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10 Engineering and
Structural materials; 303
Mechanical / Physical
processing; 402 Multi-scale
modeling
based on established costing principles. In the case of in the joints. The window monitoring method has two
clinching without additional elements such as rivets, the main advantages over the conventional tolerance mon-
unit and total costs decrease as the tool life increases. itoring method. Firstly, the monitoring phase is shorter,
Several points of view were discussed and calculations and secondly, more information is made available. The
for factors such as marginal costs were presented [40]. additional information makes it easier to distinguish
which errors occur during a clinch joining operation.
The large joining forces requiring heavy process
3. Clinching process
equipment are a major impediment to the use of clinch-
Reliably predicting the dimensions and mechanical ing. In response to this problem, the Fraunhofer Institute
properties of clinched joints depends on having accurate (Stuttgart, Germany) has developed new clinching
knowledge about the clinching process itself. However, methods that involve much lower joining forces. These
the clinching process is complex and gaining insights developments could make it possible to use clinching as
into the process of joint formation is difficult and a joining method for a range of new application areas
time-consuming. Experiments and numerical simula- [112].
tions help overcome the barrier by offering an effective Where different materials need to be joined by clinch-
way of studying the formation of clinched joints [92–94]. ing, a different set of problems must be solved. Lee
et al. [113,114] used a combination of FE analysis and
laboratory tests to study the effects of varying the pro-
3.1. Clinching process parameters
cess parameters on the characteristics of clinched joints
The characteristics of clinched joints can be influenced between sheets of high-strength steel DP780 and Al5052
by changing the process parameters. These must be alloy. Differences in ductility between the two materials
selected, therefore, so that resulting joints are fit for being joined were found to be the main contributing fac-
purpose. Crucial in this respect is the formation of the tors leading to joint defects such as necking of the upper
neck and undercut which is influenced by many factors sheet, cracks in the lower sheet, and a failure to form an
with multi-factorial interactions. Much experimental adequate interlock. The results suggested that the join-
and numerical research has been carried out with the ability of combinations of these materials was affected
aim of quantifying these factors and optimizing the mainly by the die radius, die depth, and the shape of the
parameters influencing the clinching process [95–97]. die groove. Joint strength was found to be determined
A systematic study on the mechanism of clinching was by the interlock length and neck thickness.
reported by Budde and colleagues [98–104]. The authors Numerical simulation can be used to predict the lock-
defined some basic terms, such as mechanical contact ing strength of clinched joints and provide guidance on
chains joint networks for establishing a basic theory for the design of the forming process. For example, Wen
studying the mechanism of clinch-joining. et al. [115] carried out simulations and experimental tests
Quality control systems for clinching were developed for understanding the effect of varying parameters on
during the 1990s. A real-time automated system was the clinching and stripping processes for joints between
reported by Bober and Liebig [105] and Liebig et al. aluminum AL6016 and H70 brass sheets. The authors
[106, 107]. An online quality control system was found that with increasing punch radius, the neck
reported by Eckold in 1994 [13]. The monitoring sys- thickness increases and the undercut decreases. They also
tems can distinguish between accidental and system- found that increasing the depth of the die groove causes
atic process errors and can therefore minimize plant a decrease in the neck thickness and an increase in the
stoppages and ensure high levels of plant availability undercut. The authors recommended that the bottom
[108]. For example, the VISICON IST Research and thickness should be 25% of the total sheet thickness.
Development project has developed a distributed real- The mechanical strength of a clinched joint can be
time quality control system covering the production optimized by employing a global optimization technique
of clinch-joined galvanized metal boards. The system based on a Kriging meta-model. For example, Roux et al.
uses modern computing concepts including an image [116] reported a process that included optimization of the
processing component based on the G Transform. The joining stage and simulation of the mechanical strength
solution has been validated by statistical analysis of a of the resulting clinch joints. The authors showed that it
large dataset covering the detection of joint buttons and is essential to account for plastic strain, residual stresses
assessment of their quality [109, 110]. and damage when studying the mechanical strength of
A window monitoring system can be used to study clinched joints. The authors showed that using the global
and evaluate the quality of clinched joints. Tan et al. [111] optimization procedure enabled the achievement of a
investigated monitoring functions for combinations of 13.5% increase in the mechanical strength of clinched
clinched materials, sheet metal thicknesses and clinching joints under tensile loading and up to a 46.5% increase
machine tools. The results showed that the method offers for shear loading.
