific value 38.65 39.23 42 – –
growth of the plant as well as the intended use. In general, the average (MJ kg−1)

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A. Giwa et al.
when used in diesel engines [124].
Jatropha oil + Alcohol = Jatropha biodiesel + Glycerol
Some biodiesel standards are also shown in Table 3. Standardization
is a prerequisite for successful market introduction and penetration of
biodiesel, and many countries including Austria, Germany (DIN), Italy,
France, United States (AST D) have defined standards for biodiesel. The
standards are required in order to control the quality of vegetable oils
and biodiesel, especially in terms of the viscosity and volatility. The
high viscosity of vegetable oils might lead to problems in pumping and
spray characteristics when used in combustion engines [125–127]. The
best way to use the vegetable oils as fuel in compression ignition en-
gines is to convert it into biodiesel. Biodiesel can be blended in various
proportions with fossil diesel to create a biodiesel blend or can be used
in its pure form so that a fuel of appropriate viscosity can be used. It can
be used in compression ignition engines with very little or no engine
modifications because it has properties similar to mineral diesel.
New opportunities for the conversion of the glycerol by-product into
value-added chemicals have emerged in recent years, which will defi-
nitely promote biodiesel commercialization and further development
[128–130]. Glycerol is a nontoxic, edible, bio-sustainable and biode-
gradable compound, and can be converted into promising commodity
chemicals and fuels through catalytic process [131].
During seed processing to oil, waste products are also generated.
With every tone of Jatropha oil produced, there are produced ap-
proximately 3 t of waste material in the form of seed cake. About 50%
of the weight of the seeds remains as a press cake [132]. An interesting
possibility of utilization is to process Jatropha curcas seed cake into
pellets that can be used for direct combustion in domestic boilers. This
residue contains toxic compounds and is not recommended to be used
as animal feed without further processing, which would make it un-
profitable [133]. However, as the cake contains mainly protein and
carbohydrates, it can also be used as feed in digesters and gasifiers to
produce biogas [132]. Interest exists in producing animal feed from the
bio-waste once the oil in the cake is expressed, as in the case with Haiti,
where Jatropha curcas grows prolifically and animal feed is in very short
supply. However, the toxicity of the compounds in the waste would
hinder its utilization as animal feed without further processing [133].
However, the cake extract could be used as an antifungal agent for
agricultural application by isolating the toxic phorbol esters [134]. A
simplified Jatropha biorefinery is shown in Fig. 6.
2.2.3. Selection of Jatropha curcas biomass for UAE
Land use in the Abu Dhabi Emirate is dominated by rangeland that
is used for traditional grazing activities by flocks and herds of domestic
sheep, goats and camels. However, some of this rangeland surface
cannot be deplored for Jatropha plantation due to the fact that gov-
ernment has restricted some areas to ensure the conservation of
Fig. 6. The unit operations in a simplified Jatropha biorefinery.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257
biodiversity, promote the ecosystem, natural habitats and species con-
servation [135,136]. In line with this commitment to the conservation
(1)
of natural resources, ecosystems, wildlife and wildlife habitats, the
Environmental Agency in Abu Dhabi has established and has been
managing protected areas in the Emirate [137]. Furthermore, the soil
salinity affects the optimal yield of Jatropha curcas, hence it is im-
portant to take this factor into consideration when selecting land for
Jatropha curcas cultivation. Abu Dhabi emirate soil has been reported to
be appropriate for this cultivation [138].
Due to the low annual rainfall and small fraction of fresh ground-
water in Abu Dhabi, as well as the highly saline content of ground and
sea water in the region, desalination is very essential to the emirate
[139,140]. Desalination contributes a major part of fresh water supply
to the emirate for various uses. The emirate's desalination plants are
spread across three regions and the desalinated water produced from
these plants is available for the irrigation of Jatropha plantation all over
the regions. It is also possible to use treated effluents from the waste-
water treatment plants in the emirate [141].
The Jatropha selected for this study is Jatropha curcas L. which
consists of 35.5% oil, 17.4% proteins, 14.5% cellulose, 13% fiber, 9%
lignin, 6.2% water, and 4.4% ash [106].
3. Methodology for techno-economic assessment
Data for the chemical compositions of microalgae and Jatropha
have been obtained from [101] and [106], respectively. Microalgae and
Jatropha biorefineries have been modeled independently and integrally
by using SuperPro designer. Three scenarios have been investigated for
the integrated biorefinery: Scenario 1 involves the production of bio-
diesel, glycerol, animal feed, organic fertilizer and bio-gas; Scenario 2
involves the production of biodiesel, glycerol, bio-ethanol, organic
fertilizer and bio-gas; and Scenario 3 involves the production of bio-
diesel, glycerol, hydrogen, and animal feed. For Jatropha processing,
the unit operations involved in the oil recovery include: dehulling of the
jatropha fruit, drying of the kernel obtained after dehulling, and
pressing of the kernel to obtain the oil. For microalgae, the unit op-
erations involved in the oil recovery include: drying of wet microalgae,
