A PROJECT REPORT ON

AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL CONTROLLER

IN THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIRMENT FOR THE AWARD

OF

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRONICS& COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

Submitted by UNDRE GUDiANCE OF

B. PURNACHANDER Mr.K.M.ARAVIND
B.E , M.TECH.

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS& COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

GOVERNAMENT POLYTECHNIC
NANDIPET

NIZAMABAD- 503002 (TS)

2013-2016
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that Thesis/Report entitled “ AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL

CONTROLLER ”which is submitted by me in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of diploma in Electronic and Communication
Engineering to Govt.Ploytechnic, Nandipet comprises only my original work and
due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used .

DATE : __________
 CERTIFICATE

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

GOVT. POLYTECHNIC, NANDIPET

This is to certify that Report entitled “ AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL

CONTROLLER” which is submitted by B. PURNACHANDER bearing pin
13191-EC-006 in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of diploma in
Electronics & Communication Engineering is a record of the candidate own work
carried out by him under my/our supervision during the academic year 2012-2015

GUIDE HEAD OF SECTION PRINCIPLE

 A REPORT ON
AUTOMATIC WATER LEVEL CONTROLLER

Sudmittedby :

Name Pin No

B. PURNACHANDER -- 13191-EC-006

A. AKHIL -- 13191-EC-004

L.AKASH -- 13191-EC-030

V.BHANU PRAKASH -- 13191-EC-055

K. MOHANAKRISHNA -- 13191-EC-027

DATE : __________ Lab Instructor

MR.ROOP SINGH
D.E (Elect.)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I am deeply indebted to my mentor LEC. who inspiration
has been unfailingly available to me at all stages of my training. This has fueled
my enthusiasm even further and encouraged me to boldly step into what was a
totally dark and unexplored expanse before me.
I would like to thank LEC.for his efforts, who was always ready with a
positive comment, whether it was an off-hand comment to encourage me or
constructive piece of criticism.In course of present work it has been my privilege
to receive help and assistance of my friends. I take great pleasure in acknowledge
my debt to them.
I wish to thank my parents for their undivided support and interest who
inspired me and encouraged me to go my own way, without whom I would be
unable to complete my project. At last but not the least I want to thank my friends
who appreciated me for my work and motivated me and finally to God who made
all the things possible.
CONTENT

1. Certificate

2. Declaration

3. Acknowledgement

4. Abstract

5. Introduction

6. Components Required

7. Block and Schematic Diagram

8. PCB and Hardware Description

9. Advantages, Dis-advantages and Applications

10. Future Expansion

11. Conclusion

12. Biography
 CHAPTER
TRANSISTOR

5.1 Introduction to Transistor :

The transistor was initially developed at Bell Laboratories in the year 1948.
Transistors are a kind of switch and can be applied to as many electronic
equipments. Transistors are brought into play in a number of circuits. You may
find transistors in approx all the electronic appliances, they are an imperative
element in electronics industry. Transistors are mainly of two types – PNP & NPN.
Maximum circuits are employed with NPN transistors. A number of transistors are
there and all of them work on different voltages but all these transistors are from
these two categories only.
Transistors are man-made in various shapes but they have 3 legs:-
• The BASE is the front leg accountable for making the transistor active.
• The COLLECTOR is the positive leg.
• The EMITTER is the negative leg
 FIG 5.1 Different types of Transistor
5.2 NPN Transistor :

By NPN we mean negative-positive-negative transistor. NPN transistors comprise

a positive layer positioned amid 2 negative layers. Where, NPN is the most
common type of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) used in many circuits.

FIG 5.2 NPN Transistor Configuration

The diagram shown above of NPN transistor shows that transistor is employed as
switch. A minute voltage or current at the bottom permits a superior voltage to run
all the way through the other 2 legs from the collector to the emitter. The second
diagram above of NPN transistor shows that when the switch is pushed a current is
passed all the way through the resistor in the bottom of the transistor. The
transistor then permits current to run from +9 voltages to the 0 volts, and the bulb
of the lamp glows on.

