Name: Javier, Mara Jessica DG.

Subject: Ethics
Section: B2 Date: April 10, 2018

Summative Paper on Virtue Ethics

I. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics

In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle began with an ethical inquiry for what man fundamentally
desires. With the idea that the universe has a purposive nature, Aristotle espoused on the idea
that everything has a teleological basis wherein everything has a purpose that aims to some good
or end. Aristotle identified happiness as man’s supreme end that gives “purpose” and “direction”
to man’s life.
Thus, Aristotle sought to answer the ethical question “How does one live a good life?”.
This particular question is anchored with the presumption that by nature, man has an essence to
resemble goodness and by this, man does things that are good, and it is through adhering to this
nature that man is able to flourish.
In answering this question, he highlighted that in understanding the happiness of man,
one should take into account the distinctive function of man. As everything has a function, it is
only through fulfilling its function that something can be considered good. As human beings, it is
not the life of nutrition, growth, nor perception that makes man distinctive from other life forms but
rather, it is through the life of reason. Hence, the pursuit of happiness should be viewed through
the lenses of rationality. When a man’s character is shaped in reason and formed through habit,
man is able to achieve the excellence of his character. By the same token, man can live a virtuous
life and eventually a happy life.
In response to the ethical question, Aristotle provided a key concept of the virtue of the
character that is central to the doctrine of the mean. What sets Aristotelian virtue ethics apart from
other ethical frameworks is that it emphasizes on the man’s character rather than following a set
of rules. The doctrine of the mean corresponds to the mean between excess and deficiency. This
presupposes that the right action is the midpoint between two extremes. However, the mean is
not absolute as it does not provide specific parameters to be followed in determining the mean
but rather, the mean is relative to the agent and the circumstance.
In addition, not all actions are subjected to the doctrine of the mean as some actions are
automatically deemed wrong in all plausible situations. Moreover, Aristotle posits that a person
should have an intellectual virtue to be able to consciously and intentionally deliberate over an
action and be a morally virtuous agent that is conscious, consistent, and acts according to one’s
will.
Furthermore, as no one is born with a perfectly moral and virtuous life, the doctrine of the
mean asserts that it is only through habit that one can become perfectly moral and virtuous. Since
morality is a skill that is needed to be harnessed by habit over time.
As a final point, Aristotle asserts that the reason why humans ought to be virtuous is that
it is only through being virtuous that one can attain the pinnacle of humanity - a life that is well
lived where there is human flourishing.
Name: Javier, Mara Jessica DG. Subject: Ethics
Section: B2 Date: April 10, 2018

II. Confucian Virtue Ethics

From the accounts of The Analects of Confucius, it is highlighted that the aim of human
society is to achieve a socially and politically harmonious life. With the ethical aim being highly
anthropocentric, the ethical question “How can one be in harmony with one’s fellow men?”
focuses on the expressions of moral nature in the ordinary activities of the human life. This ethical
question rest upon the belief of Tian-Di-Ren which posits that the only way that human beings
can equate the ways of heaven and earth is through the means of showing acts of humaneness
and righteousness.
As a response to the ethical question, Confucius accentuated on the five virtues as the
paragon of a morally virtuous individual. To begin with, the virtue of Ren which constitutes to the
consciousness of the human other. Being the first virtue of moral awakening, it posits that an
individual cannot achieve a virtuous life without the presence of others. Secondly, the virtue of Yi
which refers to the consciousness of one’s moral imperative which entails that the moral obligation
of an individual cannot be detached with his or her social designation. Third, the virtue of Li which
means propriety. This virtue does not only refer to customs and traditions but also to the reverence
of conduct further translated into social relationships. Fourth is the virtue of Zhi which denotes to
spoken wisdom. As its meaning suggests, it upholds knowledge that is communicable and
transmittable. It can also refer to the ability to be cautious of when to speak or not. Lastly is Xin
which refers to faithfulness in one’s word. This virtue primarily emphasizes the sense of moral
consistency in terms of words, thoughts, and deeds.
In another view, these virtues can be weaved by a single thread that interrelates all the
doctrine which the principle of Zhong and Shu. On the one hand, Zhong is defined as one’s moral
duties to society. Therefore, it exhibits the idea of doing to others what you want others to do unto
you. On the other hand, Shu refers to consideration of others through refraining from action to
others that would be disagreeable if done to oneself.
Within the Confucian virtue ethics, there are two contrasting viewpoints on the human
moral character. On the one hand, Meng Zi constitutes that the human moral character is good,
and it is only through moral cultivation that we can become morally good. On the other hand, Xun
Zi elucidates that the human moral character is evil in which instead of cultivation, it is better to
inculcate goodness among people.
Given these points, Confucian virtue ethics responded to the ethical question by
constituting an ethical conception that the personhood is essentially and constitutively social. In
that sense, building up one’s virtuous character is focused on attending to one’s social
relationships. Finding humaneness is recognizing the needs and interest of others as failing from
doing so meant to self-constraining oneself to grow and cultivate social and political harmony with
others.
Name: Javier, Mara Jessica DG. Subject: Ethics
Section: B2 Date: April 10, 2018

