CHAPTER B

Sflgman Degrada'[ion flm Optical Fibers

In Chapter 2 we showed the structure of optical fibers and examined the concepts of how light propagates
along a cylindrical dielectric optiqal waveguide. Here, we shall continue the discussion of opt.A dU"rt
by answering two very important questions:
1. What are the loss or signal attenuation mechanisms in a fiber?
2' Why and to what degree do optical signals get distorted as they propagate along a fiber?
Signal attenuation (also known as fiber loss or signal /oss) is one of the most important properties of
an optical fiber, because it largely de0ermines the maximum unamplified or repeaterlejs separation
between a fransmitter and a receiver. Since amplifiers and repeaters are expensivi to fabricate, install,
and maintain, the degree of attenuation in a fiber has large influence on system cost. Of equal importance
issignal distortion. The distortion mechanisms in a fiber cause optical signal pulses to broaden as they
travel along a fiber. If these pulses travel sufficiently far, they will eventually overlap with neighboring
pulses, thereby creating errors in the receiver output. The signal distortion mechanisms thus limit thi
information-carrying capacity of a fiber.

m Attenuatlon
Attenuation of a light signal as it propagates along a fiber is an important consideration in the design of
l
an optical communication system, since it plays a major role in determining the maximum transmission
I

distance between a hansmitter and a receiver or an in-line aniplifier. The bisic attenuation mechanisms I
l
in a fiber are absorption, scattering, and radiative losses of the optical energy.l-s Absorption is related to I
the fiber material, whereas scaffering is associated both with the fiber material and with structural
imperfections in the optical waveguide. Attenuation owing to radiative effects originates from
perturbations Ooth microscopic and macroscopic) of the fiber geomety.
This section frst discusses the units in whicli fiber losses are *u**"d and then presents the physical
phenomena giving rise to attenuation.
,)
I

3.1.1 Attenuation Units

As light travels along a fiber, its power decreases exponentially with distance. If P(0) is the optical
po*"i in a fiber at the origin (at z= 0), then the power Pk) at a distance e further down the fiber is
P(z) = P(Q)e-atz (3.1a)

where

(3.1b)
",=i'[#]
ir-
is the fiber attenuation,cofficient given in units of, forexample, km-l. Notethatihe units for 2zaocan
also be designated by nepers (see Appendix D).
For simpiicity in calculating optical signal attenuation in a fiber, the common procedure is to express
the attenuation coefficient in vntts of dccibels per kilomerer denoted by dB/km. Designating this parameter
by a, we have

a(dBrkm) = 19 ros j;i3] =4.343a, {kmr) (3.Ic)

Thisparameterisgenerallyreferredtoasthefiberlossor.h#bItdependsonseveral
variables, as is shown in the following sections, and it is a function of the wavelength.

Examole 3.1 ln ideal fiber would have no loss so

Izoo,
ro] wl _r.oor*
that Pou, =.Pin. This corresponds to a O-dB/km attenuation, = ro ros
- =
which, in practice, is impossible. Au actual low-lqss fiber L lxlo-'w I
may have a 3-dB/km average loss at 9(X) nm, for example. From Eq. (3.1c) we then have that the outPut power
This means that the optical sigoal power would decrease level (in dBm) at z = 30 km is
by 50 percent over a l-km length and would decrease by
75 percent (a 6-dB loss) over a 2.km length, since loss Pou, (dBm) = l0
I-"*{]el
log |-
contributions expressed in decibels are additive. 1lmwl
Example S2 As sec. 1.3 describes optical powers ;-!'tYll - "
are commonly expressed in units of dBm, which is the
= ro los "[lmw]
deribel power level referred to.t mW Consitler a 3Gkm = -7.0 dBm - (0.4 dB/km) (30 km)
long optical fiber that has an atttinuation of 0.4 dp/km at = _19.0 dBm
1310 nm. Suppose we.want to find the,optical ouput power In unit of watts, the outtrxtt power is
Pou if 200 pW of optical power is launched into th€ fibel P(30 krn) = lQ-1e0/10 (1 m\{) = 12.6. x t0'3 mW
We frst express the inprrt power in dBm units: = 12.6 pW

P,- (dBm) = ,o ,o* [

4" (*)'l
-L lmIM J

3.1.2 Absorption
Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:
1. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.
2. Exrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.
3. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.
 Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material- fuamples are missing
molecules, high-density clusters of atom groups, or oxygen defects in the glass structure. Usually,
absorption losses arising fmm these defects are negligible compared with intrinsic 11d impurityabsorption
effects. However,'they can be silnificant if the fiber is exposed to ionizing radiation, as might occur in
a nuclear reactor environment, in medical radiation tlrerapies, in space missions that pass through the
earth's Van Allen belts, or in accelerator instrumentation.Ge ln such applications, high radiation doses
may be accumulated over several years.
Radiation damages a material by changing its internal structure. The damage effects depend on the
energy of the ionizing pafticles or rays (e,g., electrons, neutrons, or gamma rays), the radiation flux
(dose rate), and the fluence (pardcles per square centimeter). The total dose a material receives is expressed
in units of radlSi), which is a'ineasure of radiation absorbed in bulk silicon. This unit is defined as
, ykg
- , ,, 1 rad(Si) = 1@ er8/8 = 0'01
The basic'response of a fiber to ionizing radiation is an increase in attenuation owing to the creation
of atomic defects, or attenuation centers, that absorb optical energy. The higher the radiation level, the
larger the attenuation, as Fig. 3.1a illustrates. However, the attenuation centers will relax or anneal out
with time, as shown in Fig. 3.1&.

d'
E
*+
E
83 B3
o o
.(, €

oot
4000 6000 10000
0.'
10-, too tor to2 to3 104 105
Dose [rad (Si)] Time after iradiation (s)
' ({) (b)

fig. 3.1 opfir;alfi}rr alterulallon- {cd loss rrcreasts dvting

Etfects oJ tantztttg'radiatian on
sbadg i,"mdiat{on tii atotal dose oJ lff rad" (SrO;. (b) SubseWent reeoery os a
fi.nrtion oJ fine o$* radfntion has stopped. Mdtfied. urlh perznission Jrom West
et aL,7 @ 1994, IEEE.)

The dominant absorption factor in silica fibers is the presence of minute quantities of impurities in
the fiber material. These impurities include OH- (water) ions that are dissolved in the glass and transition
metal ions such as iron, copper, chromium, and vanadium. Transition metal impurity levels were around
1 part per million (ppm) in glass fibers made in the 1970s, which resulted in losses langing from I to
4 aBftm, as Table 3.1 shows. Impurity absorption losses occur either because of electron transitions
between the energy levels within these ions or because of charge transitions betrveen ions. The absorption
peaks of the variols transition metal impqrities tend to be broad, and several pea\s may overlap, which
 producing
further broadens the absorption in a specific region. Modern vapor-phase fiber techniques for
a fiber preform (see Sec. 2.9) have ieduced ttre transition-metal impurity levels by several orders of
magnitude. Such low impurity levels allow the fabrication of low-loss fibers.
ih" p*r"n e of OH ion impgrities in a fiber preform results mainly from the oxyhydrogen flame
used in the hydrolysis reaction of the SiCla, GeCl+, ord POCI3 starting materials- Water impurity
concentrations of less than a few parts per billion (ppb) are required if the attenuation is to be less
than
20 dB/km. The high levels,of OH ions in early fibers resulted in large absorption peals at 725,954,
1240,-and 1380 nm. Regions of low attention lie between these absorption peaks.
The peaks and valleyi in the attenuation curves resulted in the designation of the various transmission
windois shown in Fi;. 3.2. By reducing the residual OH content of fibers to below Lqgb, standard
commercially availabli single-mode fibeis have nominal attenuations of 0.4 dB/km at l3l0 nm
(in the
O-band) andiess than 0.25 db/km at 1550 nm (in the C-band). Further elimination of water ions diminishes
the absorption peak around 1440 nm and thus opens up the E-ban9 for data transmission, as
indicated by
used in the E-band are known by names such /ow-
the dashed line in Fig. 3.2. Qptical fibers that can be
water-peak or full-spectrurn fibers.

;
-u

Io
z.o

E
6)
t.o

1000 1200 1400 1500 1800

Wavelenglh (om)

fU. S.2 Opttr5rtfrtrl. afra.uangnas o.;furrcticnoJwouelengthBietfu-nominal ua&.res of 0.5

a6ng6i"t 1SIO nm andO.3 dBltsr.at. 1550 nmior standard stWle-nadeS!9r,
sto;61ma i&. lru A"*odcunr is ttr attentntton Joi loto-usater-peak fifur
 Impuity Lb'ss due to 1 ppm of Impurity (dB/km) Absorption Peak (nm)
kon: Fe2+ 0.68 1100
kon: Fe3+ 0.15 400
Coppec Cu2+ 1.1 850
Chromium: CP+ 1.6 625
Vanadium: V+ 2.7 725
Water: OH- 1.0 9s0
Water: OH- 2.0 tu0
Water: OH- 4.0 1380

Intrinsic absorption is associated with the basic fiber material (e.g., pure SiO2) and is the principal
physical factor that defines the transparency window of a material ov"i a specifred spectral
rigion. It
occurs when the material is in a perfect state with no density variatilns, impririties, material
inhomogeneities, and so on. Intrinsic absorption thus sets the fundamental lower limii on absorption
for
any particular material.
Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in the ultraviolet region and from atomic
vibration bands in the near-infrared region. The electronic absorption bands are associated with the
!an! sars of the amorphous glass materials. Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron
in the valence band and excites it to a higher energy level, as is described in Sec. 2.I.Theultraviolet
edge of the elecfion absorption bands of both amorphous and crystalline materials follow
the empirical
relationshipl'3
a'r= CPo (3.2a)
which is known as Urbach's rule. Here, C and Eoare empirical constants and E is the photon
energy. The
magnitude and characteristic exponential decay of the ultraviolet absorption * .ho*n in fig.
:.:.
Since E is inversely proportional to the wavelength 2, ultraviolet absorptiln decays exponentially
with
increasing wavelength. In par-ticular, the ultraviolet loss contribution in a-g/km ui *yiur"lengih
can
be expressed empirically as a function of the mole fraction x of Geo2 asl0