milling of dried microalgae, and decantation of oil from the solid por-
tion. The oils obtained from both jatropha and microalgae are then
integrated and converted to biodiesel through transesterification using
Superpro Designer. The residues obtained from the software, including
insoluble organic polymer such as carbohydrates in form of cellulose
and some reduced sugars, organic acids, and proteins, are modeled as
being converted to animal feed, biogas or organic fertilizer.
3.1. Scenario 1
Scenario 1 involves three main processes:
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A. Giwa et al.
i) Biodiesel and glycerol are produced from oil obtained from
Jatropha and microalgae.
ii) The residues obtained from the dehulling of Jatropha fruit and
pressing of dried kernel from Jatropha are converted to biogas and
organic fertilizer through anaerobic digestion.
iii) The microalgae's protein and carbohydrate are used as animal feed
since more than half of the algae mass is protein.
The unit operations in these processes are provided in detail in the
following subsections.
3.1.1. Dehulling of Jatropha fruit
The first step in the treatment of the Jatropha fruit is dehulling.
Dehulling is the process of removing the hulls (or chaff) from the ja-
tropha fruit. This is done using a machine known as a huller. To prepare
the seeds to have oils extracted from them, they are cleaned to remove
any foreign objects. Next, the seed hulls, outer coverings, or husks are
removed. The hull does not contain oil but rather obstructs the oil ex-
traction and expression from the kernel inside. The hull is removed
from the kernel using a 1 × 2 continuous reaction and separation
generic box in SuperPro designer. Thereafter, the hull is sent for pre-
treatment and the kernel is sent to the drum drier.
3.1.2. Drying of kernel from Jatropha fruit and wet microalgae
After the kernel has been separated from the hull, it is modeled as
being drum dried in SuperPro designer with a drum dryer. In the drum-
drying process, drying takes place at relatively low temperatures over
rotating, high-capacity drums that produce sheets of drum-dried pro-
duct. Drum drying offers the advantage of the ability to dry viscous
feedstocks which cannot be easily dried with other methods. Drum
dryers can be cleaned hygienically and they are easy to operate and
maintain.
For the microalgae, the first stage in its preparation is the drying.
The water content in the microalgae has to be removed as the presence
of water will inhibit a number of downstream processes such as lipid
extraction and transesterification [142]. Drying is considered to be an
important process as it helps in increasing the shelf life of the biomass
and also helps in lipid recovery [143]. The rotary drying is used to
remove the water content in the microalgae by bringing it into direct
contact with a heated gas [144,145]. This dryer is made up of a large,
rotating cylindrical tube, usually supported by concrete columns or
steel beams. The dryer slopes slightly so that the discharge end is lower
than the material feed end in order to convey the material through the
dryer under gravity. Material to be dried enters the dryer, and as the
dryer rotates, the material is lifted up by a series of internal fins lining
the inner wall of the dryer. When the material gets high enough to roll
back off the fins, it falls back down to the bottom of the dryer, passing
through the hot gas stream as it falls. The indirect-heated rotary dryer
with air have been used in the modeling in order to prevent the con-
tamination of the algae. After processing in a rotary dryer, the micro-
algae mainly consist of proteins (50%), fats (17%), carbohydrates
(20%) and some amount of cellulose (5%). After the microalgae bio-
mass is dried, it is sent to the bead mill.
3.1.3. Oil pressing of dried kernel from Jatropha
Expeller pressing is the mechanical method used for extracting oil
from the kernel in this assessment. The kernel is squeezed under high
pressure in a single step. An expeller press is a screw-type machine that
presses oil seeds through a caged barrel-like cavity [146]. The kernel
enters one side of the press and waste products exit the other side. The
machine uses friction and continuous pressure from the screw drives to
move and compress the seed material. The oil seeps through small
openings that do not allow seed fiber solids to pass through. The kernel
oil and the seed cake are separated with a 1 × 2 continuous reaction
and separation generic box in SuperPro designer. Afterwards, the seed
cake is hardened, removed from the machine and sent for anaerobic
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257
digestion. The extracted oil is used in making biodiesel through trans-
esterification.
3.1.4. Bead milling of dried microalgae
Immediately after the microalgae are dried, they are grinded using
bead milling. The chief reason for using a bead mill is to disrupt the
algal cell [147]. Cell disruption is often necessary for recovering in-
tracellular products from microalgae [148]. Bead milling is chosen as it
is a conventional method for the disruption of fungal spores and is
considered to be successful for the disruption of microalgae [149]. After
the cells are disrupted in a bead mill, the mixture is sent to a decanter.
The mixture now consists of fats, carbohydrates, cellulose, proteins and
water.
3.1.5. Decantation of oil after milling
After disrupting the algal cells in a bead mill, the components of the
mixture are separated into two streams. One stream consisting of the
fats which are to be processed for the production of biodiesel and the
other consisting of carbohydrate and protein (major components) along