an outstanding capability for monitoring changes in Clinching does not involve applying heat to make a
joining conditions, thereby assuring reproducible quality joint and this makes it possible in some situations to join
Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 18 (2017) 387X. HE
pre-coated materials. However, if clinching is to be used same order of magnitude as sheet thicknesses, simula-
as a joining method in the visible parts of products then tion must be conducted for the bulk metal forming pro-
the damage to the coating caused in the process must be cess [74]. Sheet material modeling is very important and
minimized. Accomplishing this involves optimizing the complicated in the clinching process. Most researchers
process taking into account several factors including the use the von Mises yield criterion. Some researchers use
type of sheet metal, the coating material, the geometry multi-layer compression tests and others use methods
and material of the tools, the forming temperature and such as the one proposed by Coppieters and Kuwabara
the lubrication condition of the sheet metal surfaces and [125] to retrieve the strain hardening curve for large
the tool surfaces. Behrens et al. [117] investigated ways plastic strains.
of reducing the damage to the coating when clinching Information about clinching processes that can be
aluminum sheet metal. Heat treatable Al–Mg–Si alloy obtained from FE simulations includes the flow of the
Ac-170 with a sheet thickness of 1.0 mm was chosen materials being joined, the die fill, the strain distribution,
because it is commonly used in the automotive industry rates of strain in the materials, the distribution of pres-
for outer hang-on panels. The research aimed to optimize sure at the interface between the material and the die and
a range of process factors including the macro-geometry the influence on the joint formation of properties such
of the clinching tools, the choice of tool materials such as friction. Solving these problems involves confronting
as steel and ceramic, the effect of the micro-structure of issues such as the plasticity of the materials, large defor-
ceramic tools, the impact of different coatings and the mations in the materials and interactions at the point
influence of micro lubrication. The authors presented of contact. Numerical simulation based on dynamic
results comparing ceramic and steel tools, different or static implicit and explicit methods can be used to
coatings, and mechanical properties of the clinching ele- help solve such problems and industrial software (e.g.
ments. The results showed that with suitable lubrication ABAQUS, ADINA, LS-DYNA 3D and MARC) already
conditions, the steel clinching tools satisfied the required enables this to be done [126–128].
optimum conditions for minimizing the damage to the FE simulation has the great advantage that the
coating when clinching aluminum sheet metal. mechanical properties of almost any shaped clinch joint
Research on the application of clinch joining meth- can be determined under various load conditions. These
ods is not confined to transportation. LaBoube [118] computerized methods have been used to determine the
considered issues related to the performance of an open most appropriate tools for particular combinations of
web I-joist for use in building construction. The authors materials and to design alternative tools. The results of
investigated the configuration of clinch joints needed to simulations have also been used to improve the robust-
manufacture a closed chord profile beam with sufficient ness of clinching processes and process monitoring as
shear strength and capacity to withstand flexure. The part of quality assurance measures. In early research
authors found that the distance between clinch joints work related to FE analysis, Hahn et al. [129,130]
should be no more than three inches if premature failure presented joining-spot models which can be used to
of the joints under load is to be avoided. simulate sheet material joints using FE methods.
He et al. [63], Feng et al. [131], and Yang et al. [132]
3.2. Process modeling techniques have used the commercially available LS-DYNA soft-
ware to generate axisymmetric FE models based on
Finding equations for predicting the mechanical proper- the Cowper–Symonds material models (see Figure 10).
ties of clinched joints is made difficult by their complex The implicit method using a Lagrange method and
three-dimensional geometry. Equations for predict- r-self-adaptivity was employed and the simulation is
ing the mechanical property of one or more clinched illustrated in Figure 11. Simulations of the clinching
joints have been generated for limited cases [119–121]. process were validated by conducting tests on specimens
However, determining the mechanical property of joints made of aluminum alloy 7075.
by calculation appears to be case-specific. FE analysis A comparison between numerically simulated and
and neural networks are now used commonly to study actual cross-sections of clinched joints showed reasonable
clinching processes [61,122,123]. The FE modeling is a agreement between the two, as shown in Figure 12 [62].
mature and essential part of many clinched joint design
practices that have led to improved designs and reduced Punch
development times and costs.
