FACTORS

TO CONSIDER
WHEN CHOOSING
DRIPPERLINES
HANDBOOK

V 001.01 - DECEMBER 2016

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THE NETAFIM™ DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM. RECEIPT OR THE POSSESSION OF THIS DOCUMENT DOES NOT IMPLY
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CONTENTS
Introduction 4
Aims 4
Factors and variables 4

Agronomic Considerations 5
Dripper spacing and flow rate 5
Number of dripperlines 7
Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) or on-surface drip irrigation 9
Compensated non leakage (CNL) drippers 11

Hydraulic Considerations 12
Example 1: Influence of emitter spacing on dripperline length 12
Example 2: Influence of dripper flow rate on dripperline length 12
Example 3: Influence of dripperline diameter on dripperline length 13
Example 4: Influence of wall thickness and internal diameter (ID) on dripperline length 13
Example 5: Influence of inlet flow rate on distribution line diameter 13
Example 6: Influence of dripperline diameter on dripperline length 14
Example 7: Influence of wall thickness on pressure range 14
Example 8: Influence of pressure compensation on dripperline length 15

Irrigation Water Quality Considerations 16

Client Character Considerations 19

Summary 20

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 3

INTRODUCTION
Aims
The aim of this guide is to assist Netafim™ sales managers during training, and those taking their first
steps with integral drip irrigation.

The purpose of this guide is to explain the factors and variables that influence the suitability of the integral
drip irrigation solution to the customer's needs.

The guide demonstrates the influence of various practical (not commercial) variables such as the type and
nature of the crop; The type and characteristics of the soil; Water quality; Hydraulics and maintenance
considerations; Flow rate and dripper spacing; dripper type and the number of dripperlines per unit area.

At the end of the guide you will find a comprehensive table describing all the variables and their impact on
the proposed solution.

May this guide wear out from extensive use...

Factors and variables

When determining which drip irrigation equipment will best meet the customer’s needs,
it is important to take several types of factors into consideration:
Agronomic considerations
Hydraulic considerations
Irrigation water quality
The character of the customer/operating team
Commercial considerations

The variables you need to determine are:

Dripper flow rate;
Dripper spacing;
Pressure-compensated (PC) or non-compensated drippers;
Dripper family (e.g. Uniram™, Aries™, etc.);
Dripperline diameter and wall thickness;
Number of dripperlines per unit area;
On-surface or subsurface drip irrigation (SDI);
Compensated non leakage (CNL) or drain drippers.

4 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

AGRONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
The agronomic considerations consist mainly of the needs of the crop. The implications of these needs
influences the dripper spacing and flow rate (and, as a result – the irrigation rate), as well as the number of
dripperlines (laterals) per unit or area.

Dripper spacing and flow rate

The most crucial stage in irrigation – the bottleneck, which determines the operating coefficients regarding
dripper spacing and flow rate – is the stage of germination or establishment of seedlings. At this stage,
optimal distribution of water is essential in order to cover the entire area of seeds/seedlings. This ensures
optimal wetting all around them and the balanced, deep development of roots. There is a different optimal
root configuration for each crop.

For high density crops, it is necessary to create a continuous wetted strip on the surface that slightly
exceeds the width of the sowing strips. The width of the wetted strip depends upon the characteristics
of the soil (narrower for sandy soil, wider for heavy soil) and previous tillage (crumbled, packed soil – good
water distribution, lumpy soil with many air spaces – poor water distribution, deep percolation). This is true
especially for vegetables and field crops, where the spacing of the seeds, seedlings or cuttings ranges
from a few centimeters per planting row (corn, sunflowers, sweet potatoes, etc.) to hundreds of seeds per
running meter per bed (onions, carrots, parsley, etc.).

Autumn germination of parsley, loess soil. After proper
centering and use of a roller, 2 x 150 m 3 /ha was enough
to create a continuous wet strip.
Autumn germination of onions, loess soil. The
difference between use of a roller after sowing (see
the left side of the photo) and no use of a roller (on
right), expressed in half the amount of water to needed
to create a continuous wet strip.

The smaller the dripper spacing, the smaller the amount of water needed to merge the wetted areas along
the dripperline, which also influences the width of the wetted strip on both sides of the dripperline.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 5

AGRONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

Germination of paprika after the same dosage of water. Loess soil.

Left: Ram™ dripper, 1.6 l/h, 50 cm spacing. Right: DripNet PC™ dripper, 1.0 l/h, 30 cm spacing.