with some amount of water and cellulose. Though this separation
process may be done using centrifugation, it would increase the cost of
the process significantly. Therefore, a decanter is considered. From this
mixture, fats are separated and the other components of the mixture are
used for animal feed in scenario 1 (or sent for bio-ethanol production in
scenario 2).
3.1.6. Transesterification of algal and Jatropha oil
The algal and Jatropha oil used in making biodiesel consists of tri-
glycerides in which three fatty acid molecules are esterified with a
molecule of glycerol. In making biodiesel, these triglycerides are re-
acted with methanol in a reaction known as transesterification or al-
coholysis [150,151]. Transesterification produces methyl esters of fatty
acids, which are biodiesel, and glycerol. The reaction occurs stepwise:
triglycerides are first converted to diglycerides, then to monoglycerides
and finally to glycerol [152]. Common catalysts for the trans-ester-
ification reaction include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and
sodium methoxide [153,154]. The catalyst used for this assessment is
sodium hydroxide. Alkaline metal hydroxides (KOH and NaOH) are
cheaper than metal alkoxides, but less active. Nevertheless, they are a
good alternative since they can give the same high conversions of ve-
getable oils just by increasing the catalyst concentration to 1 or 2 mol%
[155]. The transesterification reaction is carried out in a continuous
stoichiometric reactor in SuperPro designer. The unused methanol in
the process is being separated and recycled.
Many studies on the transesterification of Jatropha and microalgae
oil have been carried out recently [36,156–158]. However, to the best
of our knowledge, transesterification of mixed algae and Jatropha oil
has been sparsely reported. Meanwhile, research and development ac-
tivities on microalgae oil for aviation have gained global attention.
Global organizations such as Shell and UOP have shown interest in
biofuel production from microalgal source [159]. Test flights have been
successfully tested using the jetfuel made from algae oil. A 1.5 h flight
fueled with 50:50 blended biofuel of UOP biojet (made from 47.5%
Jatropha + 2.5% algae) and jetA-1 has been made via continental
737–800. Another 1.5 h flight fueled with 50:50 blend UOP biojet
(made form Jatropha < 16% and algae < 1%) has been made via
JAL 747–300 [160]. Research on biojet fuel is being intensified cur-
rently, so that the quality control and assurance needed to meet the
specific safety requirements of the aviation industry are met. However,
laboratory research efforts on the transesterification of mixed micro-
algae and Jatropha oil in an integrated microalgae/Jatropha bior-
efinery, aside those sponsored by aviation and energy companies are
currently limited.
3.1.7. Anaerobic digestion of residues from unit operations
Anaerobic digestion is a collection of processes by which
A. Giwa et al.
Fig. 7. The integrated microalgae-Jatropha biorefinery (scenario 1).
Fig. 8. Integrated microalgae-Jatropha biorefinery (scenario 2).
microorganisms break down the biodegradable material in the absence
of oxygen [92,161]. The process is used for industrial or domestic
purposes to manage waste and/or to produce fuels. The digestion pro-
cess begins with bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials. Insoluble
organic polymers, such as carbohydrates, are broken down to soluble
derivatives that become available for other bacteria. Acidogenic bac-
teria then convert the sugars and amino acids into carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, ammonia, and organic acids. These bacteria convert these
resulting organic acids into acetic acid, along with additional ammonia,
hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Finally, methanogens convert these
products to methane and carbon dioxide [162,163]. For scenario 1, the
Jatropha hulls and seed cake are processed by anaerobic digester in
order to produce biogas (methane and carbon dioxide). The residue
from the decanter (used for decanting the fats obtained after the milling
of algal cells) is considered for the production of animal feed because of
the high protein content of the microalgae. The flowsheet for the in-
tegrated microalgae-Jatropha biorefinery for scenario 1 is provided in
Fig. 7.
3.2. Scenario 2
Scenario 2 involves two main processes:
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257
i) Biodiesel and glycerol are produced from the oil obtained from
microalgae and Jatropha.
ii) Bioethanol is produced from residues including Jatropha hull, seed
cake, and algal biomass residues obtained from unit operations
(rather than using the anaerobic digestion that was employed in
scenario 1).
The unit operations in scenario 2 are explained in the following
subsections.
3.2.1. Steam explosion
The Jatropha hull, seed cake and algal biomass are pretreated via
steam explosion for opening up the lignocellulosic structure for the
production of ethanol. Literature about pre-treatment of lignocellulosic
biomass via steam explosion is very wide, but the literature on steam
explosion of Jatropha hull is limited. Jatropha curcas fruit shells have
been mainly pretreated in many previous investigations through the use
of mineral acids such as H2SO4, which could ensure > 80% cellulose
conversion in the following enzymatic hydrolysis [164,165]. However,
after pretreatment with mineral acids, lignocellulosic residues with
high contents of lignin are usually obtained. A following delignification
process is always required to further improve the digestibility of the
A. Giwa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257