The transistor needs to collect a voltage at its ‘bottom’ and until this occurs the
lamp does not glow. The resistor is exists to shield the transistor as they may be
injured quickly by extremely high voltage or current. Transistors are a vital
constituent in a lot of circuits and are at times employed to intensify a signal.

5.3 PNP Transistor :

The opposite of NPN transistor is the PNP transistor. Fundamentally, in this sort of
transistor’s structure the 2 diodes are upturned with reference to the NPN sort
providing a Positive-Negative-Positive pattern, with the à (arrow) which also
describes the Emitter terminal this moment spotting inside in the transistor
emblem.
All the polarization for a PNP transistor are upturned , the meaning of this is that it
“drops” current into its bottom as opposite to the NPN transistor which “supplies”
current all the way through its bottom. The major variation amid the 2 sorts of
transistors is that holes are the more significant transporters for PNP transistors,
while electrons are the significant transporters for NPN transistors.

PNP transistors bring into play a minute base current and a negative bottom
voltage to direct a much superior emitter collector current. In simple terms, for
PNP transistor, the Emitter is additional positive in consideration to the base and
also in consideration to the collector.
The structure of a PNP transistor includes 2 P-type semi-conductor substances on
both side of an N-type substance as revealed in the figure below.

FIG 5.3 PNP Transistor Configuration

(Arrow defines the emitter and conventional current flow, “in” for a PNP
transistor.)

5.4 Transistor Biasing :

For the appropriate functioning of the circuit, it is essential to bias the transistor by
employing resistor systems. Operating point is a point on the productivity traits
that exhibits the Collector-Emitter volt & the collector current with zero input
signal. The Operating point is also named as the Quiescent point (Q-Point) or Bias
point. Biasing means giving capacitors, resistors or supply voltage etc to supply
appropriate operating attributes of the transistors. DC biasing is employed to get
DC collector current at an exact collector volt. The value of this volt and current
are articulated in expressions of the Q-Point. In a transistor amplifier arrangement,
the IC (maximum) is the utmost current that can run all the way through the
transistor and VCE (maximum) is the utmost volt valid across the machine.

5.5 Modes of Transistor Biasing :

1. Current Biasing:As shown in the 1st figure below, 2 resistors RB & RC are
employed to place the base bias. The resistors used in the circuit create the initial
functioning area of the transistor with a constant current bias. The transistor bias
forward, with a positive foundation bias voltage throughout RB. Consequently the
current throughout RB is IB = (Vcc – VBE) / IB.
2. Feedback Biasing:As shown in the 2nd figure below, the foundation bias is
achieved from the collector voltage. The collector feedback makes certain that the
transistor is constantly biased in the dynamic area. When the current of collector
rises, the volt at the collector decreases. This decreases the bottom drive which in
return decreases the current of collector. This feedback pattern is perfect for
transistor amplifier designs.
3.Double Feedback Biasing:As shown in the 3rd figure below, by making use of
2 resistors RB1 & RB2 rises the steadiness in consideration to the deviations in
Beta by rising the flow of current via the bottom bias resistors. In this pattern, the
RB1 current is equivalent to 10 % of the current in collector.
4. Voltage Dividing Biasing: As shown in the 4th figure below, the voltage
dividing biasing in which 2 resistors RB1 & RB2 are coupled to the bottom of the
transistors creating a voltage splitting (dividing) system. The transistor obtains
biases by the voltage fall across RB2. This sort of biasing pattern is employed
extensively in amplifier circuits.
5. Double Base Biasing:The 5th figure shown below, exhibits the double feedback
for steadiness. It employs both collector & emitter foundation feedback to perk up
the steadiness via controlling the current of collector.

FIG 5.5 Modes of Biasing

5.6 Transistor Characteristics :

To learn the transistor characteristics a transistor is either functioned in ordinary

emitter pattern or in common foundation pattern. Let’s capture an NPN transistor
functioned on common emitter approach. As converses previously a transistor
functions barely when the input side is biased forwardly and output side is biased
reversely. Ammeter is united in succession with collector & base to calculate
bottom current and current of collector correspondingly. Voltmeters are united in
parallel to calculate the input volt (VBE) & output volt (VCE). To learn the
characteristics, the output factor, specifically VCE is held stable and the deviation
of input current with input volt is calculated and the similar designed in the graph
(below) (VBE v/s IB). A unit of curves might be designed by changing VCE. The
graph symbolizes the characteristics of a forwardly biased P-N junction.