1o-2exp
( +.at\
^"= #oox [^j (3.2b)

As shown in Fig. 3.3, the ultraviolet loss is small compared with scattering loss in the near-infrared
region.
In the near-infrared region
iboy"-
l.2tt\,the optical waveguide loss is predominantly determined by
the presence of OH ions and the inherent infrared absorption of the constituent material. The inherent
infrared absorption is associated with the characteristic vibration frequency of the particular chemical
bond between the atoms of which the fiber is composed. An interaction between ttreiibrating
b";J;;
the electromagnetic field of the optical signal results in a transfer of energy from the field to the bond,
thereby giving rise to absorption. This absorption is quite strong becauseif the many bonds present
in
the fiber. An empirical expression for the infrared absorption in ag&m for GeOr-SiO2 glass is10
 dm = 7.81 x lo1rx *, (3.3)
[#)
These mechanisms result in'a wedge-shaped spectral-loss
characteristic' within this wedge' losses as
126 comparisonl3 of the
measure6.l1'
low as 0.148 dB/km atl.57 pm in a singte-mode fiberhave been
content fibers is shown in Fig' 3'4'
infrared absorption induced by various doping materials in low-water
fiber material is the most desirable'
This indicates that for operation at longer wavelengths Gepzlo9ed
fiber.
Note that the absorption curve shown in Fig. 3.3 is for a GeO2
doped

Wavelength (pm)

r00
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 I 1.2 1.5 10

Absorption toss in/

infrared region
i
I
l0 I
I
I
ts
-t
!a
tl
a
o \l
Fl
Absorption tor, il * t{
ultraviolet region \
\ /'r scattering
0.1 tr. / tr'o*
v\
/\. tt.. \
l, ,'tt
0:01
2.5 t 2.0 1.5 1.0
Photon energy (eV)

timi/Jr:g me.cnlyismsJor oG-&v

I.E. g.S OpA"aWr atteruatancluracteristics arld.tt:r,ir(Reprduced toith permissionJrom
doped1c1r-&css low-usater:conlent siticafiber.
Oscrrlrriet aL13)

3-1.3 Scatterthg Losses

Scattering 1o5ss5 in glass,af,ise from microscopic variations in the
material density' from compositional
*a ftom'"ilJt*Jhfro.qg"*ities or defectsoccurring dqnnq filer lanyfacture' As
fl-uctuations,
connected network of molecules' Such a structure
l- Sec. 2.7 describes glasS-is cornposed of a-fandomly
,r*"rr, *;-,ri"; ;rd; in which the molecular density is either higher or lower than-the
oxides, such as SiOr' GeO2'
average
and P2O5
L:; density in the glass. m uiAition, since glass is made up of ieveral
F
,*
compositional fluctuations can occur. These two effects give rise to refractive-index variations which
occur within the glass overdisbnces &atare small compred with thc wavelength. These index variations
cause a Rayleigh-type scattering of the light. Rayleigh scattering in glass is the same phenomenon that
scatters light from{he,sun in th atmosphere, thereby giving rise to a blue s!y..

GeO2-B2O3-SiO2

10

a P2O5-.SiO2
{)
cq
I
.U
/
83
o
j2
,/Geo,- Sio,
t--
I
I

0.5
oA o'6 0'8 '*i,r*#,p*) r'4 r'6 r'8
I

Ffg. S.4 A glnula4swt oJ the i4frared obsorpt{on irdured bg uariars doping moterisls in I
&ctu-loss stlha{lery
l
u:ith permissionfrom Osanni et aL13)
l

The expressions for sca*ering-induced attenuation are fairly complex owing to the random molecular
nature and the vmious oxide constituents'of glass. For single-component glass the scattering loss at a i

wavelength .tr resulting ftom density fluctuations can be approximated byr' t+ (in base e unitJ) I
I

ut3 l
dr.ut = @'- L)z ksTylr (3.4a) ll
#
Here, n is the refractive inde4, ft, is Boltzmann's constant, B. is the isothermal compressibility of th.g
material, and the fictive temperaure Ty is the temperature at which the darsity fluctuations are frozen
into the glass as it solidifies @fter haviiig been drawn into a fiber). Alternatively, the relationl ls 1in base .l
e units)

8zr3
0r"ut = nsfksTy Fr Q.4b)
*
has been derived, whwp'Bilre pEotoaastic coefficient. A comprison of Eqs (3.,+c) and (3.4b) iS given
in hob. 3.6. NCIe that Eqs (3.4c) and (3.4b) are given in units of nepers (that is, base e units). As showu
inEq.'(3.1),to change'tliis ttidi:rcihels foropticalrpower attenuation calculations, multiply these equations :i

byl0loge=4.343.
-t::ii
 rr OpticetFtbers

where fis = 1.64 dB/km at .ts = &50 irn. This formula

Examols,S-l For pure silica glass an approximate
predicts scattering losses of0.291 dB/lsn at l3l0nm and
equation for the Rayleigh scattering loss is given by
0.148 dB/km at 1550 nm.

*(i) =
", (*l
For multicomponent glasses the sEattering is given by3

8o',
o=
- 16nr\, 6v (3.5)
3h4'
volume of 6l1is
where the square of the mean-square refractive-index fluctuation (6n2)2 over a

(6o2) = (#l@p)2 + (3.6)

t [#),ro,'
Here, 64 {.ne fluctuation and 6C,, is the concentration fluctuation of the ith glass component
_ f*- lw
and density fluctuations are generally not known at
The magnitudes of thacomposition
can be calculated'
determiied from experimentat scattering data. Once they are known the scattering.loss
scattering of
Structural inhomogeneities and defects created during nUer faUriclion can also
cause
umeacted starting
tg[t out of the nOer] ffrese defects rnay be in the form of trappd gas bubbles,
*?ri.i"fr, ;a ffi*a regtons in the glass. ln general,ttrc Pfform manufactunng ryt $,htt huu."
"*rt
l"* *i**ia"JtU"L extriasic!ffects to tfre point where scattering that results from them is
"tf""a intrinsic Rayleigh scattering'
'""sffi compared with the follows
neslisible
R;;l"igh r""*"cos a ?,.-4 dependence, it decreases dramatically with
"h*ruit*rirtic
ir";;i"g;;;"i"*,rr, * i-"*ho*n io Fig. 3.3. For wavelengths below about 1 pm it is the dominant
loss mechanisms in a fibei and gives the
attenuation-versus-wavelength plots their
characteristic downward uend with increasing
wavelength. At wavelengths longer dran 1 pr4 J
E
infrared absorption effects tend to dominab optical E
()
signal attenuation. i: l.o
Combining the infrated, ultraviolet, and o
scattering losses, w€ get the results shown in Fig- d
3
3.5 for multimode {ibers and Fig' 3.6 for single- t}
mode fibers.l6 Both of these figures are for
typical commercial-gCIde silica fibers. The losses
ol multi-mode fibers are generally higher than 0.1
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
those of single-mode fibers' This is a result of Wavelength (nm)
higher dopant concentrations and the
accompanying larger seatteri$g loss due to rrg.3.6 'I$ptutspecfuf aftrrluatiort rwqe
grear€r compositional'fhr*stion' in rnultimode
3[or produetion- run graded-rndex
fibers.In addition, multimo& fibtrs are subject muttimade Jibers. fReProduced
to' higher-order:mode losses owing to toith perrnission.;tlrom Keck,r6 @
perturt€tioas at the core;+la&ing interface. 1985,IEEE)
 Optical Fiber Commrmications

3.1.4 Bending Losses

Radiative losses occur whenever an optical
fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of .v
o
E
curyaturerlT-26. Fibers can be subject to two
c)
types ofbends: (a) macroscopic bends having
E r.o
radii that are large compared with the fiber o
diameter, for example, such as those that (!
occur when a fiber cable turns a corner, and o
(b) random microscopic bends of the fiber
axis that can arise when the fibers are
incorporated into cables. 1200 1400 1600
Let us first examine large-curvature Wavelength (nm)
radiation losses, which are known as
macrobending losses or simply bending Fig. 3.6 Tlpicat spectral attenuation raqe
losses. For slight bends the excess loss is Jor production-run single -mode
extremely small and is essentially fibers. (Reprodtrced with permis sion
unobservable. As the radius of curvature Jrom Keck,16 @ 1985, IEEE.)
decreases. the loss increases exponentially
until at a certain critical radius the curvature loss becomes observable. If the bend radius is made a bit
smaller once this threshold point has been reached, the losses suddenly become extremely large.
Qualitatively, these curvature loss effects can be explained by examining the modal electric field
distributions showninFig. 2.19. Recall that this'figure shows that any boundcore mode has an evanescent
field tail in the cladding which decays exponentially as a function of distance from the core. Since this
field tail moves along with the field in the core, part of the energy of a propagating mode travels in the
fiber cladding. When a fiber is bent, the field tail on the far side of the center of curvature must move
faster to keep up with the field in the core, as is shown in Fig. 3.7 for the lowest-order fiber mode. At a
certain critical distance x" from the center of the fiber, the field tail would have to move faster than the
speed of light to keep up with the core
field. Since this is not possible the optical Power lost
energy in the field tail beyond x, radiates through
away. radiation
Field distribution
The amount of optical radiation from
a bent fiber depends,on the field strength
at x. and on the radius of curvature R.
Since higher-order modes are bound less
tightly to the fiber core than lower-order
modes, the higher-order modes will Curved fiber
radiate out of the fiber first Thus, the total fttt
number of modes that can be supported
\
by a curved fiber is less than in a straight
fiber. Glogels has derived the following
Ftg. 3.7 Sketch oJthejnd,amental modefreld. in a
curued optical usaueguide. (Reproduced
expression for the effective number of
u:ith pemtis sionJrom E. A. J. Marcatili q1d
modes N"o that are guided by a curved
S. E. Mttler, BeLL Sgs. Tech. J., uol, 48,
multimode fiber of radius a.'
p.2161, Sept. 1969, @ 1969, AT&1)
 {r #l+. [#
,,,,"u = ar- (3.7)
I' ]]
where a defines the graded-index profile, A is the core-+ladding index difference, n2 is the cladding
refractive index, k =Ztcl),is the wave' propagation constant, and

N*= I^grka)zL (3.8)

a+2''
is the total number of modes in a straight fiber [see Eq. (2.S1)].