Fig. 9. Integrated microalgae-Jatropha biorefinery (scenario 3).

Table 4 3.2.2. Enzymatic hydrolysis

Material inputs to the integrated biorefinery for all scenarios. The steam explosion breaks down the lignocellulosic structure into
cellulose and hemicellulose. These need to be broken down further in
Material Scenario 1 (kg/ Scenario 2 (kg/ Scenario 3 (kg/
yr) yr) yr) order to be fermented. For them to be broken down further enzymatic
hydrolysis is performed which leads to the conversion of cellulose into
Air 6,627,445 14,999,156 6,062,743 glucose units and hemicellulose into xylose units. Since the reaction
Algae 23,760,000 23,760,000 23,760,000
mixture consists of both cellulose and hemicellulose in significant
Jatropha fruits 23,759,983 23,759,966 23,759,948
Methanol 1,584,000 1,663,200 2,067,120
quantities enzymatic hydrolysis may be done by using two enzymes –
Phosphoric Acid 39,600 39,600 16,870 cellulase and xylanase [171]. The hydrolysate is prepared by mixing the
Sodium Hydroxide 22,493 22,493 20,592 enzymes into the mixture of the sugars along with the buffer [172].
Water 79,200,000 23,760,000 39,600,000 Hydrolysis is considered at a temperature of 50 ⁰C. The mixture is
Yeast 0 79,200 0
agitated continuously in the reactor. After enzymatic hydrolysis, the
Hydrolase 0 158,400 0
Mesophilic Cult 0 0 39,600,000 mixture mainly comprises of water, proteins, and a significant amount
of glucose and also xylose. The sugars are now in their monomeric form
and may be easily converted into ethanol by a simple fermentation
lignocellulosic residues. Steam explosion is one of the most commonly reaction.
used physico-chemical methods to pretreat lignocellulosic materials
and ensure adequate delignification. In general, steam explosion is a 3.2.3. Fermentation of the sugars
process in which biomass is treated with hot steam (180–240 °C) under Enzymatic hydrolysis is followed by fermentation. Fermentation is a
pressure (1–3.5 MPa) followed by an explosive decompression of the metabolic process that converts sugars to alcohols. Under anaerobic
biomass that results in a rupture of the biomass fibers rigid structure conditions, the microorganisms use the substrate gained from the lig-
[166,167]. The sudden pressure release defibrillates the cellulose nocellulosic biomass (glucose and xylose in this case) to produce
bundle and results in a better accessibility of the cellulose for enzymatic ethanol. Fermentation occurs by the Embden-Mayerhof-Parnas
hydrolysis and fermentation. During this process, hemicelluloses and pathway using glycolytic pathway enzymes [173]. In the ethanol pro-
lignin can be decomposed and removed from the lignocellulosic ma- duction bioprocess, anaerobic destruction of carbohydrate follows the
terials in different degrees. Steam explosion shows several attractive same process as glycolysis. However, pyruvate is decarboxylated into
features, such as low environmental influence, less hazardous process acetaldehyde by pyruvate decarboxylase. The decarboxylation product
chemicals, and high energy efficiency [168]. Steam explosion has been acetaldehyde cannot transfer to the lipo-amide group. Finally, acet-
used as a pretreatment method for the production of vanillin from Ja- aldehyde is reduced to ethanol by both NADH and alcohol dehy-
tropha curcas stem [169]. The stem was cut into small pieces and soaked drogenase [174]. Fermentation of the sugars takes place at a tem-
in water overnight. Then, the soaked pieces were exploded at 214 °C perature of approximately 30 °C. Recombinant co-fermentative
and 21 kg/cm2 for 5 min. The hydrolysate obtained contained 1.55 g/L Saccharomyces is the microorganism used for fermentation. It gives a
ferulic acid which was then used as the substrate for vanillin production considerable yield of ethanol. A pH of 4 gives optimum yield of ethanol
by Aspergillus niger and Pycnoporus cinnabarinus. [175]. In this process of fermentation, most of the sugars are converted
Steam explosion gives good yield of hemicelluloses with low de- into ethanol. The ethanol obtained may be distilled to obtain pure
graded byproducts; the equipment corrosion is minimum due to a mild ethanol.
pH of reaction media when compared to acid hydrolysis processes; the
stages of acid handling and acid recycling are avoided and disruption of
3.2.4. Distillation of ethanol-water mixture
the solid residues from bundles to individual fibers occur due to ex-
The ethanol produced from the fermentation is contaminated with
plosion effect [170].
water. Hence, a means of separation of the ethanol from water is re-
quired. For this process, fractional distillation is used. Fractional dis-
tillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or

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Table 5
Material balances for all scenarios.