At the stage where plant water consumption is minimal (sowing, planting etc.), as long as the water is
absorbed into the soil and puddles do not form under the drippers, the dripper flow rate does not have a
significant influence on the width of the wetted strip. The wetted strip is determined mainly by the soil
characteristics. However, there are advantages to a low dripper flow rate because it reduces the irrigation
rate in the field (longer dripperlines, larger shift areas, lower system cost, lower daily application rate.

In mature plants, there is an interrelationship of the irrigation rate (which is derived from the dripper flow
rate, dripper spacing and number of dripperlines in a given width), the irrigation period and the spatial
distribution of a given root zone. A long irrigation period (many hours a day) may cause the concentration
of the active root zone close to the soil surface and influence its distribution across the wetted strip, due
to availability of water, water-soluble fertilizers and optimal aeration conditions.

In the establishment and irrigation of perennial plants, it is possible, because of the gradual development
of the canopy and the root zone over the years, to adapt the size of the wetted area to tree development.
This is achieved by using dripper clusters or ring adapters + micro tubes during establishment and the
first two years, then enlarging the wetted area with on-line drippers. Alternatively, with continuous drip
irrigation, drippers can be plugged during the first stages, then unplugged as the tree develops.

It is important to remember that in the delivery of chemicals, and particularly herbicides, through the drip
irrigation system, a low dripper flow rate with smaller distance between drippers is preferable for uniform
distribution of the substance over the wetted area. Another advantage of low dripper flow rates is related
to the oxygen balance in the root zone and absorption of micro-elements. Trees that were established with
a dripper flow rate of 1.0 l/h or less in heavy soils demonstrated better absorption of microelements in the
first three years.

6 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

AGRONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

Young olive trees, limestone soil.

Left: The first, green and well-developed tree – 0.7 l/h; the small, yellow trees behind it – 2.3 l/h.
Right: The four green trees in front – UniRam™ dripper, 0.7 l/h, 50 cm spacing; the next four yellow trees –
UniRam™ dripper, 2.3 l/h, 50 cm spacing.

A low dripper flow rate has many advantages in terms of hydraulics and disadvantages in terms of
sensitivity to maintenance, subjects that are discussed later. From the agronomic perspective, there
is a disadvantage to a low daily application rate in a field. The low application rate is a limitation on hot
days, when it is necessary to apply large quantities of water to the soil. It is also important for creating
a continuous wet strip during seedling establishment. With daily application rates of hundreds of cubic
meters per hectare, where the irrigation rate is around 1.0 mm/h, water may reach the root zone of the
seedlings hours later – a critical drawback on hot days. Another limitation is when water is available for
irrigation for only a few hours a day (a common problem in various places around the world).

The dripper flow rate has a significant influence on the leaching of salts to the margins of the wetted area.
In research conducted at Netafim™, a dripper flow rate lower than 1.0 l/h increased the salinity of the
wetted bulb compared with a higher dripper flow rate. For this reason the crop coefficient (Kc) should be
increased when using low flow drippers with saline water.

A high dripper flow rate has maintenance advantages and hydraulic implications for system planning.
However, from the agronomic point of view, it is important to note that water permeates in the soil
without creating puddles in the area of the dripper. Puddles, at a later stage, may cause channels of
excess water flow, impairing the hydraulic distribution of the wetted area, especially in sloping ground
(such as ridges).

Number of dripperlines
The number of dripperlines per unit area is the primary factor in the project costs, because of its influence
on the system flow rate and quantity of irrigation equipment. From the agronomic perspective, the more
dripperlines used to irrigate the target area, the greater the uniformity of wetting and the easier it is to
wet a larger area. The need for an additional dripperline is determined by the nature of the crop and the
characteristics of water distribution in a given soil.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 7

AGRONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
In vegetable crops with many sowing/planting rows per bed, it is accepted practice to assign one
dripperline to two rows of plants, on the condition that the distance between the rows is no more than 60
cm in heavy soil or 30 cm or less in sandy soil. It is important to remember that the number of dripperlines
is determined according to the stage at which the crop is most sensitive to irrigation problems, such as
lack of uniformity, or the water distribution profile. In field crops, where the distance between sowing
rows is greater than 60 cm (such as corn for animal feed, chickpeas and sunflowers – 76-96 cm between
sowing rows), one dripperline per two rows is sufficient, as it is possible to germinate each row separately
by shifting the dripperline.

1 dripperline for 2 rows of chives in a greenhouse, 2 dripperlines per row of trees, in a nectarine orchard,
sandy soil. in heavy soil, to obtain a symmetrical root zone.

In perennial crops, the number of dripperlines is determined by the character of the root zone and climate
considerations. In a comfortable climate, where the summer is not hot and dry, one dripperline along a row
of plants or trees is sufficient for the supply of water and fertilizer.