Example 3.4 As an example, let us find the radius nz= 1.5, A = 0.01, a = 25 ltlrt and let the wavelength of
the guided light pm. Solving Eq. (3.7) yields
of curvature R at which the number of modes decreases by - be 1.3
50 percent in a graded-index fibei. For this frber,let a=2, R=l.ocm.

Ano*rer form of rdiatioa.loss,in optical waveguide results from mode coupling caused by random
microbendsof the optical 1r6"rz7ao a6c,robends are repetitive small-scale fluctuations in the radius of
curvature of the fiber axis, as is illustrated in Fig. 3.8. They are caused either by nonuniformities in the
manufacturing of the fiber or by nonuniform lateral pressurgs greated dlriqg thq cabling of the fiber.
The latter effect is often referred to as cabling or packaging'Losses. An incrOhse in attenuation results
from microbe:rding because the,fiberCurvature causes repetitive coupling of energy between the guided
modes and theleaky.or nonguided modes in the fiber'
. One method of minimizingmicrobending losses is by extruding a compressible jacket over the fiber.
When:external forces are applied to this configuration, the jacket will be deformed but the fiber will
tend to stay relatively sfiaight, as shown in fig. :.9. For a multimode graded-index fiber having a core

Microbends

Power loss from higher-order modes

Power coupling to higher-order modes

rrg.3.8 Smatl-scate Jhrcfuuatbns'in the radils oJ curuature oJ the fiber axis tead to
mioober,dfir€.'losses: Microbends cant strcd higher-order modes and' can cailse
pwerJromlow-order ndes to couple to higher-order modes
 ': I

radius a, outef radius D (exeluding tlie jacket), and index difference.A, the mierobending loss ao, of a
jaeketed fihet is reduced from of an rrnjacketed fibor by a factof I
{at

r(ard= (3.9)
[r-,^,(:l 41'
Extemal furce

Compressible jacket

FlE. S.9 A conrpresstbleJurket ext?udd owr afifur redures mtxr:ltr;ndry resuttirgJrorn

erceinat3bl"ivs

Here, E, and Erare the Young's moduli of theJaeket and fiber, respeetivoly. Tho Young's modulus of
common jacket materials rangeB ftpm 20 to 500 MFa The Young's modulus of fused silica glass is
about 65 GPa.

3.1.5 Cgre and Clad{hg losses

Upon measuring the propagation losses in an actual fibe{, atl the dissipative and scattering }ossos will be
marifested simultaneous$. Sinee the core and cladding have different indices of re.ftaetion end therefore
differ in composidon, tlte eore and eladdtng generally have differcnt Bttenuatisn eueffleiefits, denoted
E1 and Gbi respetvely. If thc influenee of modal coupling is lgnored,s2 the loss for a mode of order
(U rrr) for a step-index waveguide is

%r,,t =",Y*nrY (3.10a)

whert the fractional pow€rs P*JP aud F *o/f are shown tn Fig. 2.27 for several low-order rnodes.
Using Eq. (2,71), this can be rrtitten as

dun = A1
'Pu"u
* (42 - Ut)- (3.10r)
p
The total loss of the wevryiide erur be ftund by surrrrning over all modes weighted by &o fractiorral
po\rer in that mode.
For the case of a graded-index fiber the situation is nrueh morc eomplieared. In this case, both rhe
attenuatioh coefficients and ilre modal power uahd to be functions of the radlal eobldinate. At a distance :
lionr the eote axls the loss lss I
\
.r

{r(r) = wr + (trz - *y d$-t'i$ (3. l 1)

wbelt a1 attd eE u€ &a *xt*l etrd cladditrg uttenuation eoefficienb, respectivelp rud the a bmm are
defined by Eq.@.78).The hss encountered by a given mode is then
 a(r) p(r) r dr
ilat = t3.12)

Ji n("1'
a'

where p{r) ia the power den6ity of firat mode at r The complexity of the multimode wavsguide ha*
prinrnieb"* experimental cO&iation with a model. However, it has generally been observcd ttrat the

Eg[ Sfgnrt Dl*tarGlon ln Flhers

from attenuation mechanisms and broadens due to
As shown in Fig, 3,10, an optieal signol weakens
distortion effects aa it Eavek,&ng a frtrr, Errentually will ealle.neish.boltng pulBeB to
ttreee two factors
orr.tup, .A,fter a eert6in amswrt.oi elrylap oeeurn, thc receivqr e&n no longer disringuiah the individual
a{iacent pulseo'snd enorr ariec'r*b,ex iuterpreting tho reccivcd Fgn{'
"fti* r*otiuo furt d.iscueses.lfop:geileral tactors that eausa signel dictoltio8 and then pxanrincs the
varioro dispersion meehanieme in,moredctail, Scction,3,2.2 addrpssesmodal delay and shows horv this
aJuy ir r4utu6 to ttre irformatiorr-earrying capacity of a multimode fiber in terms of a'transmittpd bit
rate B. Section 3.2.3 examines,tho,variouf factors.contributing to disporsion iu termE of the &equgncy

Input pllaes , l

--- Detection threshold (o) Separate pulsQs at timo /1

a
C)
"o
(b) Distinguishable pulses attrme t2> t1
a
6t

o Attenuation
o
6 (c) Barely distingufstable
o --. pulses attipc /3>
() 12
0
t
o,
Ifiercyr&ol intorforeups (4 Indistinguishsble
pulses at tim$ ,4 > ,3

Distanae along fiber'"=-"'r'

Flg, g, tO Eroade4ttg'and a*enu n el A.Da. Mwent pulaes as they_trwel afiber,

W
: @).or66r;ltg,the pulwa arc seporate: (b) ffie Pulses 2a"@ *tAW and are

., da#igutsalrAle; (d.)'Euentuaitg the pulses'strarugtg ouerlap and are

tndsAn$fi*tf,hle
 I

dependence of the propagation constant 0. The next topics include a discussion of group velocity in
Sec. 3.2.4 and details on the various dispersion mechanisms in Sec. 3.2.5 through 3.2.8.

3.2.1 Ovemiew of Dlstortion Origlns

Signal distortion is aconsequence of factors such as intermodal delay, intramodal dispersion, polarization-
mode dispersion, and higher-order dispersion effects. These distortions can be explained by examining
the behavior of the grouB veioeities of'the guided modes, where the group velociqr iq the.speed at which
energy in a particular mode travels along the fiber (see $ec.3.2.4).
Intermodal delag (or simply modal delay) appears only in multimode fibers, Modal delay is a
result of each mode having a different value of the goup velo-city ht' a sing{e ft.oqueney., p16ai ,6ris effeCt
one can derive an intuitive picture of the information-carrying capacity of a multimode fiber.

IntramodaL pigpe6iorr ,or:Ghranatic Disp€ton

is pulse spreading thar takes place
within a single mode;:This spreading arises from the fuiite spretral emission width'of an optical source.
The phenomenon also is known as group velocity dispenion, since the dispersion is,a result of the group
velocity being a firnction of,the wavelength-.Because intramodal dispersion depends on the wavelength,
its effect on signal distortion,irereases with the spectral width of the light source. The speetral,width is
the band of wavelengths overwhbh the source emits light. This wavelength.band normally is characterized
by the root-rnean-square:(nns) spectral width o1, Depending on the device strxcture of a light-emitting
diode (LED), the spectral width is approximately 4 to 9 percent of a cenftal wavelength. For example, as
Fig. 3. 11 illustrates, if the peak wavelength of an LED is 85O nm, a typical source spectral width would
be 36 nm; that is, such an LED emits most of its light in'the 832+o-868-nm wavelength band. Laser
diode optical sources exhibit mucJr nar-rower
spectral widths, with typical values being
l-2 nnfor multimode lasers and t0.a nm for
single-mode lasers (see Chapter 4). 850.nm peak
1.0
,The two main causes of intramodal k
C)
dispersion are as follows: B
o
l. Material dispersion arises due to the a
variations of the refractive index of o
the core material as a function of o
o
wavelength. Material. dispersion also 'E (r_5
is referred to as chroitatic'dispersion, o
d
since this is the same effect by which
a prism spreads out aispectruilL This
refractive index' property -caqses a
wavelength dependence of the group
velocity of a given mode; that is, pulse 0L_
spreading occurs even when different
790 810 830 850 870 890 910
Emission wavelength (nm)
wavelengths follow the same path.
.2- Wqveguide dispgr-sio4 causes pulse rig. 8.1r Spectrol emission pattern.oJ c
spreadlng bggause.only'part of, the representatilte Ga..A|As LED usith a
optical poryerppp4gatiol aloqga flber pakemissionatS59 rwru The u:idth
. is confined to the.Cgrs.. Dlspersion oJ tlw spectrat pattent at its ha$-
arises because the fraction of light potuer pint is 36 nm ,
 power propagating in the cladding travels faster than the light confined to the core, since the
index is lowet' in the cladding. For examplg a single-mode fiber confines only about B0 percent
of the power in the core for V values around 2. T\e amount of waveguide dispersion depends on
the fiber design, since the modal propagation constant B is a function of alh (the optical fiber
dimensiorr relative to the wavelength; here a is ttre core radius). Waveguide dispersion usually
can be ignored in multimode fibers, but its effect is significant in single-mode fibers.