Scenario 1 (kg/h) Scenario 2 (kg/h) Scenario 3 (kg/h)

Component In Out Out-In In Out Out-In In Out Out-In

Ammonia 0 7 7 0 28 28 0 0 0
Ash 133 133 0 133 133 0 133 133 0
Carbohydrates 651 651 0 651 13 −638 651 651 0
Cellulose 594 157 −437 594 0 −594 594 166 −428
Ethanol 0 0 0 0 611 611 0 0 0
Fiber 391 78 −313 391 8 −383 391 8 −383
Glucose 0 0 0 0 24 24 0 0 0
Glycerol 0 131 131 0 131 131 0 142 142
Hydrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 101 101
Hydrolase 0 0 0 20 20 0 0 0 0
Lignin 274 274 0 274 274 0 274 274 0
Lipids 534 111 −423 534 111 −423 534 111 −423
Methane 0 462 462 0 616 616 30 30 0
Methanol 200 63 −137 210 73 −137 261 113 −148
Methyl linoleate 0 337 337 0 337 337 0 379 379
Methyl oleate 0 804 804 0 804 804 0 850 850
Methyl palmitate 0 95 95 0 95 95 0 107 107
Methyl stearate 0 19 19 0 19 19 0 21 21
Nitrogen 587 587 0 1453 1453 0 587 587 0
Oleic acid 11 9 −2.2 11 9 −2.2 11 9 −2
Oxygen 178 178 0 441 441 0 178 178 0
Phosphoric acid 5 3 −2.3 5 3 −2.3 2 0 −2
Proteins 2031 1770 −261 2031 1016 −1016 2031 2031 0
Sodium hydroxide 3 0 −2.8 3 0 −2.8 2.6 0 −2.6
Sodium phosphate 0 4 4 0 4 4 0 4 4
Trilinolein 426 5 −421 426 5 −421 426 50 −378
Triolein 475 5 −467 475 5 −470 476 54 −422
Tripalmitin 120 1 −119 120 1 −119 120 14 −107
Tristearin 24 0 −24 24 0 −24 24 3 −21
Water 10,336 10,020 −316 3336 2719 −617 5336 4884 −451
Yeast 0 0 0 10 10 0 0 0 0

fractions, such as in separating chemical compounds by their boiling
point by heating them to a temperature at which one or more fractions
of the compound will vaporize [176]. Distillation would take away the
ethanol from the mixture. Ethanol's boiling point is 78.81 °C. The dis-
tillation column is used to take out the ethanol from the top of the
column. About 95% ethanol might be taken out, with the remaining 5%
as water [174]. Distillation of the ethanol after fermentation is a two-
step process. After the first step, approximately 66% ethanol is re-
covered. After the second distillation, approximately 94% ethanol is
recovered. The alcohol obtained after the second distillation is pure and
may be used as fuel. The flowsheet for the integrated microalgae-Ja-
tropha biorefinery for scenario 2 is provided in Fig. 8.
3.3. Scenario 3
Scenario 3 involves three main processes:
i) Biodiesel and glycerol are produced from oil obtained from
Jatropha and microalgae.
ii) The Jatropha hulls and seed cake are converted to bio-hydrogen
through dark fermentation and microbial electrolysis cell.
iii) The microalgal protein and carbohydrate extracted by decantation
are stored in a temporary storage and used as animal feed since
more than half of the algae mass is protein.
series of biochemical reactions using the steps similar to anaerobic
conversion. Dark fermentation differs from photo-fermentation in that
it proceeds without the presence of light [177]. The feedstock is in-
oculated with mesophilic culture and continuous stoichiometric reac-
tion in a stirred reactor is used to simulate the dark fermentation. The
residual simple organic liquids from dark fermentation, which are not
converted to biohydrogen, are sent to the microbial electrolysis cell for
faster and enhanced conversion.
3.3.2. Microbial electrolysis cell (MEC)
A microbial electrolysis cell (MEC), also referred to as a bioelec-
trochemically-assisted microbial reactor (BEAMR) can be used to gen-
erate H2 from simple organic liquids, such as acetic acid and ethanol,
using electrolysis enhanced by a microbial reaction at the anode
[179,180]. The MEC is an electrolysis unit that uses bacteria on the
anode chamber along with a moderate electrode voltage to carry out an
electrolysis reaction of acetate (and other organic acids and alcohols)
with water, producing H2 at the cathode and CO2 at the anode. Mi-
crobial reaction at the anode is carried out in the presence of Pseudo-
monas sp. and Shewanella in a stirred reactor. The flowsheet for the
integrated microalgae-Jatropha biorefinery for scenario 3 is provided in
Fig. 9.
4. Results and discussions