Blank holder
In general, two methods, the ‘implicit’ and ‘explicit’
methods, can be used in FE modeling of clinch forming. Upper sheet
Punch
Blank holder
Upper sheet
Middle sheet
Lower sheet
Sliding sectors
Rubber spring
Fixed die
To overcome the lower training precision, low con- for the variables considered were found by a regression
vergence speed and weak generalization capability of analysis. Experimental evidence confirmed the validity
the standard propagation algorithm, the Levenberg– of their approach. The potential use of FE-based meth-
Marquardt and normalization algorithms were combined ods for conducting sensitivity analysis and optimization
to optimize the standard BP neural network connection studies for clinch joining was presented by Drossel et al.
weights and improve the model prediction precision and [146]. The authors derived the most important values for
generalization capability. Training and validating sam- forming die optimization by determining the sensitivity
ples were performed using the BTM®Tog-L-Loc system of the design to variations in the connection parameters.
with different combinations of parameter values. Then The robustness of the clinching process in production
the parameter values for the training samples and the was evaluated by conducting a sensitivity analysis of the
corresponding joint mechanical properties were sup- uncertain variables.
plied to the neural networks for training. Finally, the The Coulomb friction and constant shear friction
experimental data were used to check the predictions. models can be used in elastic-plastic and rigid-plastic
Numerical simulation and experimental research was FE analysis to investigate the behavior of the clinch-
carried out by Huang et al. [142] to study the feasibility ing process. Jayasekara et al. [147] chose to investigate
of clinching 1.5 mm thick steel and aluminum sheets. the consequences of varying die depth, die diameter,
The validity of the simulation model was verified by groove corner radius, and groove width on joint char-
experiment. The connecting features of steel–aluminum acteristics. The strength of clinched joints was evalu-
sheets with different strength grades were investigated. ated by examining the separation strengths, such as peel
The authors found that to obtain high-quality joints strength and tensile shear strength. A failure diagram
as judged by shear and tensile strength, the sheet with was constructed that summarized the analysis results.
the lower yield strength should be the upper sheet, and Simulation results showed that the die diameter and
the yield strength of the two sheets should be as close depth were the most decisive parameters for controlling
as possible to one another. Optimal solution sets were the quality of the clinched joints, while the bottom’s
obtained by matching the material type and sheet thick- thickness was crucial for determining the separation
ness of steel-aluminum sheets through multi-objective strengths. Yang et al. [148] developed an ANSYS FE
optimization using approximation models for the neck model based on elastic-plastic FE theory and used it
thickness and the undercut of the joints. to investigate the effects of varying the die parameters
Material damage during the clinch joining process has and sheet thickness on the resulting neck thickness and
been studied using the Gurson–Tvergaard–Needleman undercut of clinched joints.
(GTN) model [143, 144]. The authors first identified Studies have shown that the SPR2 model can be used
the parameters of the GTN model which influence the in place of more complex models to study clinching pro-
void nucleation, growth and coalescence in the mate- cesses. For example, beam elements, solid elements and
rials being joined. The parameters were then imported constrained elements (SPR2) models were used in to
into a FE simulation model. The results of simulations simulate quasi-static, cross-tension and lap-shear tests
demonstrated that incorporating concepts from the for joints between aluminum and steel [149]. SPR2
GTN damage model can extend the predictive capability simulations showed a lower value for the cross-tension
of FE simulation models. Ippolito et al. [145] carried out force than was obtained in physical tests but otherwise
numerical simulations and experimental investigations corresponded well. Solid element and SPR2 models can
according to a factorial experimental design in order be used instead of beam element models to simulate duc-
to build a knowledge base of tool shapes and the corre- tile failure in lap-shear. FE simulations were also carried
sponding mechanical and geometric characteristics of out for clinching processes of steel–aluminum material
clinched joints formed by using them. Optimal values combinations [150].
Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 18 (2017) 390X. HE
For obtaining optimal parameters combination sub- were used to model the clinching process and the perfor-
jected to multiple characteristics, Eshtayeh and Hrairi mance of the joints under shear and cross tension loads.
proposed a method of Taguchi-based Grey optimiza- The punch force-displacement curve and the observed
tion in clinching [151,152]. LS-DYNA software was strength of the clinched joints were investigated to
employed for evaluating the joint strength. Taguchi’s understand the influence of the plastic anisotropy of
L27 orthogonal array design and the notion of signal- the material under load.
to-noise (S/N) ratio were utilized to obtain the objective The current strategy for lightweight body in white
function. The results provided the optimal geometrical design in the automotive industry is to use a mix of mate-
parameters of clinching tools. rials. In this context, Busse et al. [158] investigated the
Analysis of the clinch forming operation using clinch joining of AA6014 and press-hardened 22MnB5.