Polatlzstiom-mode Dispersion results from the fact that light-signal energy at a given
wavelength in a single-nrode,fiben,aetually occupies two orthogonal polarization states or modes (see
Sec. 2.5)-. At the starr- of.the fiber'the two polmization states are aligned. However, since fiber material
is not,perfectly uniform thrtiugftoutits length,'each polarization mode will encounter a slightly different
refraciive index. Consequenily each mode will travel at a slightly different velocity. The res'ulting
difference in propagation times LeMeen the two orthogonal polarization modes will cause pulse spreading.
Section 3.2.8 gives more details on this effect.

3.2.2 Modat Delay

Intermodal distortion or modal delay appears only in multimode fibers.-Thiq signal-distorting mechanisrn
is a result of each mode.having a diteiint value'of the group velocity at a single frequency. To see why
the delay arises, consider the nreridtonal ray picture given in Fig.2.l7 for a multimode step-index fiber.
The stelper the angle of propagation of the ray congruence, the higher is the mode -number and,
consequently, the slower the axialrgrrirrp velocity. This variation in the group velocities of the different
modeJresuits in a group delay spread, which is the intermodal distortion. This distortion mechanism is
eliminated by single-mode operation, but is important in multimode fibers. The maximum pulse
broadening arising-from,ttre modat delay iS the difference'between the travel time 7,,* of the longest ray
.ong*"n"-" pattrslttre highest-order rnode) and the travel time 7*n of the shortest ray congruence paths
(the fundamental mode). This hoadening is simply obtained from ra.'' tracing and for a fiber of length Z
is given by

(3.13)

where from F4. Q.zl) sin 9" = n2lnl and A is the index difference'
The question now arises as to what maximum bit rate B can be sent over a multimode'step-index

Examole 3.5 Considera l-kmlongmultimodefiber broadens by 50 ns after traveling a distance of I km in this

type of fiber.
4;
in which r, = 1.480 and A = 0.01, so that 1.465. Then
Eq. (3.13) yields AI = 50 ns/krn. This means that a pulse

fiber. Typically'the,filier capacity is specified in terms of frte bit rate-distance product BL, that is, the bit
rate timis the possible transmission distance Z,. In order for neighboring signal pulses to remain
distinguishable at the receiver, the pulse spread should be less than 1/8, which is the width of a bit
period. For example, a stringer[rgqriirement for a high-performance link might be AI( 0.IlB.lngeneral,
F we need torhave AZ < 1/4 Us"ig' (3.13)'this inequality gives the'bit rate-distance product
 BL<2! (3.14)
niL
Taking values of n, = 1380, n2 = 1.465; and A = 0.01, the capacity,of this multimode step-index fiber
is 8L = 20 Mb/s-km. In graded-index fibers, careful selection of the radial refractive-indei profile can
lead to bit ratedisunces poducb of up to I Gb/s:km. .

Example 3.6 Yiowd alteinati:rcty, as illustated in
Example 3.5, for a multimode $t€P.iadsx,fiber wi& a
bandryidth{istance value, of 81,= 20 }dSds-kn the pulse
spreadiag is 50 ns/kxn .As an exangc! supposg Se pulse
wid& in a ransmission system is allorved !o widea b: at
most 25 percent Then for a l&Mb/s daia rate, in which
one pulse is transmitteil every lfi) ns" this limitation allows
a spread oiat most 25 ns, wlich oc.gurs in a tansmission
distaace of 500 m. Now, strypose the datarate is increased
to l& Mb/s, wirich meaas *rat ono pulse is transmitted
every lQ ns. In this case the 5Gns/kn allowable spreading
factor will limit the transmission distance !o only 50 m in
such a multimode stepindex fiber.

3.2.8 'factors- Gdi{_i to Dtspcrston

This sectioa briefly examines the various factors contributing to dispersion. Sections 3,24 through
3.2.8 and S€c. 3.3 describe the.se factors in more detail.
As Sec. 2.4 notes, the w4ve.ppp€g8tiort:coRsta$ p i$ a function of the wavelength, or, equivalently,
of the angular al,$ins€ p-is a slowly varyfu€ function of this angular frequency, one can see
where various dispe$fon effecm arise by expanding p in a Taytor series about a cJntral heqr"ocy ary
Insening suchran expansion into the waveforrn equation, for example Eq, (2.1), then shows the effects
of variations in p due to modal and delay effects on the frequency components of a pulse
during propagation along a fiber.
Expanding B to ttrird order in a Taylor series yields

fl(a) =Po(at) + flr{rb)(o -rh) + a - @s)3

}Frf*otr, -
@o)2+ (3.1s)
}Brtarolf
where pr, (a6) denotes the m& derivative of B with respect to al evaluated at 0)
=ab; that is,

u-=(#\.=^ (3.16)

Now let us examine the different components of the product pz, where z is the distance traveled
along the fiber. The resulting fust term p6z describes a phase shift of the propagating optical wave. From
the second term of Eq. (3.15), the factol Fr(ab)z produces a group delay z, = di*
where z is the
distance traveled by thepulse and Ys= UFt is &e gmup velocity [see Eqs (3.20) and {5,2t)]. Hence, the
expression

, ar*y=zlPs- Bryl (3.17)

is called the plarization mode'dispersian (PMD) of the ideal uniform fiber (see Sec. 3.2.8). Note that in
a real fiber the PMD varies statistically and is calculated according to Eq. (i.40)
 In the third term of Eq. (3.15), the.factor shows that tho group velocity of a monochromatic w&ve
ft
depends on the wave frequwy. This.means that ttre different group velocities of the frequency
eomponents
velocities is known
of u potse cause it to broaden-as it'travels along a fiber. This sprsading of lre-Srou.f
as ciromatic dispersion or group velocity disfersion (GVD). The factor f,2 ,tlt
tt kng*] es the GyD
parameter (see Sec. 3.2.4).ir gq. (3.25i notes, the dispersion D is related to p, through tfte expression

o = -fffr, (3.18)

In the fourth term of Eq. (3.15),.the frctot B, is known as the third-ordet dispersion. This term is
related to
important around the waveieng6h at which &fqqrlr zero. The thiTd-order dispersion can be
tfr" Arpersion D and the dispeision stope So;ADfih(the variation in the dispersion D with wavelength)
[V tr*rfor*ing the derivat]ve with respeci to al into a derivative with respeet to .1. Thus we have

n,=*--**=-**l-*,) (3.19)

t2
= -! .
(2nc)'
1),2 so + z),oy

Section 3.5.3 illustrates how these factors are specified for commercial fibers.

3.2.4 GrouP Detay

by
As Example 3.6 mentions, the lnformation-carrJing capacity of a fiber link can be determined
examinini the deformation of shont light pulses propagating along the fiber. The following diseuesion
on signal-distortion thus is carried out primarily fiom the viewpoint of pulse broadening, which
is
representative of digital transmigsion.
First consider an electrical sigual tliat modulates an opieal source. For this case, assu(ne that the
mode thus
modulated optical srgnal er*itecill modes equally at the input of the fiber. Eaeh waveguide
carries an edual a*6nr*t of energy,through the fib,er. Fuithermore, each mode contains all the sp€ctral
cornponents *- the wavelength riia ou"i*uich rhe source emits. ln addition, assume that each of these
each speetral
speciral components is moefuated in &e same way. As the sigrral propagates along the fib€r,
gruap per unit
r'r*pr*rr .L be assumed t<r travel indepndently and
19
undergo a time delay or delay
f*gttr rf L ittthe direction of the propagatiot givenby?