In subtropical and tropical plants that have broad, shallow root systems (such as bananas, avocados,
mangos), at least two dripperlines, one on either side of the row of plants, and sometimes three
dripperlines (for bananas and avocados in extreme summers) are needed to develop a symmetrical root
system and supply the dose of water and fertilizer quickly to a relatively wide area.

When changing the irrigation system to drip in a mature plot of perennials with a given root system
configuration – especially in the transition from sprinkler irrigation (that is, from full area wetting to
localized strip irrigation) – the number of dripperlines per row of plants should be increased in order to
cover the larger area where roots already exist. This differs from perennial drip irrigation that begins at the
planting stage; in that case, it is possible to influence the spatial spread of the root system by means of
the number of dripperlines, and to widen the wetted area by adding dripperlines as the crop develops.

Another consideration in increasing the number of dripperlines per unit area is the operational advantage,
in two respects: (a) an increased irrigation rate and reduced irrigation duration, without increasing the
dripper flow rate, especially important in cases of time-restricted water availability to the plot. This
method of increasing the irrigation rate enables optimal water infiltration into the soil and creates wide
wetted circles without surplus flow on the dripperline, which could impair the uniformity of wetting; (b)
an increased number of dripperlines per plant, reducing the damage to the crop while waiting for repair of
dripper clogging. In effect, this increases the operational safety coefficient.

8 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

AGRONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) or on-surface drip irrigation
In choosing between subsurface (SDI) or on-surface drip irrigation, the primary consideration is the reason:
why is SDI required? In terms of the characteristics of the irrigation equipment, Netafim™ offers complete
solutions for subsurface dripperlines, including machinery for inserting the dripperlines, definition of the
accessories and equipment for dripperline insertion and specific maintenance guidelines. All this helps
ensure the longevity of the SDI equipment. However, in addition to the extra work required, inserting
the dripperlines in the ground requires preventive treatment. There is also a psychological barrier among
growers, most of whom prefer to “see the water coming out of the dripper.”

The main reasons for using SDI are: (a) damage to on-surface equipment by animals (woodpeckers, jackals,
pigs) or mechanical damage by machines moving in the plot; (b) in field crops, labor savings: elimination of
the need for dripperline layout and (c) protection from vandalism. Other advantages of SDI include:
reduced eveporation from the soil surface and increased efficacy of fertigation due to delivery of fertilizers
directly to the root zone.

From the agronomic perspective, the main limitation of SDI is in the stage of germination or plant
establishment. With SDI equipment, the wetting profile depends upon the depth of dripperline insertion,
the type of soil and how tightly it is packed around the dripperline. The wetting around the SDI dripper is
not symmetrical. Most of the water gravitates to the area under the dripper and only a small portion is
moved by capillary force above the dripper. Therefore, the water from the SDI dripperline may not wet
the area in which the seeds were sowed. The same is true for young plants in an orchard, when the
dripperline is inserted too far to the side of the planting row. Therefore, when considering SDI, check
availability of alternative means for germination such as rain or on-surface irrigation (center pivot, sprinkler
or surface dripperline) or sowing in wet soil, so that moisture will be sufficient until roots reach the soil
wetted by SDI.

In perennial crops, it is impossible to establish plants using an SDI dripperline because the dripperline
must be near the root system. As the plant/tree grows, its roots press against the subsurface dripperline
and, in some species, even grow into the dripper.

The accepted solution for perennials is to establish the plants using an inexpensive on-surface system
(reduced wall thickness, inexpensive dripper type) for a couple of seasons and change to SDI only in the
third growing season. Alternatively, it is possible to establish the seedlings with the perennial equipment
that will later be placed subsurface, and adjust the dripper spacing between the young trees by closing
drippers with plugs.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 9

AGRONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

Adult date orchard immediately after dripperline SDI in an adult almond orchard, heavy soil.
insertion, stony soil. 2 UniRam™ AS dripperlines, 20 mm, 1.6 l/h, 50 cm
2 UniRam™ AS dripperlines, 20 mm, 3.5 l/h, 50 cm spacing.
spacing.

In field crops, the problem is getting the water to the area of the seeds/seedlings from the depth of the
subsurface dripper, on the one hand, and inserting the dripperline at a depth that enables customary
cultivation practices on the other. If it is impossible to establish the plants with an on-surface system
(which means maintaining both systems in the field), the depth of the lateral is determined by the ability
of the soil to draw the water upwards to the area of the seeds/seedlings. However, because this depth is
relatively shallow, the grower will have to change the cultivation practices in the field (for example, to no-
till or minimum till).