FE-based methods requires data on flow stress and val- Simulations using FE methods were analyzed to verify
ues for the friction at the tool–sheet and sheet–sheet different tool concepts and to establish appropriate val-
interfaces. Because the forming process involves severe ues for process parameters. Physical experiments were
local plastic deformation of the materials being joined, then conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of the
the stress–strain curves obtained from standard tensile clinching process. Quasi-static cross tensile strengths
tests have to be extrapolated according to a hardening and shear tensile strengths of different clinching param-
law. The extrapolation method used strongly determines eters completed the experimental investigations.
the error on the load-displacement curve obtained by Technology has been developed recently that enables
numerical simulation. Also, the friction at the interface unlimited sheets of the same or different metals to be
affects the flow of material and this determines the final joined continuously in a process known as roller clinch-
interlock and the strength of the joint. Coppieters et al. ing. The main problems encountered so far have been
[153] reported a punch compression test for sheet metal asymmetry of the resulting clinch points and fact that the
using circular specimens and an optimization strategy impact of the punch and its retraction are not perpendic-
based on gradient. The test enables the interface fric- ular to the sheets being joined. In order to understand
tion and material behavior to be identified simultane- the material flow during the formation of roller-clinched
ously. The optimal geometry for a specific application joints, Rill et al. [159] developed a FE simulation model
has also been investigated with FE simulations and used it to study the influence of various parameters
[41, 154]. The authors demonstrated the difficulties that upon the material flow. The results of simulation runs
can be encountered in using FE simulation and discussed were validated by comparison with results from labora-
ways in which they can be overcome so that the physical tory experiments. The authors presented an approach
strength of new types of connections can be predicted to optimization based on the insights obtained from the
reliably. It is difficult to involve local deformation sub simulations and practical experiments. A FE analysis
models in FE analysis of complicated clinching process. based on the ABAQUS software was also carried out
Breda et al. [155] use a simplified element method to for the C-frame of the roller clinching machine [160].
represent the equivalent modeling strategy for FE sim- Variations of frame geometry were assessed by analyzing
ulation of large structures. The key point of the method the straining of the material. Some of these variations
is the use of uncoupled plastic behavior to model the included reduction of the mass of the frame by recessing
joint plastic properties. For calibrating the parameters in order to determine the influence upon the rigidity of
governing the equivalent model, a simple shear lap and the structure.
pull-out reference test of a single clinched joint was used. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used in the design and
The presented methodology was validated using a mod- development phases in order to optimize the economic
ified Arcan test of a single joint, which allowed to exert and environmental impacts of products from concept to
a combination of shear and pull-out loads. disposal. When considering the manufacturing phase of
Traditional manufacturing of vehicle catalytic con- the product life cycle, it is usually necessary to generate
verters employs two types of bending die for combining models of individual steps and then analyze them in
upper and lower heat insulation plates. A single-action, combination. For this modeling to be successful it is
two-step clinching system for joining the plates has been necessary to develop parameterized processes [161] so
developed in order to simplify the process [156]. The that the effect of variations in the parameter values can
authors used FE analysis in the design stage for predict- be properly assessed. The aim of the modeling effort
ing bending force and plate final shape. Then a bending should be to provide designers with tools that include
die recovery and cushioning system can be designed. parameterized models of environmental processes
A study involving a combination of experimental trials that are applicable to the products being considered.
and numerical simulations of the clinching process was With such tools, designers would be better able to
carried out and the mechanical strength of the prod- estimate important elements such as the probable energy
uct with different surface preparations was ascertained consumption and materials for the manufacturing
[157]. FE simulations with ABAQUS/Explicit software technology used.
Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 18 (2017) 391X. HE
4. Clinching of different sheet materials draft angle [171, 172]. Results from studies of the main
geometric parameters of joints between magnesium alloy
The vehicle manufacturing industry envisions that
samples showed that joint strength can be effectively
optimization of vehicle cost and performance can be
improved by suitably controlling the die parameters.