N" t tdB
--9-=-=---.L-=
h2 dp (3.20)
L VE e dk ?.nc dh

Here, Lis dre dietarrce treveld by the Flse, p is the propagation constmt alo,ng the fiber axis, k * LnlL
and tlrc group velocity

u,='{#l'=[#l (1.2r),

ir rretio"ity at which ille energy in a pulse travels along a fiber'

+ri:1,
 :
I

Since the group &lay depends on:the wavelength, each spectral component of any particular mode
takes a different amount of timeto travel a certain distance. As a result of this difference in time delays,
the optical-signal pulse spreads out with time as it is transmitted over the fiber. Thus, the quantity we are
interested in is the afirourft of pulse spreading that arises from the group delay variation.
If the spectral.width of the optical source is not too wide, the delaydifference per unit wavelength
-
along the gropagation path is approximately dt/dL For specrral components wtrictr are 1Aapart a:nd
which lie 6A12 absve and below a central wavel6ngth )+ the total delay difference Erover a distance L
is

a, =fra,=-*(r^#,*^,#)" (3.22)

In tenns of the angularfrequ3ocy ar, this is written as

6, l( l]u,
dw6, = drolvr
=d', = r( tg 6a (3.23)
) lor,
Thefaclor Br=*Blda2 is the GVD parameter, which determines how much
.
it travels along an optical fiber.
a light pulse broadens as

If the spectral width 6i, of an optical source is characterizedby its rms value (see Fig. 3.11 for a
typical LED), then the p-ulse.sp.reading can be approximated by the rms pulse width,

6gn *uV,=*..2^#+-#l (3.24)

The factor

,=!,*=*(+)=_Tu, (3.2s)

is designated as the dispersion.It defines the pulse spread as a function of wavelength and is measured
in picoseconds per kilometeltrEr nanometer [ps/(nm . km)]. It is a result of matJrial and waveguide
dispersion. In many theoretical ffeatments of intramodal dispersion it is assumed, for simplicity] tfrat
material dispersion and waveguide dispersion can be calculated separately and then added to give the
total dispersion of the mode. In realiry these two mechanisms are inricately related, since the dispersive
properties of the refractive index (which gives rise to material dispersion) also effects the waveguide
dispersion. However, an examination3s of'the interdependence of material and waveguide dispeision
has shown that, unless a very precise value to a fraction of a percent is desired, u gool estimate of the
total intramodal dispersion can be obtained by calculating th-e effect of signal dis*tortion arising from
Qne type of dispersion,in the absence of the other. Thus, to a very good approximation, D can be written
as the sum of the riraterial dispersion Dq,4 and the waveguide iiJpersion'D*r. Material dispersion and
waveguide dispersion are therefore considered separately in the next two seclions

3.2.5 Materlal Dlsperslon

Material dispersion occurs because the index of refraction varies as a function of the optical wavelength36.
This is exemplified in Fig. 3.l}for silica: As a consequence, since the group velocity Vrof amode is a
i{
i
I
function of the index of refraction, the
various spectral components of a given 1.540
mode will travel at different fpeeds,
depending on the wavelength. Material
t.520
dispersion is, therefore, an intramodal
dispersion effect, and is of particular
importance for single-mode waveguides 1.500
and forLED system (since an LED has a o
o
broader output spectrum than a laser 6l
,E
C) 1.480
diode). lt
To calculate material.induced.dis- o
xo
persion, we consider a plane wave propa- ! 1.460
gating in an infinitely extended dielectric
medium that has a refractive index n(,X.)
equal to that of the fiber core. The t.440
propagation constant B is thus given as
\
I
P=TP (3.26)
1.420 t

Substituting this expression for p into 1.400

Eq. (3.20) withk=2rilvyields the group 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0
delay ?-u, resulting from mattirial Wavelength (pm)
dispersion.
ru. 3.r2 Variotions tt tle tdex oJ reJraction as a
function oJ the opticat uauelength Jor
r,,o, =:("- e.z.)
^#)
Using Eq. (3.24),the pulse spread o.,,
stltca- (Reprodtrced uith permis slonJrom
I. H. Malitsott, J. OpL fu. Amer., uoL 55,
pp. 12O5-1209, M.. 1965)
for a source of specftal width ol is found
by differentiating this group delay with
respect to wavelength and multiplying by ox to yield

o^Ll DM(I)l
Or*t =
#1"^=+l^# = (3.28)

where D-u,(2) is the material ilispersion.

A plot of the material dispersion for unit length L and unit optical source spectral width o1 is given in
Fig. 3.13 for the sitca material shown in Fig. 3.12. From Eq. (3.28) and Fig. 3.13 it can be seen that
material dispersion can be reduced either by choosing sources with narrower spectral output widths
(reducing o7) or by operating at longer wavelengths.

ExamPle 3.7 As an example, consider a typical seen from Fig. 3.13 and Eq. (3.2E), this produces a pulse
GaAIAs LED having a spec.tral width" of 40 nm at an spread of 4.4 ns/km. Note that material dispersion goes to
800-nm peak output so that oy'h = 5 percent. As can be zero at 1.27 pm for pure silica.
Th9 effeq of waveguidd dispersion on pulse spreading can be approximated by assuming that the refractive
index of the material is independent of wavelength. Let us first consider the groop aeUy-ttrat is, rhe
time required for a mode to travel along a fiber of length t
Tlo make the results independent fU".
ff
9o1figuration,37
*e shall express the gpup delay in terms of the normalizeA propagation censtant D
defined as "

(3.29\

For small varues of the index difference A = (nr - n2)rny Eq. (3.29) can be approximated by

u=filk-y (3:30)
\-nz
Solving Eq. (3.30) for p, we have

F*nzk(ba+t) (3.31)

40

0
tr
J(
i
*a -40
e
6
c)
45,

€ -ro
G'
o
d

*lm

1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Waveleryth (pm)

FE. S. f g Metertat dqpffir as a.;firnctton oJ ofibat umxtangthJor pwe sitim and l3'.i-
percrent ceo*1ae.s-pereent sio2. Sepoduea Gtn-permission fiom J. w.
FtemFqf, Ekctuon Lett, uet 14,W. 326-SZt],, Mau teTS)
 Spnol Oqmaanon {n Opflcal Ftbers

With this expression for p and using the assumption that n2is not a function of wavelength, we find that
the group delay t*, arising from waveguide dispersion is

L dB Ll * dftb\1
r*e=
id =;ln, "rAT (3.32\
)
The modal propagation constant pis obtained from the eigenvalue equation expressed by Eq. (2.54),
and is generally given in terms of the normalized frequency Vdefined by Eq. (2.57). We shall therefore
use the approximation

^,r12
v = tn(tt - rri\" = lcat\J^ (3.33)

which is valid for small values of A, to write the group delay in Eq. (3.32) in terms of V instead of /c,
yielding

,-u=
llr."ro#7 (3.34)

The first term in Eq. (3.34) is a constant and the second term represents the group delay arising from
waveguide dispersion. The factor d(W)ldv can be expressed as37

dw) 2J3@a)
dv
='['- Jr*r(ua) lua(ua)
(3.3s)

where z is defined by Eq. (2.48) and a is the fiber radius. This factor is plotted in Fig. 3.14 as a function
of Y for various LP modes. The plots show that, for a fixed value of I{ the group delay is different for
every guided mode. When a light pulse is launched into a fiber, it is distributed among many guided
modes. These various modes arrive at the fiber end at different times depending on their group delay, so
that a pulse spreading results. For multimode fibers the waveguide dispersion is generally very small
compared with material dispersion and can therefore be neglected.

3.2.7 Slgnrl Dlgtottlon ln Stndc-Mode Flborg

For single-mode fibers, waveguide dispersion is of importance and can be of the same order of magnitude
as material dispersion. To see this, let us compare ttre two dispersion factors. The pulse spread o*,
occurring over a disribution of wavelengths ol is obtained from the derivative of the group delay with
respect to wavelength:37

owl- = Lt D*.QL)toiL
*lr^
= Yl Y-t lo, = nrLLo ^ v d2 (v!) (3.36)
hldhl- cL dvt
where Dnf.l,) is the waveguide dispersion,
To see the behavior of the waveguide dispemion, consider the oxpression of the factor ua for the
lowest-order mode (i.e., the lIE11 mode or, equivalently, the LP61 mode) in the normalized propagation
constant. This can be approximated by37
 02681012
f/+

fig. S.14 Thegroupdetag arisingJromioaueguidedispersbnasajnctionoJtteVnumber

Jor a step'irdex optimlfiber. T?e atrue nwnfurs jm designate ttrc lPj^mldes.
(Reprdured wXh permission Jrom Gtqe.sz 1

. :',. .: .,,-
, .'-.';, : w'=l@;w
(L+.TDV
(3.37)

Substituting this into 84. G.29) yields, for the FIE11 rnode,

b(W-= 1-
, . (t+,Jr)2 .,.
, . (3.38)
..::r:i:: , .;.._i: ;ir- ,[L + (4 +V4\Y\2
Figure'3.15 shoWs- plos of this e.eipression for b and its derivatives d(W)ldV and v&(Wltav2 as
functions of Y

Example 3.8 From Eq. (3.36) we. have that the ,l*t tti = 1.48 and A = 0.2 percent. At V = 2.4, from
waveguide dispersion is Fig.3-15 the expression in square brackets is 0.26.
Choosing L= 1320 nm, we then have D*r(l) = -1.9 pV
D*,(i)=-
++1,#1 ,
(nm.kn).