III. Ayn Rand’s Virtue of Selfishness

For Ayn Rand’s philosophy, the ethical aim of virtue are actions that are geared towards
securing and protecting one’s rational values, particularly on the preservation of one’s life. This
raised the ethical question “How can the ultimate value of life be attained?”. To begin with, Rand
sought to answer the ethical question through the structure of objectivist ethics. It claims that
ethics exist not because of mysticism as it would imply the existence of an absolute being for the
validity of its existence. It is also not because of social convention as this would be a mask of the
collective standard rather than the individual moral agent. It exists because of its objective
necessity that is built on by reality and is aimed at molding the ultimate value of life.
Moreover, ethics is based on the demand for rationality as it is only rational thinking that
humans can maximize one’s self-interest. This stems from the notion that reasoning is tantamount
to preserving one’s life. In Randian philosophy, as humans can rationally think, only humans have
idealistic, self-generated, and goal-directed actions that are yielded to preserve and sustain life.
Rand responded to the ethical question by imposing another take on the concept of
selfishness as a virtue. This virtue refers to the ultimate moral value of concerning oneself with
one’s interest and own well-being.
With this established point, this framework rejects all forms of altruism as sacrificing
oneself for the interest of others is not good, unjustifiable, and unsustainable. In the perspective
of Rand, when people start to become dependent on one another, it will create a society that will
not be able to sustain itself in the long run.
Unlike any other ethical framework that presents a code of values, Rand explains that
since man needs to deliberate and rationalize first, there is no automatic code of survival. In that
sense, the moral code should adhere to the choice and interest of the individual. In addition, what
man thinks is rational is not always synonymous to a rational act. The bottom line here is that one
must take full responsibility for whatever action one makes. On the final note, a man is a rational
being, man has free will. In that sense, in being rational or not, there is always a decision to make.
Hence, in the lenses of the virtue of selfishness, achieving the ultimate value of life meant
that each person considers one’s life as the standard value which implies that one does not exist
for the other. Also, this ethical framework does not only call for individualistic preservation of life
as this also posits that the preservation of the life of an individual is anchored to the preservation
of the life of others. This is because it is the only way that one can increase the rate of survival.
Indeed, the virtue of selfishness aims to have a society composed of rational individuals where
no one’s merit does not come with a worth of another individual’s sacrifice.
Name: Javier, Mara Jessica DG. Subject: Ethics
Section: B2 Date: April 10, 2018

References:
Aristotle., Ross, W., & Brown, L. (2009). The Nichomachean ethics (Books I, II, X). New York:
Oxford University Press, Inc.
Rand, A. (1964). The Virtue of Selfishness: A new concept of egoism. In Chaffee, J. (2013).
The Philosopher’s Way. USA: Pearson, pp. 457-459.
Santiago, J. (2008). Confucian Ethics in the Analects as Virtue Ethics. Philosophical Ideas And
Artistic Pursuits In The Traditions Of Asia And The West, Paper 8.