achieved by using a range of materials for vehicle parts
and assemblies so as to take advantage of the particular
properties of each material. Following this philosophy, 4.2. Titanium alloys
some automobile companies are experimenting with Titanium alloys have also been used in place of steel
lightweight materials to improve energy efficiency and in order to reduce vehicle weight and lower fuel con-
performance while simultaneously reducing carbon sumption. Fusion welding is commonly used to join tita-
dioxide emissions. A recent lightweight concept vehi- nium sheets together or to join titanium to other metals
cle was constructed using ultra-high-strength steels, but this process can change the micro-structure of the
carbon-fiber composites, aluminum, magnesium, and welded region, adversely affecting the mechanical prop-
advanced lightweight plastics throughout. The range of erties of the joints. In addition, fusion welding requires
materials with substantially different properties raised materials and equipment and the means to discharge the
particular problems with respect to joining. In this con- exhaust gases. These requirements increase manufactur-
text, clinching is often a preferred joining technique for ing costs and impacts on the environment. It is widely
aluminum alloys and steel as well as for metals such as accepted that clinching can be used to join titanium
magnesium alloys, titanium alloys and composites that and other lightweight alloy sheets well but few investi-
are difficult to weld [162,163]. gations have been published to date. He et al. [173,174]
reported experiments on the mechanical behavior of
4.1. Magnesium alloys titanium clinched joints. Joints between combinations
of similar sheets (TA1–TA1, where TA1 is an industrial
The availability of lightweight magnesium alloys in code for titanium metal with less than 1% of impuri-
recent years has provided further opportunities for ties) and dissimilar sheets (H62–TA1 and Al5052–TA1,
weight reduction in transportation system components. Figure 14) were studied. The tensile-shear strengths
A pre-condition for the expanded use of these materials of the joints were characterized by plotting force–
is the availability of ways to join components that are displacement curves and the energy absorption,
widely applicable and offer maximum utilization of the load-bearing capacity, and failure modes were also
materials under operating loads [164]. Clinching can studied. Results showed that almost all titanium sheets
be used to join magnesium components homogene- clinched joints failed in the neck fracture mode. Results
ously as well as in combination with other materials. also showed that the load-bearing capacity and energy
Unfortunately, plastic deformation of magnesium and absorption of clinched joints with titanium as upper
its alloys can be achieved only at temperatures above sheets are higher than those of the clinched joints with
about 220°C because of the anisotropic deformation of titanium as lower sheets.
the hexagonal crystal structure at lower temperatures.
Heating magnesium substrates above 220°C leads to
4.3. Copper alloys
a broad extension of deformability and enables the
formation of high-quality clinched joints. Hahn et al. Copper alloys have excellent ductility, thermal and elec-
[165, 166] described a laboratory-scale process for safe trical conductivity. Because of these properties they have
joining of magnesium substrates by clinch riveting, been used extensively in different engineering fields.
self-piercing riveting and clinching. This was achieved Combinations of dissimilar metals such as copper and
by inductively heating the magnesium substrates as a aluminum alloys have also been widely used in electrical
precursor to the joining operation. industries. Where similar and dissimilar metal sheets
The flat clinching method also offers important ben- of copper alloys and aluminum alloys must be joined,
efits for joining magnesium [167–169]. Flat clinching fusion welding and friction stir welding techniques are
employs a flat anvil in place of a die. When forming normally used. It is widely accepted now that these mate-
Mg/Mg, Al/Mg or Fe/Mg joints with a flat counter tool, rials can also be joined by clinching because copper and
the proportion of crack inducing tensile stresses in the aluminum alloys have excellent ductility. Several authors
bottom part is very low. Shi et al. [170] studied the effect [64,175,176] have reported clinching of the H62 cop-
of elevated temperature on the quality of clinch joints per alloy. The authors conducted tests on mechanical
between sheets of AZ31 magnesium alloy. The authors properties of joints formed by clinching. Experimental
simulated the transfer of heat energy during the clinch- data were validated by statistical analysis. Results for
ing process using commercially available DEFORM-2D fatigue life (N) and fatigue load (F) were plotted on log-
and DEFORM-3D software. Simulations and subse- log coordinates and fitted by a least squares method.
quent analysis covered different values for the groove Equations describing the F-N curves were obtained and
fillet radius, die depth, groove depth, groove width and analysis of the results showed that the clinched joints
Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 18 (2017) 392X. HE
5.1. Bond-clinching
Adhesive bonding is used mostly to enhance the
load-bearing capacity of joints and make them water-
tight. Combining clinching with adhesive joining
(a) Hybrid composites joined by flat-clinching.
appears to have potential applications in manufactur-
ing but there is at present some uncertainty about the
stability of hybrid joining processes. Most of this uncer-
tainty arises from a lack of knowledge about the flow of
adhesive during the joining operation [196].
Sadowski et al. [197–201] conducted systematic stud-
(b) Corrugated cardboard sheets joined by flat-clinching.
ies involving numerical simulations and experimental
tests of clinched lap joints between dissimilar metal
Figure 15. Cross sections of composite and cardboard sheets strips bonded with adhesives, and reported results that
joined by flat-clinching [185]. can be applied in different engineering fields. FE models
of the hybrid joints were constructed using the ABAQUS
produced on the aluminum and carbon fiber reinforced code and used to study the performance of the joints
polymer (CFRP) sheets. The effectiveness of two-step under tension and shear loads. The study aimed to inves-
clinching for joining aluminum and CFRP was also tigate the whole-structure response up to and including
investigated [189]. Different reshaping tools were eventual failure. Experiments using the digital image
involved after joining by clinching with split dies. The correlation (DIC) system ARAMIS allowed precise mon-
reshaping force was also varied. Single lap shear tests of itoring of the deformation process in a selected hybrid
simple clinched and reshaped specimens were carried joint. The experimental and numerical simulation results
out for determining the effect of the process conditions confirmed that the introduction of an adhesive into the
upon the performance of the joints. The morphology clinched joint increases the joint strength.