The incline of the graph at a specified tip provides the input resistance
Now to learn the output characteristics, input current is held even and the alternates
out voltage and output current are calculated and a graph is designed (above). It
symbolizes characteristics of a reversely biased P-N junction diode.

The output impedance is able to calculate from the graph. Output impedance is
the quotient of output volt to output current at a stable input current.

To be precise –

The output characteristics depicts that IC alters quickly in the start but in a little
while IC becomes self-regulating of VCE, appearing like a saturated one. The
quotient – is almost stable and it is entitled as current gain

5.7 Transistor Operation :

A transistor connected in a circuit has to be in one of these three circumstances:-

1. Disconnect (no flow of current in connector), helpful for switch operation.

2. When in active area (a quantity of collector current, more than some tenths
of a voltage higher than the emitter), helpful for amplifier purposes

3. In saturation (collector some tenths of a voltage higher than emitter), higher

current helpful for “switch on” purposes.
 Fig 5.6 Working of Transistor as an Amplifier

5.8 Types of Transistor:

A number of transistors types are employed mainly for switching

purposes. While others can be employed for both amplification & switching
purpose. Below is a listing of the different sorts of transistors:

1.Bipolar Junction Transistors – Bipolar junction transistors are made up of 3

areas, the base, the collector & the emitter. There transistors are current controlled.
Bipolar junction transistors are of 2 types- PNP & NPN.
2.Field Effect Transistors – Field effect transistors are made up of 3 areas
namely- a drain, a gate & a source. These are voltage controlled devices. A voltage
supplied at the gate controls flow of current from the source to the drain of
transistor. Field effect transistors are of two types- JFETs & MOSFETs
5.9 Types of Transistor by Function :

1. Small Signal Transistors : Small signal transistors are transistors that are
employed mainly to intensify low level signals but can even work well as switches.
2. Small Switching Transistors :Small Switching Transistors are transistors that
are used primarily as switches but which can also be used as amplifiers. They
come in NPN and PNP forms.
3. Power Transistors : Power transistors are appropriate for the purpose where a
large number of power is being consumed- voltage & current. The transistor’s
collector is united with a metal base that behaves like a heat sink to disburse
surplus power.
4. High Frequency Transistors : RF transistors are transistors that are employed
for minute signals that flow at high frequency for high speed switching purposes.
High frequency transistors are employed in VHF, HF, CATV, UHF, and MATV
amplifier and oscillator purposes.
5. Photo-transistors:These transistors are light sensitive. Photo-transistors
resembles like a bipolar transistor with its base leg eliminated and substituted with
a light-sensitive region.
6. Uni-junction Transistors :Uni-junction transistors are three legged transistors
that perform entirely as electricity controlled switches; these transistors are not
employed as amplifiers.
 FIG 5.8 Types of Transistor

5.10 Transistor Applications :

Common applications of transistor comprise of analog & digital switches, power

regulators, signal amplifiers & equipment controllers. Transistors are also the
constructing units of incorporated circuits and most up-to-date electronics.
Microprocessors over and over again comprise more than a billion of transistors in
every single chip. Transistors are employed in approximately everything, from
stove-tops to computers and pacesetters to airplanes.