The unit operations in scenario 3 are explained in the following
subsections.
3.3.1. Dark fermentation
The Jatropha hulls and seed cake are sent to a dark fermenter for the
production of bio-hydrogen. Dark fermentation is the fermentative
conversion of organic substrate to bio-hydrogen [177,178]. It is a
complex process manifested by diverse groups of bacteria, involving a
4.1. Technical assessment
The material inputs to the integrated bio-refinery for all unit op-
erations for the three scenarios are provided in Table 4.
These material inputs undergo biochemical reactions, and separa-
tion in the unit operations to give different outputs. The specific sub-
stances in the inputs are provided in Table 5. The outputs, as compared
with the inputs for the three scenarios, are also shown in the material

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A. Giwa et al.
Fig. 10. SuperPro Designer's flow diagrams for integrated biorefinery for: (a) scenario 1; (b) scenario 2; (c) scenario 3.
balance in Table 5. A negative balance, i.e. negative value of out – in,
means that more input of a material is needed than its output. The
balance for each material has been obtained as the difference between
the output and input mass flow rates of the material. A negative mass
balance means that, although a material can be produced as output, the
amount produced is less than the amount required as feed or input. The
converse is true for materials with positive balance. Positive mass
balance shows that a material is obtained as a product or byproduct
from the process while negative mass balance indicates that a material
is obtained as an unprocessed input or waste.
For scenario 1, the products consist of biodiesel (the main product
consisting of methyl linoleate, methyl oleate, methyl palmitate, and
methyl stearate), animal feed (consisting mainly of ammonia), organic
fertilizer (consisting mainly of proteins, and carbohydrates and cellu-
losic fiber), biogas (consisting of methane), glycerol, and sodium
phosphate obtained from catalytic recovery of glycerol. All the products
obtained from scenario 1 are also obtained for scenario 2 except that
they are produced in different quantities. Additionally, bioethanol and
glucose are produced from fermentation and anaerobic digestion of
residues in scenario 2. For scenario 3, the products consist of biodiesel
(main product consisting of methyl linoleate, methyl oleate, methyl
palmitate, and methyl stearate), hydrogen, glycerol, and sodium
phosphate obtained from catalytic recovery of glycerol. The flowsheets
for the integrated biorefinery for all scenarios as obtained from
SuperPro Designer are provided in Fig. 10(a)–(c). Since the unit pro-
cesses are carried out at different temperatures, heat transfer is required
in the different equipment. The heat transfer and cooling fluids required
are provided and compared for all scenarios in Table 6.
The heat transfer agents and equipment in the bio-refinery ensure
the computation of the power required by the bio-refinery for the three
scenarios. The required power is compared and shown in Table 7. All
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257
scenarios have the same power requirements for bead milling of dried
microalgae, spray drying of de-hulled Jatropha and screw conveying of
Jatropha fruits since the simulation was based on the same quantities of
microalgae and Jatropha. However, there are differences in the power
requirements for anaerobic digestion between scenario 1 and scenario 2
because part of the Jatropha residues in scenario 2 was used for fer-
mentation. Differences in other power requirements are due to their
distinct system components. Although scenario 3 requires no power for
grinding of the Jatropha residues, it has the highest standard power
requirements standing at almost thrice as scenario 1. This is due to the
presence of the energy intensive microbial electrochemical cell opera-
tion and general load.
4.2. Economic assessment
The approximate cost of biogas in the UAE is 0.72 $/m3. The stan-
dard price of animal feed is 0.31 $/kg. Only scenario 1 is profitable. The
economic values of the products of the scenarios and the unit prices of
the feed are shown in Table 8. Scenarios 2 and 3 are not profitable.
Scenario 3 is the least in terms of economic viability because of the high
electric power requirement of the microbial electrochemical cell. This
result also illustrates that the bioethanol and bio-hydrogen processes
are not very profitable when they are compared with animal feed
production in the UAE. The revenue for the integrated bio-refinery is
obtained from the economic assessment in SuperPro Designer, by using
the prices of biodiesel (main product), animal feed, bio-ethanol, biogas,
glycerol and fertilizer.
An annual operating cost of $12.395 million, $16.28 million, and
$18.01 million is obtained for scenarios 1, 2, and 3, respectively
(Table 9). The annual operating costs are estimated based on the cost of
raw materials, labor, utilities and facility-dependent costs. The total
A. Giwa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257

Fig. 10. (continued)

Fig. 10. (continued)

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Table 6
Heat transfer and cooling fluids required for all scenarios.