and geometry of joints were analyzed to understand how While it is commonly believed that adding an
the reshaping step influences the main quality criteria adhesive layer to clinched joints is beneficial, there is
of the joints and the damage produced on the CFRP uncertainty about negative effects on the mechanical
sheet. The suitability of clinching to join glass fiber rein- properties of the joints. Several researchers, e.g. He
forced polymer (GFRP) sheets with aluminum sheets et al. [63], Xing et al. [202], and Liu et al. [203] have
was investigated by Lambiase et al. [190]. Different types investigated the strength and energy absorption capacity
of tools were tested, including split, grooved, flat dies, of clinch-bonded joints under tensile loads in order to
as well as rectangular ones. Effect of sheet thickness resolve this issue. The results of their work show that
and alloy composition upon joinability and mechani- including an adhesive layer increases both the strength
cal behavior of the joints was analyzed. Single lap shear and energy absorption capacities of joints. They found
tests were conducted to study the joinability of the GFRP that the adhesive layer can act as a lubricant between
sheets with aluminum sheets. In addition, the geometry the two sheets during the clinching process but that
evolution of the joints during clinching was studied to after curing, the glue introduced strong adhesive forces
understand the material flow and damage evolution of between two sheets. However, in tensile shear load tests
both aluminum and GFRP sheets. the adhesive layer failed in a brittle manner after peak
load. At this point, the clinch keeps sheets connected but
the joint can bear only a small additional load.
5. Hybrid joining Friedrich et al. [204,205] investigated using hot-melt
Hybrid joining involves using two or more joining adhesive bonding in clinch joints between thermoplas-
techniques to produce joints with desirable properties tic and metal sheets. Specimens of PA6-GF15 plastic
in addition to those obtained by using a single tech- and DC04 steel were clinch-joined in various combina-
nique. The mechanical properties of clinched joints tions and then subjected to peel and tensile shear loads.
can be improved by combining clinching with other The authors were able to demonstrate that appropriate
fastening techniques, such as adhesive bonding, riv- clinching and hot-gluing can result greater joint strength
eting, etc [191–194]. Experimental analysis of hybrid compared to clinching or hot-gluing alone.
joints can be conducted using the design of experiments FE methods are commonly used to simulate the fail-
(DoE) methodology, taking into account the influence ure of clinch-bonded joints. Alternatives include using
of factors such as the materials being joined, tool and GTN and ductile damage (DD) models. Cohesive zone
joint geometry and environmental factors on the static (CZ) models can also be used to simulate damage and
strength, stiffness and energy absorption of the resulting failure in clinched joints that incorporate an adhesive
joints. Results can be assessed using statistical methods layer. Excessive distortion of the elements can be avoided
such as analysis of variance (ANOVA) [195]. by using arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) adaptive
Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 18 (2017) 394X. HE
meshing and the minimum time increment in explicit technology. Rivet-clinching allows for greater flexibil-
analyses can be increased by using mass scaling. On ity in sheet joining as the extensible die can be used in
this basis, Pirondi and Moroni [206] began their analy- this new technology. Another new clinching method,
sis with 3D modeling of clinching processes. They then namely die-less rivet-clinching, has also been introduced
derived the values for GTN and DD model parameters by Neugebauer et al. [167]. The die-less rivet-clinching
by an inverse method, comparing the results from sim- works with a flat anvil as a counter tool. When join-
ulations of simple clinched joints with data from experi- ing materials by forming with a flat counter tool the
ments or published literature. Finally, the adhesive layer crack-inducing tensile stresses in the bottom part are
was introduced into the model as a layer of cohesive very low.
elements. The results of the simulations agreed well with
values obtained experimentally with respect to the stiff- 5.4. Laser-assisted clinching
ness, peak load and the energy absorption capacity of
the joints. Conventional clinching of steel substrates is cur-
The purpose of Lee et al.’s study [207] was to pro- rently limited to those with a tensile strength less than
pose multi-cohesive zone models (CZMs) for the design 800 N mm–2 and elongation at fracture more than 14%.