The primary transistors were fashioned in the year 1940 as semi-conductor

substitutes for vacuum tubes. In the early years transistor applications comprise of
radios, telephone equipment, hearing aids, etc. Room sized PCs were re-considered
to bring transistors into play, condensing their size and eliminating excess heating
issues. In contrast to vacuum tubes, transistors are undersized, not expensive and
less bulky—they are also sturdy and not sensitive to trembling or shock. No warm-
up time is required in it, a small functioning voltage and an elongated life period;
the transistor rapidly substituted the majority of vacuum tube technology.
 CAPACITORS
capacitor is the basic passive component commonly used electronic circuits. A
capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating
medium called dielectric. The plates of a capacitor have opposite charges this gives
rise to an electric field. In a capacitor the electric field is concentrated in the
dielectric b/w the plates.
Fixed capacitor + -
Variable capacitor + - -

Capacitance:
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric the
property of a capacitor is to block DC signal. While passing AC signal the capacity
of a capacitor is to store electric charge (Ø) is known as capacitance and is
proportional to applied voltage(V) this can be mathematically expressed as
Q=CV
Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor therefore
C=Q/V the unit of capacitor is farad (F)
Factors effecting capacitance of a capacitor:
The capacitance depends on the following factors.
I. Directly proportional to the area of the plates in square meters.
II. Depends on the permittivity of the medium b/w the plates and
III. Inversely proportional to the distance (d) b/w the plates in meters

C=ɛA/d {ɛ= ɛo ɛr)

Where ɛo=absolute permittivity of air[ɛ=8.54x10 -12F/M]
And ɛr=relative permittivity of mediums
Classification of a capacitor
1. According to the type of di electric used
I. Mica capacitor
II. Paper capacitor
III. Ceramic capacitor
IV. Air capacitor
V. Electrolytic capacitors
2. According to physical construction
I. Fixed capacitors ex:mica, paper, ceramic, electrolytic capacitors
II. Variable capacitors ex:tuning, trimming capacitors
3. According to the polarization
I. Polarized ex:aluminium, tantalum electrolytic capacitor
II. Non-polarized ex: aluminium, tantalum electrolytic capacitors

4. According to voltage rating

I. Low voltage capacitors(<0) ex:ceramic electrolytic capacitors
II. High voltage capacitors(>100V)
III. Ex:mica, glass, ceramic capacitors

Specifications of capacitors:
1. Capacitor value
2. Tolerance
 3. dielectric constant
4. dielectric strength
5. power factor
6. temperature co-efficient
7. voltage rating
8. leakage resistance/leakage current
9. stability

Applications of capacitors
1. To store electric charge.
2. To block d.c and allow a.c.
3. In electronic oscillator circuits.
4. Tuning and tracking circuits in radio receivers.
5. Used in filter circuits.

Ceramic capacitors:
Ceramic capacitors are available in following type’s namely tubular, disc,
monolithic and barrier layer.
Specifications:
I. Capacitance range: 1PF to 0.02MF.
II. Tolerance: 20%.
III. Power factor: 0.001.
IV. Maximum working voltage in volts: 300V.
V. Operating temperature: 80c to 00c.
VI. Stability: good.

Applications: 1. by pass and coupling capacitors in transmitter circuit.

2. Tank circuits and matching circuits.
 CHAPTER
RELAY
6.1 RELAY:

We know that most of the high end industrial application devices have relays for
their effective working. Relays are simple switches which are operated both
electrically and mechanically. Relays consist of a n electromagnet and also a set of
contacts. The switching mechanism is carried out with the help of the
electromagnet. There are also other operating principles for its working. But they
differ according to their applications. Most of the devices have the application of
relays.

The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal can
be used to control a circuit. It is also used in places where only one signal can be
used to control a lot of circuits. The application of relays started during the
invention of telephones. They played an important role in switching calls in
telephone exchanges. They were also used in long distance telegraphy. They were
used to switch the signal coming from one source to another destination. After the
invention of computers they were also used to perform Boolean and other logical
operations. The high end applications of relays require high power to be driven by
electric motors and so on. Such relays are called contactors.

6.2 Relay Design :

There are only four main parts in a relay. They are

1) Electromagnet
2) Movable Armature
3) Switch point contacts
4) Spring
The figures given below show the actual design of a simple relay.

FIG 6.2 Design of Relay

It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron core. A path
of very low reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for the movable armature
and also the switch point contacts. The movable armature is connected to the yoke
which is mechanically connected to the switch point contacts. These parts are
safely held with the help of a spring. The spring is used so as to produce an air gap
in the circuit when the relay becomes de-energized.