No. Heat transfer and cooling fluid Scenario 1 (kg/yr) Scenario 2 (kg/yr) Scenario 3 (kg/yr)

1 Steam
Transesterification 95,863 88,706 115,761
Grude glycerol distillation 573,022 628,060 852,309
Crude biodiesel distillation 165,427 181,316 240,891
Microalgae rotary drying 2,130,042 2,130,042 2,130,042
Spray drying of dehulled Jatropha 295,056 295,055 295,055
Distillation of fermentation products 0 5,711,527 0
Distillation of ethanol 0 2,748,724 0
Dark fermentation 0 0 432,833
Steam Total 3,259,410 11,783,430 4,066,892
2 Cooling Water
Grude glycerol distillation 31,238,129 34,023,511 45,070,352
Crude biodiesel distillation 20,591,349 22,410,756 29,626,675
Distillation of fermentation products 0 535,410,516 0
Distillation of ethanol 0 253,670,651 0
Cooling Water Total 51,829,477 845,515,434 74,697,026
3 Chilled Water
Bead milling of dried microalgae 50,377,948 44,526,564 46,130,271
Fermentation of residues 0 344,105,484 0
Microbial electrochemical cell 0 0 1,947,969,420
Chilled Water Total 50,377,948 388,632,048 1,994,099,691
4 Steam (High P)
Pretreatment of Jatropha residues 938,298 938,297 938,297
Steam (High P) Total 938,298 938,297 938,297

Table 7 cost components to the annual operating cost revealed that the con-
Standard power required for all scenarios. tribution from the labor-dependent component is the highest and the
contribution from utilities is the lowest. This is reasonable considering
Power requirement Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 (kW-
(kW-h/yr) (kW-h/yr) h/yr)
the fact that the labor component includes the cost for plant operators,
laboratory technicians, plant supervisors and shift operators. The labor
Bead milling of dried 266,589 266,589 266,588 cost is based on the operating hours and the hourly wage. The ap-
microalgae proximate cost for common operating labor in the UAE is $20/h while
Spray drying of dehulled 299,875 299,875 299,875
Jatropha
the skilled operating labor cost is $34/h. The supervisory cost is about
Grinding of Jatropha 2,629,867 0 0 15–20% of operating labor costs. On the other hand, utilities such as
residues cooling and other power requirements are minimal. The cost of raw
Screw conveying of 8910 8910 8910 materials includes the cost of microalgae, Jatropha fruits, methanol,
Jatropha fruits
phosphoric acid, sodium hydroxide, water, yeast, hydrolase and me-
Pumping of methanol 140 147 183
Anaerobic digestion 230,131 115,424 0 sophilic cult. Scenario 3 adds the largest utilities cost component to the
Fermentation of residues 0 703,478 0 annual operating cost due to the power requirements for the microbial
Microbial electrochemical 0 0 10,182,571 electrochemical cell process.
cell Scenario 1 is profitable because of its low total investment cost. In
Other equipment 214,719 87,151 672,383
General load 644,158 261,454 2,017,149
addition, scenario 1 ensures the production of high amounts of animal
TOTAL 4,294,390 1,743,029 13,447,658 feed and methane with respect to the low operating costs required to
produce these valuable products. Fig. 12 shows the contributions of the
economic value of the products to the total annual revenue for all
Table 8 scenarios. Although scenarios 2 and 3 produced some economically
Unit prices of revenue sources. valuable products, the total investment costs of these scenarios are the
highest. For instance, the total investment costs for scenario 2 is almost
Product Price
twice that of scenario 1. This is the reason for the high payback time
Biodiesel 0.70 $/kg and negative NPV for scenarios 2 and 3. In addition to their high total
Glycerol 0.33 $/kg investment costs, their processes have produced large quantities of by-
Methanol recycle 0.49 $/kg
products such as methanol and glycerol; organic fertilizer; bio-ethanol
Animal feed 0.31 $/kg
Ethanol 0.63 $/L and bio-hydrogen- all of which have less economic value and usage in
Methane 0.72 $/m3 the UAE.
Organic fertilizer 41 $/t
Algae feed 0.31 $/kg
Jatropha feed 0.43 $/kg 5. Conclusions and future trends

A detailed review of the recent advances in the production of

annual revenue of the integrated bio-refinery is estimated as $17.05
million, $17.46 million, and $17.91 million for scenarios 1, 2, and 3,
respectively. It becomes clear from the payback time and NPV that
scenarios 2 and 3 are neither profitable nor sustainable. This can be
attributed to their high total investment costs.
Fig. 11 shows the contributions of cost components to the annual
operating cost for all scenarios. For all scenarios, the contribution of
bioenergy and biochemical from microalgae and Jatropha is presented
in this paper. The techno-economic assessment of an integrated bior-
efinery of microalgae and Jatropha fruit has been carried out for the
UAE. Three scenarios have been investigated based on the production
of: biodiesel, glycerol, animal feed, fertilizer and biogas; biodiesel,
glycerol, bioethanol, fertilizer and biogas; and biodiesel, glycerol, an-
imal feed and biohydrogen, respectively. In general, the integrated

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A. Giwa et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 239–257

Table 9 In the era of volatility in fossil fuel prices, rising industrialization,