of hybrid joined structures made from AA6063 alloy High-strength steels can be clinched if the ductility at
sheets. The failure behavior of hybrid clinching was the site of the joint can be improved by localized heat-
described by multi-CZMs to evaluate the crash resist- ing. Reich et al. [212] proposed a laser assisted clinching
ance of hybrid clinched structures. Cohesion parameters method to solve this problem. With this new method,
of mechanically joined and adhesive bonded parts in the overlap section is heated locally by a laser during the
hybrid joining were determined by a numerical-exper- clinching process. As long as the heating is confined to
iment approximation technique. The crash-worthiness the joint area, the properties of the material away from
of top-hat specimens joined by hybrid clinching was the joint should be unchanged by the joining process. In
designed based on the crash analysis with multi-CZMs. this context, Osten et al. [213] investigated the behav-
Also, the crash tests were performed to verify the effec- ior of press hardened steel 22MnB5 when subjected to
tiveness of multi-CZMs. short-time heating. The mechanical properties of sam-
ples were studied by thermo-mechanical analysis in a
deformation dilatometer. The results showed, for the first
5.2. Ultrasound-assisted clinching
time, the feasibility of laser-assisted clinching between
Ultrasound-assisted clinching applies ultrasonic energy sheets of 22MnB5 press-hardened steel.
to the punch during the process. Current research
focuses on the possibility of using the ultrasonic sof- 6. Modified clinching processes
tening mechanisms in clinching of high-strength steel
and aluminum. An ultrasonic unit with a power of 1 kW Conventional clinching technology has no thermal effect
was installed into a C-shaped clinching bow to apply a on the materials being joined and does not introduce
vibration with a frequency of 20 kHz to the clinching complementary joining elements such as rivets that add
process. Heeln and Wanner [208] described the integra- weight to the structure. On the other hand, the process
tion of the ultrasonic unit in the clinching process. The causes a protrusion jutting out of the sheet plane on the
research results focusing on verification of the concept die side. For this reason, conventional clinching cannot
were also presented. be used for visible and functional surfaces such as auto-
motive body shells and sliding parts [56]. Also, access
to both sides of the joint is essential and the technique
5.3. Rivet-clinching
cannot be used on brittle substrates. To overcome these
Mucha et al. [209–211] proposed a new sheet metal join- problems, some modified clinching methods have been
ing technology using a combination of clinching and developed.
riveting. The authors described joining S350 GD sheet
metal using this combination of joining technologies.
6.1. Flat clinching
The authors carried out uniaxial shearing test to deter-
mine the strength of overlay joints using 1 mm thick Flat clinching was introduced in the 1990s [214]. In
steel sheets. This material is used in the construction of this process, the joined sheets are deformed after press
light gauge steel frames for residential and commercial clinching by being sandwiched between a punch and
buildings. The authors discussed the results achieved a flat die. This creates a new joint configuration which
for joints arranged in parallel and perpendicular to the is flat on the bottom surface. Because at the end of the
load for specified joint spacing and for various combi- process one surface is flat, the technology can be applied
nations of joint types. The test results for rivet-clinched even on functional surfaces. In a further variation, the
joints were compared with those for clinching alone. second step was performed by pressing the joint between
Joint strength can be increased by using rivet-clinching two flat dies and this has been shown to be very effective.
Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 18 (2017) 395X. HE
and this substitution extends the range of applications steel, by conventional clinching. A new process called
for clinching to areas not covered by standard clinch- hole-clinching may find use in joining these materials
ing methods. For example, joining complex mechanical without additional elements such as rivets [225]. In this
parts usually involves employing medium-based form- single-stage process the die-side material is pre-punched
ing processes either because the insides of the parts are by indirect hole-cutting and then the upper layer is
inaccessible, because the joining operation involves formed into this hole. Figure 18 shows the hole-clinch-
attaching parts or because handling of the parts being ing process and the resulting hole-clinched joint. This
joined is difficult for some reason. Integrating clinching variation of conventional clinching has the potential to
and hydro-forming processes can shorten assembly times greatly enlarge the applicability of clinching even if hot
and avoid the distortion of parts that might otherwise stamped steels are positioned on the die-side. The tech-
occur during subsequent thermal joining. Figure 17 nique has been studied by Busse et al. [226,227] and
shows the operational sequence of hydro-clinching Müller et al. [228] in relation to non-welded joining of
[224]. The authors also discussed the potential and limits high strength steel and aluminum sheets. FE analysis was
of this new method in comparison with alternative meth- used to explore and confirm different tool concepts and
ods. The advantage of hydro-clinching is the decrease later on for the selection of appropriate values for the
of the number of processing steps and the new design process parameters. Geometric optimization was deter-
possibilities. The high accuracy of the hydro-clinching mined by numerical simulation, and the feasibility of
can be maintained by the cold joining technique, which forming clinched joints by this method was confirmed
represents a large advantage in relation to the welding by conducting physical experiments. Joined specimens