In terms of equipment maintenance, preventive treatments such as substances to prevent cloggings

or root penetration (such as Trifluoran and Pendimethalin) are fed from the irrigation head. However, in
determining depth of dripperline insertion, one must take into account the need to repair leaks in the
dripperline as a result of damage by animals or machinery.

Regarding the type of dripperlines to use subsurface, with pressure-compensated (PC) equipment,
drippers with an anti-siphon (AS) mechanism together with vacuum breakers on distribution lines prevent
the creation of a vacuum and sucking of soil particles into the dripper. In thin-walled equipment, up to a
thickness of 15.0 mil, it is important to use a dripper with a flap to protect the dripper from penetration of
foreign objects and soil particles.

10 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

AGRONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Compensated non leakage (CNL) equipment
Compensated non-leakage (CNL) equipment should be used when there is a need for frequent short
irrigation pulses. The CNL mechanism prevents drainage of the dripperlines, so that every irrigation pulse
results in a uniform flow of water in every dripper. According to Netafim’s rule of thumb, CNL equipment
should not be used for open fields when the frequency of irrigation is less than 10 pulses a day.

The need for numerous pulses of irrigation a day is relevant mainly in soilless substrates, with a low
substrate volume per plant and low water holding capacity. Because of plant consumption and/or rapid
drainage of water, it is necessary to renew the quantity of available water and fertilizers in soilless
substrates very frequently.

From the agronomic perspective, the use of numerous pulses renews the availability of water and fertilizer
to the root zone, but creates a risk of salinization. This is because of the accumulation of salt in or near
the root zone, due to the small doses of water that do not rinse the salts away. Therefore, it is customary
to irrigate in numerous pulses only plants that are sensitive even to short-term water stress in substrates
with low water holding capacity, limited volume, and good quality of irrigation water.

CNL systems are more carefully planned and implemented. They are more sensitive than non-CNL
drippers to the development of cloggings and to failure of the automated accessories due to the relatively
intensive use. It is important to note that CNL drip equipment is part of an CNL system. In other words,
it is essential to ensure full functioning of the entire system: keeping the entire pipeline filled with water
(including the distribution and main lines), adjustment of the head control response time, installation of
vacuum breakers, etc.

CNL systems require more careful planning, installation precisely according to plan, intensive monitoring
of system accessories and proper functioning, as well as more frequent maintenance and preventive
measures compared with “regular” irrigation systems. All these are suitable only for growers of certain
character.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 11

HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS
Every decision taken regarding the characteristics of the equipment has hydraulic implications –
distance between drippers, dripper flow rate, dripperline inside diameter (ID) and wall thickness,
dripper type and the choice of pressure compensated or non-compensated drippers.

NOTE Dripperline commercial name

In thin- and medium-walled dripperlines (up to 25.0 mil), the dripperline commercial name is an
approximation of the dripperline inner diameter (ID) but is not necessarily identical to it.
In thick-walled dripperlines (0.9 mm or more), the dripperline commercial name is an approximation
of the dripperline outer diameter (OD).
To obtain the actual OD of a dripperline, add twice the wall thickness to the actual ID.

The dripper spacing and dripper flow rate influence the dripperline flow rate and, as a result, the maximum
possible length of the dripperline.

Example 1: Influence of emitter spacing on dripperline length

Case A Case B 20
Dripper Pressure (m) 15
Model DripNet PC™
Flow rate 1.0 l/h 10
Dripperline 5
Model 20010-20012
Commercial name 20.0 mm 0
050 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Wall thickness 1.0 mm Distance from the end of the pipe (m)
ID 17.5 mm Case A Case B
Dripper spacing 0.3 m 0.5 m
Inlet pressure 20.0 m
End pressure 10.0 m
Max. length 250 m 365 m

Example 2: Influence of dripper flow rate on dripperline length

Case A Case B 25
Dripper 20
Model UniRam™ AS
15
Pressure (m)

Flow rate 1.6 l/h 2.3 l/h

Dripperline 10
Model 20012
Commercial name 20 mm 5
Wall thickness 1.2 mm 0
ID 17.5 mm 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Distance from the end of the pipe (m)
Dripper spacing 0.5 m
Case A Case B
Inlet pressure 25 m
End pressure 10 m
Max. length 300 m 235 m

Of course, these two factors determine the lateral diameter and thickness, as well the pressure required at
the dripperline inlet in order to obtain the minimum working pressure at the last dripper.