Figure 3.16 gives examples of the magnltudes of material and waveguide dispersion for a firsed-
silica-core single-mo& fiher .having Y = 2.4. Comparing,the waveguide-dispersion with the material
dispersi,on, we see that for a standard non-dispersion-shifted fiber, waveguide dispersion is impontant
around 1320 nm. At this point, the nro dispersion factors cancel to give a zero 0otal dispersion. However,
material dispersion dominates waveguide dispersion at shorter and longer wavelengths; for example, at
900 nm and [SSO ,-. fnis figUre,used the approximation that material and waveguide dispersions are additive'

3.2.8 Polarlzatlon-Mode Dlqlersion

The effects of fiber birefringence on the polari- 1.50
zation states ofan optical signal are another source 1.25
of pulse bioadening. This is partieularly critical
for high-rate long-haul transmission links (e'g., 10 1.00
and 40 Gb/s over tens of kilometers). Birefringence
0.75
can result from intrinsic factors such as geometric
irregularities of the fiber core or internal sfiesses 0.50
on it. Deviations of less than I percent in the
0.25
circularity ofthe core can already have a noticeable
effect in a high-speed lightwave system. In 0
addition, external factors, such as bending, Znumber
twisting, or pinching of the fiber, can also lead to
birefringence. Since all these mechanisms exist to ffg. 3.15 The usatseguide parameter b and.
some extent in any field-installed fiber, there will its deriuatives d(W)/dV and
be a varying lirefringence along its lelgth. v d2W) / dW plotted as afttrtct:rrn
A fundamental property of an optical signal oJ tte V ntntfur Jor tte HE, mde
is its polarization state. Polarization refers to the
electic-field orientation of a light signal, which
can vary significantly along the length of a fiber.
As shown in Fig. 3.17, signal energy at a given
wavelength occupies two orthogonal
polarization modes. A varying
birefringence along its length will 20
cause each polarization mode to fravel E
J
at a slightly different velocity. The ,: 10
resulting difference in propaghtion ti
times Acpuo between the two .80
orthogonal polarization modes will o
result in pulse spreading. This is the
polarization-mode disPersion o -ro
B ,"-/ Waveguide

(PMD).38'3e If the group velocities of

the two orthogonal polarization modes
-20
are usx and tto then the differenial l2oo 1300 1400 1500 1600
time'delay A7"*o between the two Wavelength (nm)
polarization components dufing
propagation of the pulse over a FE. 3.16 Emmples oJ tle magnltudes oJ maferlol
distance Z is and usatseguide disperslon as aJurctan
oJ opttcot uauelengthJor a single-mde
-
A?puo -t_--
Ir L
(3.3e) fised-sitica-core frber. (Reprodrrced usith
permission Jrom Keck,16 @ 1985, IEEE)
l'u ,gv
 I
il

An important pint te notc is that, in con8ast to chromatic dispersion, which is a relatively stable
phenomenon along a fiher, PMD varies randomly along a fiber. A principal reason for this is that the
perturbations eauting the birefringence effects vary with temperature and stress dynamics. In practice,
the effect of these perturbations shows up as a random, time-varying fluctuation in the value of ttre pUO
at the fiber output. Thus, At 6 given in Eq. (3.39) cannot be used directly to estimate PMD. Instead,
statistieal estimadons are neetled to aceount for its effects.
A useful means of eharaeterizing PMD for long fiher lengths is in terms of the mean value of the
differential group delay (see Chapter 14 for PMD measurement techniques), This can be caleulated
aecording to the relationship

Arrun = Dpyp"f (3.40)

Time delayArpyp

Two orthogonal
poladzatisn modes

fU. S.17 Dffemnes e,tlw1lr/rafiz,ffiarvntcd,eprcpgattrl-ltirnesesanopticalpulsepa,sses

thratqh afiber uffi uergringr htrgfrhgenoe alnng tts IerEEh

where Dp1,ap, which is measured in pg.ffi,is &e average PMD parameter. Typical values of Dpo
range from 0.05 to 1"0 pslrd6'. As an example, one experiment measured values of PMD for three
types of cab'le instdlations that we,re subjected to different environments.{ The setups wene a 36-km
spooled fiber ia a temperature-*onuolled ehamber, a 48.8-km buried cable, and a +8lkrn aerial cable.
Over a 12- ta 15-h peried, the average BMD parameters were measured to be 0.028, 0.2g, and
I .2S p#ffi , noryeetively, The larger vdue of PMD for the aerial cable is caused by both gradual and
rapid stress variations in the ffber due to temperature fluctuations or from sudden movements of the
fihr due to wind.al
To keep the probability of errors due tq PMD low, a standard limit on the maximum tolerable value of
AcB* rlnges betrrieen 10 to 20 percent of a bit duration. Ttrus Arpp should be no more than 10 to 20
ps fbr l&GUs data rates and 3 ps at 40 Gbds. For axample, taking the lower tolerance limit, this means
that for a l0-Gbds liak whieh has 20 spans of 80 lcn each, the PMD of the Eansmission fiber must be less
than 0'2 B#.ffi,Jg$ous optical and eleetronie means to monitor md mitigate PMD in a fi@r have
been investigatod.a**9,6,s661iuu, fibers with low pelarleation-mode dispersion arc being devdpped
and e,haraete*iru4.a9'50
m Characterlstlcs of Singte-Mode Flbers
This section addresses the basic design and operational characteristics of single-mode fibers. These
characteristics include index-profile configurations used to produce different fiber types, the concept of
cutoffwavelength, signal dispersion designations and calculations, the definition of mode-field diameter,
and signal loss due to fiber bending.

3.3.1 Refractlve-Inde- Prof,Ies

When creating single-mode fibers, manufacturers pay special attention to how the fiber design affects
both chromatic and polarization-mode dispersions. Such considerations are important since these
dispersions set the limits on long-distance and high-speed data transmission. As Fig. 3.16 illustrates, the
chromatic dispersion of a step-index silica fiber is lowest at I 3 l0 nm. However, if the goal is to transmit
a signal as far as possible, it is better to operate the link at 1550 nm (in the C-band) where the fiber
attenuation is lower. For high-speed links the C-band presents a problem, since chromatic dispersion is
much larger at 1550 nm than at 1310 nm. Consequently, fiber designers devised methods for adjusting
the fiber parameters to shift the zero-dispersion point to longer wavelengths.
The basic material dispersion is hard to alter significantly. However, it is possible to modify the
waveguide dispersion by changing from a simple step-index design to more complex index profiles for
s1-s7
the cladding, thereby creating different chromatic-dispersion characteristics in single-mod" 66"tt.13'
Figure 3.18 shows representative refractive-index profiles of four fiber-design categories. These are
13l0-nm-optimized fibers, dispersion-shifted fibers, dispersion-flattened fibers, and large-effective-core-
area fibers. To get a better feeling of what this geometry looks [ike, Fig. 3.19 gives exarpples of the
three-dimensional index profiles for several different types of single-mode fibers.
Popular single-mode fibers that are used widely in telecommunication networks are near-step-index
fibers, which are optimized for use in the O-band around 1310 nm. These /.310-nm-optimized single-
mode fibers are of either the matched-claddingt3'
sl' s2 or the depressed-claddings3'sa design, as shown
in Figs 3.18a, 3.19a, and 3.190. Matched-cladding fibers have a uniform refractive index throughout
the cladding. $pical mode-field diameters are 9.5 pm and the core-to-cladding index differences are
around 0.37 percent. In depressed-cladding fibers the cladding material next to the core has a lower
index than the outer cladding regton. Mode-field diameters are around 9.0 pm, and typical positive and
negative index differences are 0.25 and 0.12 percent, respectively.
As Eqs (3.28) and (3.36) show, whereas material dispersion depends only on the composition of the
material, waveguide dispersion is a function of the core radius, the refractive index difference, and the
shape of the refractive index profile. Thus the waveguide dispersion can vary dramatically with the fiber
desrgu parameters. By creating a fiber with a larger negative waveguide dispersion and assuming the
same values for material dispersion as in a standard single-mode fiber, the addition of waveguide and
material dispersion can then shift the zenr dispersion point to longer wavelengths. The resulting optical
fiber. is known as a dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF)52' ss-s7. E*rrrrles of refractive-index profiles for
dispersion-shifted fibers are shown in.Figs 3.18b and 3.19c. A typical waveguide dispersion curve for
tnii typ" of fiber is depicted in Fig. 3.2M.Theresultant total dispersion curve is shown in Fig. 3.20b for
fibers with a zero-dispersion wavelength at 1550 nm.
Since the zero-dispersion value of a DSF falls at 1550 nm, the chromatic dispersion is negative for
wavelengths less than 1550 nm and positive for longer wavelengths. These positive and negative
dispersions will seriously affect closely spaced WDM signals within the C-band because of nonlinear
effects in the fiber, as Chapter 12 describes. To reduce the effects offiber nonlinearities, fiber designers
 2a
L_J +
a=4s14mlzrl r.:0.35%o I
a:4.2pm Ar: 0'25o/o

A2:0.12%
Depressed-cladding
(a)

lr
a=2.2pm a1=3.lpm /\
az:4pm / \ I
|
d3:5.5 pm / \Ar = 1.0%
t\t
__l-LJ Lf-fto,=o,*
.H,
2a
Step-index a3

Triangular with annular ring

(b)

at=3llm t ar:3.4 tlrn t

a2=4.7 p/,,t &:0.76% \:0.52%
*
,l*l ts,
0,450/"
"i; ILJrrI llaz:0.55o/o
I 1o304
i
a2l-l al a2
Double-clad or l4 profile Quadruple-clad profile
(c)
Centdr core
Side f-:-----*.+ :0.58o/o
cotre
:1.09o/o
Az:0.27%
+ Lz=A.l8Yo
Cladding
lrt
o.lo2 4.3

Large-area dispersiqr,shift ed Large-area dispersion-fl attened

' ' ::'' @

fig. S.fa Representatiue cross-.sechons oJ index profiIes Jor (a) 1|1O-nm-optimized.,
h) dispr sion- sttlfr,d. (c) d isper sL"-fl
"nt";;d
;;; @' f*;;;fr;eJ - *.o
fibers "or.-
 (c)