techniques used so far. were subjected to shear tensile and quasi-static cross
tensile loads to determine the load-bearing capacities
6.3. Hole clinching of the joints. Detailed micrographs were also prepared.
The applicability of hole-clinching techniques was
For car manufacturers, joining dissimilar materials by elaborated by Lee et al. [229–232]. These systematic
mechanical joining is an important technique as it ena- studies were aimed at developing new hole-clinching
bles car bodies to be constructed from combinations of processes for combinations of materials that are other-
different materials. However, it is difficult to join duc- wise difficult to join. New tools were designed in terms
tile materials such as aluminum alloy to high-strength/ of the forming volume and the load-bearing capacity
low-ductility materials, such as carbon fiber reinforced required. The authors analyzed the results of FE sim-
plastic, hot-pressed steel and advanced high-strength ulations and conducted physical experiments to verify
Hole-clinched joint
Figure 20. Typical behavior of an injection clinched joint when tested for lap shear strength (a)–(e) stages observed during the test
[178].
Figure 21. Fracture surface of PA66-GF composite after injection clinching joining (ICJ): (a) rivet pull-out failure, ductile: condition
60C-PA66 (composite dried for 24 h at 60°C) and (b) net tension, brittle failure: condition 120C-PA66 (composite dried for 24 h at
120°C) [178].
may lead to instability in the numerical calculation and computational clinching process models that are effec-
divergence to a nonlinear solution in FE analysis. Other tive, reliable and bi-directional in nature. Models for
numerical methods such as the finite difference method, simulating mechanical clinching process are still under
particle method, etc., can be used to avoid these prob- development and much work is still needed.
lems with difficult or troublesome clinching processes. The effect of process parameters on clinched joint
A suitable numerical method is useful for establishing quality is well established only for aluminum alloys and
Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 18 (2017) 399X. HE
ferroalloys. For some lightweight alloys, such as titanium initial parameters for further studies of the mechanical
alloys and magnesium alloys, clinching is restricted by properties of joints and structures, static and fatigue
the limited ductility of the materials at room tempera- analysis, crash analysis, prediction of assembly dimen-
ture. In order to form joints without cracks, the mate- sions, etc.
rial at the joint site must be heated to an appropriate In recent years there have been exciting developments
temperature. New methods for localized heating are in clinching techniques and the successful industrial use
being developed to improve ductility at the site of the of the technology to join sheet materials that are difficult
joint while minimizing or preventing adverse effects to weld. However, the technology is still in its infancy
elsewhere in the materials being joined. Examples of and so far much of the development of the clinch-
these new methods include laser-assisted clinching and ing process for each new application has been largely
ultrasonic-assisted clinching. The mechanical proper- empirical. Scientific knowledge-based studies are, and
ties of the materials during short-time heat treatment will continue to be, of significant help in understanding
can be investigated by thermo-mechanical analysis in a the clinching process and its application in solving real-
deformation dilatometer. It is commonly believed that world engineering problems.
the addition of these new joining techniques in clinched In this paper, the research activities and the progress
joints is beneficial but it is not yet clear whether they made to date in clinching are reviewed. Some impor-
have negative effects on the mechanical properties of tant issues such as tool design and process parame-
the resulting clinched joints. Little work has been done ters are highlighted. The joinability of new lightweight
in this area and consequently there is a distinct lack of sheet materials by clinching is introduced. The hybrid
information regarding the practical use of these hybrid clinching processes and modified clinching processes are
clinching techniques. described. In addition, several unaddressed issues in the
The clinching process involves very high shear strains. clinching of sheet materials are identified.
The high strain rates are sufficient to cause micro-
structural changes in some work hardened alloys. The Acknowledgments
mechanisms of micro-structural evolution also vary in
different alloys. Thus it is still early for the application This study is supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China [grant number 51565023] and Major
of clinching to materials other than aluminum alloys Program Foundation of the Education Department of
and ferroalloys. While preliminary studies showed that Yunnan Province, China [grant number ZD201504].
clinching is a potential technique for obtaining reliable
joints in some new light alloys [233–238], there is an
obvious need to gain a full understanding of the hybrid Disclosure statement
clinching processes and their interactions which deter- No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
mine micro-structures. This is a major challenge for
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