12 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS
Example 3: Influence of dripperline diameter on dripperline length
Case A Case B 20
Dripper 15

Pressure (m)
Model Dripnet PC™
Flow rate 1.0 l/h 10
Dripperline 5
Model 16012 20012
Commercial name 16 mm 20 mm 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Wall thickness 1.2 mm Distance from the end of the pipe (m)
ID 14.2 mm 17.5 mm Case A Case B
Dripper spacing 0.3 m
Inlet pressure 20 m
End pressure 10 m
Max. length 155 m 250 m

Example 4: Influence of wall thickness and ID (internal diameter) on dripperline length

Case A Case B 20
Dripper 15
Pressure (m)

Model DripNet PC™

Flow rate 1.0 l/h 10
Dripperline 5
Model 16012 16125
Commercial name 16 mm* 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Wall thickness 1.2 mm 125 mil Distance from the end of the pipe (m)
ID 14.2 mm 16.2 mm Case A Case B
Dripper spacing 0.3 m
Max. permitted
18 m
inlet pressure
*See the NOTE Dripperline commercial name,
Max. length 155 m 210 m page 12.

The dripper spacing and flow rate, which determine the dripperline flow rate and length have implications
for the entire hydraulic planning of the field: flow rate, shift area, diameters of the distribution and main
lines and the head control accessories, including filter flow rates.

Example 5: Influence of flow rate on distribution line diameter

Case A Case B Case C
Planned max. recommended flow velocity* 3 m/sec
Flow rate 22 m 3 /h 32 m 3 /h 46 m 3 /h
Distribution line
*Each pipe diameter
Commercial name 63 mm 75 mm 90 mm
has a velocity limitation
Class 10 as a factor of the flow.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 13

HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS
The larger the dripperline diameter, the greater the maximal length of dripperline, given the same dripper
spacing and flow rate.

Example 6: Influence of dripperline diameter on dripperline length

Case A Case B 8
7 10
Dripper
6
Model Streamline™

Pressure (m)
5
Flow rate 1.05 l/h
4

%Qdif
Dripperline 5
3
Model 16080 22080
2
Commercial name 16 mm 1
Wall thickness 8.0 mil 0 0
ID 16.2 mm 22.2 mm 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
0
Distance from the end of the pipe (m)
Dripper spacing 0.5 m
Case A Case B
Inlet pressure Up to 8 m Pressure Pressure
End pressure 6m Qdif Qdif
Max. length* 195 m 344 m
*10% difference in flow rate between dripperline beginning and end.

NOTE
The consideration of dripline diameter is separate from those regarding the accumulation of dirt in
the dripperlines, which are discussed in the section on water quality.
The chosen type of dripper, dripperline thickness, diameter and flow rate influence the working pressure
required at the inlet and the end of the dripperline and, as a result, the pressure required at the head
control. The thinner the dripperline wall, the smaller the difference in pressure between its inlet and end
will be, the lower the tolerance in planning and execution of pressure and the greater the sensitivity to
errors. It is important to note that in on-surface equipment, dripperline wall thickness influences the
lifespan of the dripperline. The thicker the dripperline wall the less the risk of damage by insects (such as
earwigs) and agro-mechanical activities in the field.

Example 7: Influence of wall thickness on pressure range

Dripper 15
10
Model Aries™
Flow rate 0.95 l/h
Pressure (m)

10
Dripperline
%Qdif

Model 16125 5
Commercial name 16 mm 5
Wall thickness 12.5 mil
ID 16.2 mm 0 0
Dripper spacing 0.5 m 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Distance from the end of the pipe (m)
Inlet pressure 12 m (max. 18 m)
Pressure
End pressure 10 m Qdif
Max. length* 200 m

14 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS
The choice of a pressure-compensated (PC) or non-compensated dripper influences several factors.
Naturally, the irrigation uniformity along the dripperline and throughout the field is higher using PC equipment
(± 7% difference in standard-approved flow rate at factory exit). PC drippers emit uniform flow rates at a
broader pressure range. Therefore, their performance is uniform at varying or unstable pressure.

Another advantage of PC equipment is the feedback regarding dripper clogging problems that reduce
the nominal flow rate, allowing diagnosis by the control systems and growers. This is the main reason
for suggesting PC equipment in sites where the length of the dripperline does not exceed a few tens of
meters.

On the other hand, PC equipment is more expensive, both because of the cost of the drippers and
because of the limit on the minimal thickness of the dripperline wall required for welding the dripper to the
wall.

In equipment that is not pressure compensated, the flow rate varies with the operating pressure, and
therefore it is necessary to carefully maintain a stable, fixed pressure regime. The Netafim™ planning
definitions for non-PC equipment allow a difference of up to 10% in flow rate between the first to the last
dripper in a leveled field; therefore, such equipment limits the dripperline length more than PC equipment
does.