Economic indicators for all scenarios. and stress on secondary energy sources due to surging population, the
need for the diversification of energy sources cannot be over-empha-
Parameter Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3
sized. This need also incorporates the requirement for the development
Total investment ($) 13,866,000 14,730,000 23,421,000 of clean energy sources with less impact on the environment [181].
Total revenue ($/yr) 17,052,000 17,463,000 17,907,000 Biofuels from microalgae and Jatropha fall into this category. Already,
Operating cost ($/yr) 12,395,000 16,278,000 18,007,000
some European countries such as Britain, France, Germany, India,
Gross margin (%) 30 4 2.33
Return on investment (%) 31 11 10.34 Norway, etc. have signified interest to curb further use of gasoline and
Payback time (yr) 3.3 9.2 9.7 diesel vehicle by (or before) 2040 [182,183]. The potential of micro-
NPV ($) 8,020,000 −19,299,000 −13,519,000 algae and Jatropha to provide fuels via processes that are more en-
vironmental friendly has necessitated an increase in the number of re-
search publications on these biomass resources. A search of the phrases
“biofuel from microalgae” and “biofuel from Jatropha” in google
scholar and scienceDirect shows that research and development activ-
ities on these phrases have been intensified recently (Fig. 13). From the
10-year trends shown in Fig. 13, the annual number of research pub-
lications on microalgal and Jatropha biofuels has continued to increase.
A simple linear prediction of the trends obtained from google scholar
indicates that the research publications on microalgal and Jatropha
biofuels might continue to increase annually by 1106 and 403 pub-
lications, respectively. This prediction is achieved with the aid of gra-
dient factor (g-factor) and statistical R2 values. R2 values of 0.99 and
0.90 are obtained for the linear fit of the annual publications on mi-
croalgal and Jatropha biofuels, respectively. The g-factor is computed
Fig. 11. Contribution of cost components to the annual operating cost for all scenarios. as the mean value of the annual increase in the number of publications.
The accuracy of the prediction is estimated via the statistical R2 value,
which is a measure of the closeness of the data to the fitted line or
invariability of the data around the mean.
Aside from the energy potential of microalgae and Jatropha, these
biofuel sources can aid employment generation. Jatropha, for example,
is one of the cheapest biodiesel feedstock and would contribute im-
mensely to the development of rural livelihoods, if employed for
commercial biodiesel production at the national level [184]. In the near
future, biofuels from integrated microalgae and Jatropha biorefinery
might become more useful as aviation and automobile fuels. It was
reported recently that the US Air Force Research Laboratory will be
testing the fuels produced by hydroprocessing of Jatropha and algae
oils. Biojet Corporation (USA) - collaborative project including South
Pole Carbon Asset Management Ltd. of Zurich, Switzerland; Abundant
Biofuels Corporation of Monterey, California; Mitch Hawkins & Co. Inc.,
of Santa Ynez, California – is looking into areas of integrating algae and
Jatropha oils [185]. Oil and aviation companies are also sponsoring
research in this area [159,160]. More corporate interests have been
directed towards the evaluation of the commercial viability of micro-
algal and Jatropha biofuels recently and the uptrend is expected to
continue into the future.
However, the continued exploitation of the opportunities offered by
microalgae and Jatropha still faces some challenges. For example, the
cake byproduct produced during oil extraction from Jatropha cannot be
used as animal food due to its toxic nature and has to be detoxified
[186–188]. Also, many countries are yet to formulate standards for
biodiesel use and localized biodiesel production technologies are lim-
ited. Due to small-scale production, the production cost of biodiesel is
still relatively high. However, biodiesel production may increase if cost-
reflective incentives and subsidies are provided by energy authorities.
Fig. 12. Contributions of the economic values of products to the annual total revenue for Biodiesel might emit more NOx emission than fossil diesel because
(a) scenario 1, (b) scenario 2, and (c) scenario 3. biodiesel contains more fuel-bound oxygen than fossil diesel [184,189].
However, this biodiesel NOx effect can be curtailed by adjusting engine
biorefinery with microalgae and Jatropha as feedstock is technically control settings, especially by retarding injection timing and increasing
feasible and economically profitable for scenario 1, as modeled. The exhaust gas recirculation [190]. Modern engines appear to have re-
development of this biorefinery will aid renewable energy production duced biodiesel NOx effect but the effect is still substantial in some
from biomass sources in UAE. However, experimental investigations engines [189,191]. On the social side, more awareness campaigns are
need to be carried out to validate the results from this modeling study, needed to encourage energy stakeholders to use microalgae and Ja-
as many of the inputs and process conditions were obtained from past tropha for large-scale biofuel production. The marginal cost at larger
studies. scales might eventually bring down the cost of biofuel production. On
the technological side, the critical infrastructure required to achieve

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A. Giwa et al.
Fig. 13. Annual number of publications on microalgal and Jatropha biofuels from 2007 to
2016.
commercial deployment of biofuel would have to be provided. Scien-
tific research on enhanced microalgal and Jatropha conversion tech-
nologies involving molecular bioengineering, thermochemical conver-
sion, and the utilization of atmospheric CO2 captured in underground
or geological formations should be intensified.
Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful for the support provided for this work by
Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Masdar Institute, Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
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