Ftg. 3.lg Ttwee-dimensional reJroctiue index profites Jor (a) malched-clnddiry 737o-nm-
optimized" (b) depressed-ctnd.ding 131o-nm-optimized, (c) tiarWdar dispersion-
iniyte a, and (d) quadruple - clad disp er s ion'Jlattene d singte - mode fib e r s.
[@j and (c) Courtesy oJ Corning, Inc.: (b) Courtesg of York Technotogg:
(d) Reprodrced usith perinissionJrom H. I4dtin, J. lightuaue Tech-, uoL Ll-4,
pp. 1O34-1O38, Aug. 1986, @ 1986' IEDEI

developed the nonzero dispersion-shified fiber (NZDSF). These fibers have a small amount of either all
positirrl or all negative dispersion throughout the C-band. A typical positive chromatic dispersion value
ior a NZDSf is 4.S ps(nm-km) at 1550 nm. Section 3.4.2 gives an example of a NZDSF that has
positive dispersion throughout the C-band.
' Among tt" NmSf tipes is a single.mode optical fiber with a larger effective core area.sMl The
larger core areas reduce the effects of fiber nonlinearities, which limit system capacities of transmission
ryrt"*. that have densely spaced WDM channels. Figure 3.18d gives two examples of the index profile
for these large-effective-area (tEA) fibers. Whereas standard single-mode fibers have effective core
areas of aUorit SS pm2, these profiles yield values greater than 100 pm2.
An alternative fiber design concept is to distribute t49 dispersion minimum over a wider spectral
range. This approach is known as dispersionflattening.62'63 Dispersion-flattened fibers are more complex
to Jesign than dispersio:r-shifted fibers, because dispersion must be considered over a much btoader
r*g" Jf waveleng-ths. How-ever, they offer desirable characteristics over a wide span of wavelengths.
FigUres 3.18c and 3.19d show typical cross-sectional and three-dimensional refractive-index profiles,
res=pectively. A typical waveguide dispersion curve for this type of fiber is depicted in Fig. 3.20a.Figare
3.20b gives the resultant total flattened dispersion characteristic'
3.9.2 Cutoff Wavelenglth
.'
The cutoff wavelength of the:fust higher-order mode (LP11) is an important transmission parameter for
single-mode fibersJince it.separatJs the single-mode from the multimode regionsffis. Recall from
gq. fZ.SSl that single-mode operation occu$ above the theoretical cutoff wavelength given by
 gro
E

,e0
a

o
'd
c)
o
.E -10
(J

1300 1400 1500 1600

Wavelength (nm)
(a\

elo
x
i

,e0
g
o
()
o
.g-10
a

1300 1400 1500 1500

Wavelength (nm)
(b)

Ftg. g.2O (a) T\pical utarryui* dispersions ard. tte cormon nuturiol dtsprstonJor tlvee
dfferent sirqle-miide fiber deslgns. (b) Resultant total disprstons

^ b|ar, .rtV2
4;a= v \"i-n;) (3.41)

with V = 2.405 for step-index fibers. At this wavelength, only the LP61 mode (i.e., the HQ1 mode)
should propaga8e in the fiber.
Since in mi cutoff region the field of the LP, mode is widely spread across the fiber cross section
(i.e., it is not tightly bound to the core), its attenuation is strongly affected by fiber bends, length, and
cabling. Recommendation G.650.1 of the ml-fs and the EIA-455-80C. Standardtr specify methods
for deiermining an effective cutoff wavelength 4. Th" setup consists of a 2-m length of fiber that
contains a single l4-cm-radius loop or several l4-cm-radius curvatures that add up to one complete
loop. Using a tunable light source that has a full-width half-maximum linewidth not exceeding 10 nm,
light is launched into the fiber so that both the LPo, and the LP1 modes are uniformly excited.
First, the ouput power P1(.1) is measured as a function of wavelength in a sufficiently wide range
around the expected cutoff wavelength. Next, the output power P2(1,) is measured over the same
wavelength range when a loop of suffrciently small radius is included in the test fiber to filter the LP1
mode. A typical radius for this loop is
30 mm. With this method, the logarithmic
ratio R(.1,) between the two transmitted
powers P1(,1) and Pr(L) is calculated as
€
R(^) =,0
"* iraltl) ,r.or, 5
Lt z\ft) J a(

Figure 3.25 gives a typical curve of

the result. The effective cutoff
wavelength ,1," is defined as the largest h"
wavelength at which the higher-order Wavelength (nm)
LPrl mode power relative to the
fundamental LP6r mode power is reduced Ftg. 3.21 Tgpicat attenuation'ratto uersus
to 0.1dB; that is, when, R(.1) = 0.1 dB, as unt:elength plot Jor detumhing tle ufofr:
is shown in Fig. 3.21. Recommended usat:elerqth ustng the bend-reference (or
values of i," range fum 1 100 to 1280nm, single-mode'reJerence) tronsmisston
to avoid modal noise and dispersion method- fhe peakratio sttotrldfu atlffist
problems. 2 dB abue tle cutoffleuet
8.3.3 Dlsperelon Calcuhtlons
As noted in Sec. 3.3.1, rhe total chromatic dispersion in single-mode fibers consists mainly of material
6z-re
and waveguide dispersions. The rezultant inramodal or cbromatic dispersion is represented by6s'

D(L\= L d, (3.43)
Ldl
where ris the group delay. Tkdiqmion is commonly expressed in pd(nm.km). The broadening o of
an optieal pulse ovu a fiber of length L is given by
o= D(L\ Lot (3.44)
where ol is the half-power spctral width of the optical source. To measure the dispersion, one examines
the pulse delay over a desircd wavelength range.
As illustrated in Frg. 3.20, the dispersion behavior varies with wavelength and also with fiber type.
Thus, the EIA and the fIU-T have r$&mmended different formulas to calculate the chromatic dispersion
for specific fiber types operating in a given wavelength region. To calculate the dispersion for a non-
dispersion-shifted nUer (catled a Class IVa fiber by the EIA) in the 1270-to- 1 34Gnm region, the standards
recommend fi*ing the measured gfoup delay per unit length to a three-term Sellmeier equation of the
forrr65
 t=A+ Bff + Cha (3.45)
to the measured pulse date. Here, A, B, and C are the curve-fitting parameters. An equivalent expression is

t ^t2
t= To* &f r-& I (3.46)
8[ )
^
where ?o is the relative delay minimum at the zero-dispersion wavelength 2o, *d
Ss is the value of the
disyiersion stope S(1) = dDld)"at,lo, which is given in ps(nm2 . km). Using Eq. (3.43), the dispersion for
a non-dispersion-shifted fiber is

D(h) =
+['t*l] (3.47)

To calculate the dispersion for a dispersion-shifted fiber (called a Class IVb fiber by the EIA) in the
1500-to-1600-nm region, the standards recommend using the quadratic expression65

x= rol
*r^ - Uf (3.48)
:

which results in the dispersion expression

(3.4e)
Finauy, recau from Eq. (3.1e) ,n^r*;::).;,t;*)):ion Blcanbe given as

u= + zlD) (3.s0)
#thzso
When measuring a set of fibers, one will get values of ,to ranging from ,1n,
-in to lo,**. Figure 3.22
shows the range ofexpected dispersion values for a set ofnon-dispersion-shifted fibers in the 1270-to
1340-nm region. Typical values of So are 0.W2 pst(nrr?.km) for standard non-dispersion-shifted fibers,
and are between 0.06 and 0.08 ps/(nm2 . km) for dispersion-shifted fibers. Alternatively, the ITU-T Rec.
G.652 has specified this as a maximum dispersion of 3.5 ps/(nm . km) in the 1285+o-1330-nm region, as
denoted by the dashed lines in Fig.3.22-
Figure 3.23 illustrates the importance of controlling dispersion in single-mode fibers. As optical
pulses travel down a fiber, temporal broadening occurs because material and waveguide dispersion
cause different wavelengths in the optical pulse to propagate with different velocities. Thus, as Eq.
(3.44) implies, the broader the spectral width ol of the source, the greater the pulse dispersion will be.
This effect is clearly seen in Fig.3.23.

3.3.4 Mode-Fleld Diameter

Serction 2.5.1 gives the definition of the mode-field diameter in single-mode fibers. One uses the mode-
field diameter in describing the functional properties of a single-mode fiber, since it takes into account
the wavelength-dependent field penetration into the cladding. This is shown in Fig. 3.24 for 1300-nm-
optimized, dispersion-shifted, and dispersion-fl attened single-mode fibers.
 S$nal kgradalion in Opfrml Flbers

D=3.5 ps(nm'km)

t
TI
tr

.g u

b
o -l
a

t*- o

D:-3.5 ps(nm'km)

1280 1300 1320 1340

Wavelength (nm)

W. 9.22 Exanrylz oJ a dispersion perJormonce atnse Jor a set oJ sirEle-mode fibers. Tle
hoo slightlg ctmsedlhes areJotutd.bg soluing &. @.+n. So is the slope oJDQ.)
at tte z,ertdisprsion uatselergth L6

3.3.5 Bending Loss

Macrobending and microbending losses are important in the design of single-mode fibers.lF2s These
losses are principally evident in the 1550-nm region, and show up as a rapid increase in attenuation
when the fiber is bent smaller than a certain bend radius. The lower the cutoff wavelength relative to the
operating wavelength, the more susceptible single-mode fibers are to bending. For example, in a fiber
which is optimized for operation at 1300 nm, both the microbending and macrobending losses are
greater at 1550 nm that at 1300 nm by a factor of 3 to 5, as Fig. 3.25 illustrates. A fiber thus might be
transmitting well at 1300 nm but have a significant loss at 1550 nm.
The bending losses are primarily a function of the mode-field diameter. Generally, the smaller the
mode-field diameter (i.e., the tighter the confinement of the mode to the core), the smaller the bending
loss. This is true for both match-clad and depressed-clad fibers, as Fig. 3.26 shows.
In examining the bending loss, barly theories assume a simpie -od"t of a fiber with an infinitely
extending cladding. This results in the prediction of a smooth exponential increase of bending loss with
increasing wavelength or radius of'curvature. In an actual fiber, oscillations in the bend loss versus both
 104

tr 103
J

iJ<
;
o t&
't
B
E
c6 l0
ta

l0-l
l.l 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Wavelength (pm)

fU. 3.23 Examples oJbandu:idth uersus wauelengthJor d!fferent soure spectralwtdlhs

fiber tw:ing a dispersion minimum at 1 3W-nm (Reproduced
o 7 in a single-mde
withprmissimfromneed" Cohen" and Shong,ffi O rcgf , ATW

t2

e
k
tro
E
1'
E
()