However, non-PC equipment is less expensive as a whole, because of both the low cost of the drippers
and the option of working with thin-walled dripperlines.

Example 8: Influence of pressure compensation on dripperline length

Case A Case B 25
Dripper
20
Model Dripnet PC™ Aries™
Flow rate 1.0 l/h
Pressure (m)

15
Dripperline
Model 16010 10
10
Commercial name 16 mm

%Qdif
Wall thickness 1.0 mm 5 5
ID 14.2 mm
Max. 0 0
25 m 13 m
inlet pressure 40 0
80 120 160 200 240 280
Dripper spacing 0.5 m Distance from the end of the pipe (m)
End pressure 10 m Case A Case B
Pressure Pressure
Max. length* 275 m 155 m Qdif
*10% difference in flow rate between dripperline beginning and end, only in the non-PC dripperline.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 15

IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS
Consideration of the irrigation water must take into account the quality of the source water (the water that
reaches the head control) with the addition of various substances supplied in the water by injection into
the irrigation system (synthetic fertilizers, organic fertilizers, herbicides, hormones, etc.).

In photos: Three different water sources feed the same farm. The types and quantities of components and
sediment in the water determine the protection coefficients to be applied, including the manner and frequency of
preventive treatments.

The equipment longevity defined by the customer is also a consideration in choosing the type of
equipment. One would not recommend the same equipment for irrigation with murky, hard water for a
single season as for irrigation with the same water where the equipment needs to last many years. By the
same token, with clean water it is possible to use the lowest dripper flow rate (up to 0.4-0.5 l/h) in single-
season equipment and reduce the protection coefficient at the head control.

Choosing the dripper type and flow rate are only some of the means used to ensure the proper
performance of the irrigation system. The filtration system and filter flow coefficients, diameters of the
different types of pipes, including dripperline diameters, flushing accessories, types and frequency of
maintenance treatments and even control and monitoring of system performance to diagnosis problems
are all factors that enable proper functioning of the irrigation system.

In photos:
Left – clogging of the main line, 90 mm diameter.
Right – dripperlines full of bacterial mire.

16 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS
With regard to dripper flow rate with the same water, the greater the flow rate of a given type of dripper, the
less its sensitivity to clogging and, therefore, the greater the possibility of reducing the filter flow coefficients
and the frequency of preventive chemical treatments in order to maintain functionality. However, as noted in
earlier sections, a high dripper flow rate has agronomic and hydraulic implications.

A UniRam™ dripper with a filter almost completely

clogged with silt sediment. The dripper flow rate was
not impaired at all, because of the three areas on the
filter that remained open (the black spots).

Water passages on a DripNet PC™ dripper (magnified X 3.5); left to right: 0.6, 1.0, 1.6, 2.0, 3.0 l/h.

The quality of the irrigation water does not have a direct influence on the spacing between drippers, but
the combination of dripper spacing and dripper flow rate has implications on the length of the dripperline
and the flow velocity in the main lines, distribution lines and dripperlines.

With regard to water quality, Netafim™ has developed clear definitions regarding the flow velocity required
for good flushing of the line ends in all types of pipes (for example: the flow velocity required for flushing
dripperlines is 0.5 m/sec and higher). The quality of the source water influences the necessary flushing
velocities.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 17

IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS

Gravel filters during flushing – beginning and end of flushing. Flushing a dripperline by opening
and closing the line ends, one by
one.

It is essential to choose the correct dripper type for the quality of irrigation water to be used. Netafim™
has developed a clear ranking of dripper durability and suitability for different qualities of water. In
pressure-compensated (PC) equipment, the most durable drippers are the UniRam™ drippers, followed
by DripNet PC™. In non-PC equipment, the ranking of dripper resistance to clogging, from high to low:
Aries™, Typhoon™ and Streamline™ drippers.

Clearly, in considering the durability of a dripper

using a given water quality, one must take into
account the number of seasons the equipment will
be operated, the cumulative volume of water that
will flow through the dripper, what actions will be
performed with the irrigation equipment between
growing seasons (such as recoiling in field crops, or
not - in perennials), the environmental conditions to
which it will be exposed (temperature), whether the
equipment is intended for subsurface irrigation.

Preparation for treatment of irrigation equipment with

acid by worker using proper protection.

18 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

CLIENT CHARACTER CONSIDERATIONS
One of the most significant factors in choosing equipment for a plot is the character of the grower or the
maintenance crews. With proper maintenance, including diagnosis and monitoring of the irrigation water,
filter flushing, preventive treatment at the head control, flushing of the entire length of the line at the
recommended velocities and chemical treatments using the correct substances [hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),
acid or a combination of the two], at the right dosage (according to company recommendations), at the
right location (at the head control or the plot heads) and at the recommended frequency (very important!),
it is possible to maintain any irrigation equipment for many years beyond the company-defined lifespan.