6.3 Working of Relay :

The working of a relay can be better understood by explaining the following

diagram given below.

Relay Design
FIG 6.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is

surrounded by a control coil. As shown, the power source is given to the
electromagnet through a control switch and through contacts to the load. When
current starts flowing through the control coil, the electromagnet starts energizing
and thus intensifies the magnetic field. Thus the upper contact arm starts to be
attracted to the lower fixed arm and thus closes the contacts causing a short circuit
for the power to the load. On the other hand, if the relay was already de-energized
when the contacts were closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an open
circuit.
As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force
back to its initial position. This force will be almost equal to half the strength of the
magnetic force. This force is mainly provided by two factors. They are the spring
and also gravity.

Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage
application and the other is high voltage. For low voltage applications, more
preference will be given to reduce the noise of the whole circuit. For high voltage
applications, they are mainly designed to reduce a phenomenon called arcing

6.4 Basics Relay Construction :

The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 – pin relay shown
below. There are two colors shown. The green color represents the control circuit
and the red color represents the load circuit. A small control coil is connected onto
the control circuit. A switch is connected to the load. This switch is controlled by
the coil in the control circuit. Now let us take the different steps that occur in a
relayrelay operation
  Energized Relay (ON)

As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1
and 3 causes a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing
of the pins 2 and 4. Thus the switch plays an important role in the relay working.
As it is a part of the load circuit, it is used to control an electrical circuit that is
connected to it. Thus, when the relay in energized the current flow will be through
the pins 2 and 4.
Energized Relay (ON)

 De – Energized Relay (OFF)

As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the switch opens and thus
the open circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay
becomes de-energized and thus in off position.
In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet activates,
causing a magnetic field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2 and
4 causing a closed circuit. When there is no voltage on pin 1, there will be no
electromagnetic force and thus no magnetic field. Thus the switches remain
open

6.5 Pole and Throw :

Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A
relay is said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown
in mainly three ways. They are
.•Normally Open Contact (NO) – NO contact is also called a make contact. It
closes the circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the
relay is inactive.
• Normally Closed Contact (NC) – NC contact is also known as break contact.
This is opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit
disconnects. When the relay is deactivated, the circuit connects.
• Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts – This type of contacts are
used to control two types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact and
also a NC contact with a common terminal. According to their type they are called
by the names break before make and make before break contacts.
Relays are also named with designations like
• Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) – This type of relay has a total of four
terminals. Out of these two terminals can be connected or disconnected. The other
two terminals are needed for the coil.
• Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) – This type of a relay has a total of five
terminals. Out f these two are the coil terminals. A common terminal is also
included which connects to either of two others.
• Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) – This relay has a total of six terminals.
These terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as two SPST’s
which are actuated by a single coil. Out of the six terminals two of them are coil
terminals.
• Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) – This is the biggest of all. It has mainly
eight relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed to be change over
terminals. They are designed to act as two SPDT relays which are actuated by a
single coil.
6.6 Relay Selection :
You must note some factors while selecting a particular relay. They are
1. Protection – Different protections like contact protection and coil protection
must be noted. Contact protection helps in reducing arcing in circuits using
inductors. Coil protection helps in reducing surge voltage produced during
switching.
2. Look for a standard relay with all regulatory approvals.
3. Switching time – Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.
4. Ratings – There are current as well as voltage ratings. The current ratings
vary from a few amperes to about 3000 amperes. In case of voltage ratings,
they vary from 300 Volt AC to 600 Volt AC. There are also high voltage
relays of about 15,000 Volts.
5. Type of contact used – Whether it is a NC or NO or closed contact.
6. Select Make before Break or Break before Make contacts wisely.