Correct assessment of the grower’s character, approach, thoroughness and level of motivation, as well as
that of the team operating the irrigation systems are ultimately the most decisive factors in determining
the safety coefficients to be taken in matching irrigation equipment to a given site.

Your impression of the customer, how serious he is, his interest in technology and irrigation, thoroughness,
or - professional skill and knowledge in farming in general, and irrigation in particular and, finally, motivation
all help us determine which operating factors will guide our recommendation of the type of drip irrigation
equipment, head control, monitoring equipment and nature and frequency of treatment.

For example, if you realize that the customer will not perform maintenance on the equipment at the
frequency required at the given field conditions, you might make all (or some) of the following changes
from the outset: increase the dripper flow rate, choose a a more resistant dripper, increase the diameters
of the distribution and main lines, plan and add collectors, add flushing accessories, increase the filtration
coefficients, add specs to enable the passage of “pigs” through the pipes, include accessories to the head
controls for injecting chemical treatments and so forth.

At the two ends of the spectrum, we encounter customers who demonstrate little interest and motivation
in the regular treatments required for maintaining the equipment and, in contrast, customers who are full
of motivation but lack the professional experience and knowledge to diagnose and address problems.

The greater the customer’s cooperation in carrying out our recommendations for a certain type of
equipment and the level of maintenance it requires, the less the need for operational safety coefficients
and the more optimal the characterization of the irrigation equipment for the given field conditions. Any
addition of an operational safety coefficient, especially because of the customer’s approach, means
additional cost in setting up and maintaining the irrigation system.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 19

SUMMARY
Factor Agronomic
Dripper Dense:
spacing need for continuous wetted
strip (germination, delivering
herbicide, etc.);
high plant stand;
light soil;
lack of uniformity in
structure and soil particles
and/or problematic tilling
(impairing water distribution)
Spaced out:
no need for germination/
establishment;
no injection of substances
that require covering the
entire area;
heavy soil;
careful tilling, uniform soil
(good water distribution);
low plant stand
Dripper Low:
flow rate advantages:
reduced irrigation rate,
increased irrigation
time, better absorption
of water in soil, higher
irrigation and fertilization
efficiency, spreading rather
than leaching of injected
chemicals in soil;
disadvantages:
low daily application rate in
field, difficulty flushing salts
at flow rates lower than 1 l/h
High:
advantages:
increased irrigation rate,
shorter irrigation time;
shorter irrigation pulse;
water reaches root zone
quickly (establishing plants),
good flushing of salts;
problem with surplus flow
in soil with low hydraulic
conductivity and sloped
ground
20 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK
Consideration
Hydraulic
Dense:
increased irrigation rate;
shorter dripperline length;
decreased irrigation shift
(valve) area;
increases cost of irrigation
system per unit area.
Spaced out:
decreased irrigation rate;
greater dripperline length;
increased irrigation shift
area;
decreases cost of irrigation
system per unit area.
Low:
reduced irrigation rate;
longer dripperlines;
larger irrigation shift area;
lower cost of irrigation
system per unit area;
need for strict attention to
flow velocities in dripperline
for efficient flushing
High:
increased irrigation rate;
shorter dripperlines;
smaller shift area;
higher cost of irrigation
system per unit area
Water quality and maintenance
Water quality and level
of maintenance have no
influence on dripper spacing.
Low:
smaller water passages in
dripper; higher sensitivity to
clogging;
suitable for good
water quality and/or high
maintenance level (careful
chemical and physical
treatments at required
frequency);
requires increased
protection coefficients –
lateral diameter, collector
pipes, lateral flushing
valves, filtration coefficients,
diameters of head control
accessories, etc.;
attention to correct flow
velocities for performance of
effective flushing
High:
large water passages in
dripper; low sensitivity to
clogging;
enables work with
problematic water qualities;
decreased frequency of
maintenance treatments;
enables decreased system-
protection coefficients
(filtration coefficients, line
diameter, flushing/collector
accessories, etc.)
SUMMARY
Consideration
Factor Agronomic Hydraulic Water quality and maintenance
Number of Low: Low: The issue of water quality
dripperlines small wetted area; decreased irrigation rate; and maintenance is not
low evaporation from soil increased shift area; influenced by the number of
surface; reduced cost of irrigation dripperlines.
lower irrigation rate; system per unit area Take into account the
increased irrigation time; High: increase in work hours with
at germination stage – increased irrigation rate; the number of dripperlines
possibility of shifting dripperline, decreased shift area per unit area, in order to
eliminating the need for an (valve); perform physical flushing of
additional dripperline; increased cost of irrigation the line ends. If collectors
suitable for plants with deep system per unit area are planned, the more
root system (e.g., dripperlines there are, the
Mediterranean deciduous); more collectors and the
auxiliary irrigations for greater the cost of the
fertilization, supplement of system will be.
summer rain).
High:
large wetted area
(by width in particular);
high evaporation from soil
surface;
higher irrigation rate;
short irrigation time;
multiple planting lines on the
bed (vegetables).
wider and shallower irrigation -
suitable for tropical crops
(banana, avocado, etc.).