6.7 Relay Applications :

1. Relays are used to realize logic functions. They play a very important role in
providing safety critical logic.
2. Relays are used to provide time delay functions. They are used to time the
delay open and delay close of contacts.
3. Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage
signals. Similarly they are used to control high current circuits with the help
of low current signals.
4. They are also used as protective relays. By this function all the faults during
transmission and reception can be detected and isolated
8.4 Description of Components

8.4.1 Printed Circuit Board :

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects

electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched
from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCBs can be single
sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer.
Conductors on different layers are connected with plated-through holes called vias.
Advanced PCBs may contain components - capacitors, resistors or active devices -
embedded in the substrate.
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products.
Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs
require the additional design effort to lay out the circuit but manufacturing and
assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and
faster than with other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with
one single part. Furthermore, operator wiring errors are eliminated.
When the board has only copper connections and no embedded components, it is
more correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board.
Although more accurate, the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A
PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly
(PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC
preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly (CCA),[1] and for
assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used informally
both for bare and assembled boards.

8.4.3 Transistor’s:

8.4.3.1 SL 100 :
Description:

SL100 is a general purpose, medium power NPN transistor. It is mostly used

as switch in common emitter configuration. The transistor terminals require
a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its characteristic
curves. This is known as the biasing. For switching applications, SL100 is
biased in such a way that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In
the absence of base signal, it gets turned off completely.

The emitter leg of SL100 is indicated by a protruding edge in the transistor

case. The base is nearest to the emitter while collector lies at other extreme
of the casing.
8.4.RELAY :

Fig. 8.4 Relay

Description:

We know that most of the high end industrial application devices have relays
for their effective working. Relays are simple switches which are operated
both electrically and mechanically. Relays consist of a n electromagnet and
also a set of contacts. The switching mechanism is carried out with the help
of the electromagnet. There are also other operating principles for its
working. But they differ according to their applications. Most of the devices
have the application of relays
7805
The LM7805 three terminal positive regulator IC is available in the to 220 package is fixed
output voltage of 5 volt, making it initially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided,
they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators,
these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
Features:
Output current up to 1A
Output voltages of 5V
Thermal overload protection
Short circuit protection
Output transistor safe operating area protection.
7805 BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Features
• Diffused Junction
• High Current Capability and Low Forward Voltage Drop
• Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak
• Low Reverse Leakage Current
• Lead Free Finish, RoHS Compliant (Note 3)
Mechanical Data
• Case: DO-41
• Case Material: Moulded Plastic. UL Flammability Classification
Rating 94V-0
• Moisture Sensitivity: Level 1 per J-STD-020D
• Terminals: Finish - Bright Tin. Plated Leads Solder able per
MIL-STD-202, Method 208
• Polarity: Cathode Band
• Mounting Position: Any
• Ordering Information: See Page 2
• Marking: Type Number
• Weight: 0.30 grams (approximate)

Axial Lead Standard

Recovery Rectifiers
This data sheet provides information on sub miniature size, axial
lead mounted rectifiers for general−purpose low−power applications.
Features
Shipped in Plastic Bags, 1000 per bag
Available Tape and Reeled, 5000 per reel, by adding a “RL” suffix to the part number
Available in Fan−Fold Packaging, 3000 per box, by adding a “FF”
Suffix to the part number
Pb−Free Packages are Available
Mechanical Characteristics
Case: Epoxy, Moulded
Weight: 0.4 gram (approximately)
Finish: All External Surfaces Corrosion Resistant and Terminal
Leads are Readily Solder able
Lead and Mounting Surface Temperature for Soldering Purposes: 260 C Max. for 10
Seconds, 1/16 in. from case
Polarity: Cathode Indicated by Polarity Band

8.5. Resistor :

FIG 8.5 Resistor

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the
same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors
are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements,
terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power resistors that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or
operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as
a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light,
humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and
are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components
can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented
within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing
tolerance

8.7 Battery :

8.8 Conneting wires :

8.9 Soldering kit

CHAPTER

BIBILOGRAPHY
Bibliography

 Reference Books
 Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory,Boylestad

 Hand Book of Electronics by A.K.Maini

 Sensors: Advancements in Modeling, Design Issues, Fabrication

and Practical by Subhas Chandra

 Relays and Its Application sharma, M.C (BPB-publishers)

 Website

 www.electronicsforu.com

 www.circuits today.com