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 21

SUMMARY
Consideration
Factor Agronomic Hydraulic Water quality and maintenance
Subsurface SDI: SDI: SDI:
(SDI)/ in case of potential animal collectors are recommended requires AS equipment;
on-surface damage (woodpeckers, (which require higher preference for work with
equipment jackals, pigs, etc.) to on- working pressure than a a flap (limitation of wall
surface equipment; plot without collectors); as a thickness to 150 mil or less);
in case of potential damage result of higher pressure requires chemical
to on-surface equipment by = higher energy costs per treatments several times
agro-machinery; unit area; a year against intrusion of
advantages: requires planning of vacuum roots into dripper;
no laterals on the ground; breakers consider ability to repair
protection from damage dripperline damage at
(machines and animals); insertion depth;
avoidance of dripperline requires correct preventive
layout and recoiling (in field treatments at predetermined
crops); frequency
reduces evaporation;
higher efficacy of fertigation
disadvantages:
restricts tilling. Insertion
of laterals using GPS and
precision cultivation are
highly recommended;
problem with seed
germination/seedling
establishment (requires
shallow dripperline insertion)
(in perennials – dripperline
insertion only after 2
growing seasons);
SDI cannot be used to
activate surface-active
herbicides;
a severe limitation of
work with SDI equipment
is the presence of large
populations of rodents and
restriction of using thin-
walled dripperlines with
large populations of earwigs
Compen- Required in: Requires careful planning Requires high level of
sated non low water holding capacity and adaptation of pressure maintenance:
leakage of the growing substrate; range to dripper opening relatively high frequency of
(CNL) low substrate volume; and closure pressures. preventive treatments;
sensitive crop to momentary Requires optimal working control and monitoring of
water shortage pressure, higher than malfunctions;
irrigation with many pulses non-CNL equipment = high-skill level of the
and small doses of water higher energy per unit area maintenance crew
per irrigation pulse
Disadvantage:
pulse irrigation has low
efficiency in flushing salts

22 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK

SUMMARY
Consideration
Factor Agronomic Hydraulic Water quality and maintenance
Pressure- No special agronomic PC: No difference in level of
compen- considerations regarding PC stable flow rate in wide maintenance between PC and
sated (PC)/ or non-PC equipment range of pressures; non-PC equipment
non-PC high irrigation uniformity;
option for longer dripperlines
than non-PC;
precise flow rate control in
plot
Non-PC:
flow rate varies with
pressure;
lower irrigation uniformity
than PC equipment;
requires careful planning and
stability of pressures;
shorter dripperlines than PC
equipment;
less control sensitivity for
problems of flow rate in plot
Dripper type No agronomic considerations Fit of dripper type to Resistance to clogging (from
regarding dripper type pressure regime in plot and resistant to less resistant):
vice versa; PC – UniRam™, Dripnet™;
adaptation of lateral length non-PC – Aries™,
and wall thickness Typhoon™, Streamline™
Wall No agronomic considerations Fit working pressures to Potential damage of insects
thickness regarding line wall thickness dripperline characteristics (earwigs) to thin-walled lines,
and vice versa, and to especially subsurface.
the influence of these No influence of wall
characteristics on dripperline thickness on potential
length; damage by large animals
limitations of match (mammals and birds).
between dripper type and Longevity of on-surface
wall thickness lines increases with wall
thickness, due to higher
resistance to insect and
agro-mechanical damage
Line No agronomic considerations Increased line diameter The larger the line diameter,
diameter regarding the diameter of the allows for increased length; the lower the flushing
irrigation line the larger the line diameter, velocity at a given pressure;
the lower the flow velocity the larger the line diameter,
at a given pressure; the lower the drippers'
the relationship between and lateral's sensitivity to
diameter and flow velocity clogging.
influences the maximum
working pressure at the
dripperline inlet

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING DRIPPERLINES HANDBOOK 23

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