€s
o

1200 1,CIO t600

Wavelength (nm)

fE S.24 Wpical mAeJiqtd. diameter uariations with wauelengthfar (a) BOA nm-
optimizd. (b) disprsbn'shi;fied, and (c) dispersion-flnftu tea singte-nodefurs

'+ : 't !-:e-

 0
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1500 1700
Wavelength (nm)

rtg. 8.25 Represerfiallaeitncreases in sbqle'made fiber alterutntlon ow@ to mi(',:obe,nd@-

oid. effects. (freproduied" utith permi"ssion Jrom Katlsh and
^*robendtng
Cotwn,s7 @ 1987, AT&J]

Macrobending Mauobeading
(l-inch loop) (l-inch loop)

tr
{
B r.o
q
Microbending
8
Microbending ,l (tr":300 pm,
(tr" = 3oo Pm, rms: 2 mn) 0.5 rms = 2 nm)

89l0ll12 89l0ll12
Mode-field diameter (Pm)
Mode-field diameter (Pm)
(D)
(a)

Ft9.3.26 calcu[ated. increase in attenuation at 1310 nm Jrom mlcrobending and

macrobendtE efiects as c-irrction oJ mode-fietd. dtnmeter Jor (o) depressed-
claddiltgsulgte.tnodelwrM=2.514)andh)matclwd.claddingsingle.mode
fr1;2r N2 Z.iZSl. The microbendbq
calatlafions assurne a mrrelsllonlength L.
-trr*roWnaW amplitude.
reqtition rate) oJ 5OA nm and. a 2-nm--deJonnafron
sT
(Reprodtrced,,-4rtth Wrmiss ion Jroml(alish ard. Cohen @ 198 7, A7g'D
 the wavelength and bending radius are observed.
10s
These oscillations can be attributed to coherent
coupling betrveen the fieldpropagating in the core
and the fraction of the radiated field that is Jd
reflected at the boundary between the cladding € ro'
and the fiber-coating material. Figure 3.ZV gives q
an example of calculated bend loss as a function
bo
ofbend radius at a 1300-nm wavelength. The fiber
pa-rameters were core radius a 3.6 pm, cladding E
() lor
=
radius D = 60 pm, (n1- n2)ln2= 3.56 x l0-3 and a
(ry - n2)/n2 = 0.07, where n1, n2, &nd n., are the
core, cladding, and coating indices ofiefraction,
rc-l
respectively. t2 t6 20 24
By specifying bend-radius limitations when Effective bend radius (mm)
installing standard single-rnode fibers, one can fig. 3.27 Catculated. bend. Ioss as a
largely avoid high microbending losses.
Manufacturers usually recgmmend a fiber,or
fitnction of bend radil.ts at |SOO
ntrL fhe dastrcd line represerts
cable bend diameter no smaller than 40-50 mm
the iryfinile cladding case, i.e.,
(1.6-2.0 in.). This is consistent with bend
rt2 = n3. Mdified roith permission
diameters limitations of 50-75 mm specified by
installation guides for cable placement in ducts,
from Renrrcr,ls @ lggZ, IEDE)
fiber-splice enclosures, and equipment racks. Furthermore, as Sec. 3.5 describes, the development
of
bend-insensitive fibers allows much tightercoiling of these fibers in optoelecftonic packages. In addition,
use of these bend-insensitive fibers in"jump". .ffiL.L"raing loss effects when they are
installed in highly confined equipmeni ra&s. "u61",
;;*u,

m International Standards
As noted in Se1..1,7, the ITU-T, the TIA, and the EIA are leading organizations that develop
and publish
a wide range of internationally recognized recommendations uoa rt*a*As. In particular,
tire ITU-T has
cPaled a
leries of recommendations for manufacturing and testing various cLsses of multimode and
single-mode optical fibers used in telecommunications.rThese docuirents give guidelines for
bounds on
fiber parameters, such as core and cladding sizes and circularity, attenuition, cutoff wavelength, and
chromatic dispersion. The recommendations allow a reasonabll degree of design flexibility, so that
fiber manufacturers can rmprove products and develop new ones ,itt ln ttre griaetines given in the
performance specifi cations.
Table 3.3 summarizes the ITU-T recommendations for multimode and single-mode optical
telecommunication fibers. The following subsections describe the basic characteristiis of these fib"rr.

3.4.1 Recommendatlon G.6El

The economic demand for low-cost installations of high-speed short-distance optical fiber links created
an extensive market'for.n*rl+imird'e fibers. These fiber tinks use moderately
iriced light sources that
operate in either,the slro+'wavdength region (VlO to 860 nm) or in the fiUanO
larouna 1310 nm).
Applications includelinks in an office or government building a medical facility, a university campus,
or a manufacturing plant, where the desired transmission distance is typically 2 km or less.
 Sigrlal kgradation in.Aptical Fibers

UU:T Rec. Na. Title and Descrtption

G.651 (Reviqed Feb. 1998) Title: Characteristics of multimode graded index optical fibre cable
Description: Multimode fiber for short-wavelengttr and O-band usi in a LAN

G.652 (Revised June 2005)

pescription: S.galard single-mgde fibe1 optimized for O.band use

G.653 (Version 5, Dec. 2003)
G.654 (Revised June 2004)
G.655 (Revised March 2@6)
lfitle; Characteristics of aDispersion-ShifiedSingle-Modeoptical Fiber aad Cable
Descliption: Original dispersion.shifted-fiber fo1 uss al 1550 nm
Trtle: Charocteristics of a Cut-Off Shirted Single-Mode Optical Fiber and Cable
Description: Undersea applications (1500-nm cutoff wavelength)
Title: Clwracteristics of a Non-7xro Dispersion-Shifted Single-Mode Optical
Fiber and CabLe
Description: For applications in long-haul links

Title: Characteristics of aFiberand CablewithNon-kro DispersionforWi^deband

Optical Transport
Description: Low chromatic dispersion fiber for expanded WDM applications

Recommendation G.651 addresses the two principal multimode fiber types for these applications. The
fibers have either 50- o1r62,Apm. core diameters and both have 125-pm cladding diameters. The
attenuation values range from 25 dB/m at 850 nm to less than 0.6 dBlkrn at 1310 nm.
Table 3.4 lists the possible transmission distances when using fibres with different core sizes and
bandwidths for Ethemet, Fibre Channel, and SONET/SDH applications. The light source used for these
examples is a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) operating at 850 nm (see Chapter 4). In
particular, Ethernet lir&s.frmfiirlg.af@*rdes up to 10 Gbls overdistances up to 550 m can use multimode
fibers.

50W core 62.5-7rm corb

Application Dar4 rate (Gb/s) . 500 MHz.lm 20@ MHz.km 160 MHz.km 200 MHz.km
.l:':
Ethernet 1',. 550 860 220 275

i
10 82 :oo 26 33

Fi6re Channel 1. , ' 500 850 250 300

2 300 500 tzo 150

19 u 300 26 JJ

SO}IE'T/SDI{ 10
r85
300 25 33
3.4.2 Rccommcndatlon G.652
Recommendation.G.652 deals with the geometrical, mechanical, and transmission characteristics of a
single-mode flber that has a zero-diepersion value at 1310 nm. Figure 3.28 compares the dispersion of
the G.652 fiber with other single-mode fiber types. This fiber consists of a germanium-doped silica eore
that has a diqmeter bdtrveen S-and 8 pm, and rfzs-pm silica cladding diamJter. the nominat attenuation
is 0.4 dB/km at 1310 nm and 0.35 dB/km at 1550 nm. The ma*imim polarization mode dispersion is
0.2 ps/Jffi. Four subsets ranging from G.652ato G.552d describe different variations of this-.rype of
fiber. Since G,652alb fibers were installed widely in telecommunication networks in the 1990s, they are
commonly kRown aE standard, single-mode fibers or 1310-wn optimized fibers. The G.652cld fibers
allow operation in lhe E-band and are used widely for fiber+o+he-premises (FfTP) installations,

',20,
*4 c.6ssb

+r0
g G.655
a F4
o
gU
o
o,
t -ro
C-Band L-Band
I lr
r45o 1480 r57o 1600 1630
, "li"*,#?-
Ftg. 3"28 Clvomntir^ dispusbn as afinction oJ watselength in uarious spectralbands Jar
seueral different opficalfiber tgpes

Although nnny long-distanse cable plant installations now are using nonzero dispersion shifted fiber,
the huge base of G.652 fiber tha! is installed worldwide will be in service for many years. ff the G.652
fiber is used at 1550 nm, the chromatic dispersion value of about 17 ps(nm-km) must be taken into
account. This requhes implementation of chromatic dispersion-compensation techniques or special data
foflnats at high data rates. As an example, a number of field experiments have demonstrated the ability
to fransmit 160-Gb/s data rates over long distances of installed G.652alb fibel
The G.652cld fibers are creatred by reducing the water ion concentration in order to eliminate the
attenuation spike in the 1360+o-1460-nm E-band. They are called low-water-peak fiber and allow
operation over the entire wavelengti range ftom 1260 to 1625 nm. One use of this fiber is for low-cost
short-reach CWDM (coarso wavelength division multiplexing) applications in the E-band. In CWDM
the wavelength channels are spaced by 20 nm, so that minimum wavelength stabjfity control is needed
for the optical sources, a$deseribed in Chaper 10. Another important application is in a Passive optical
network (PON) forfiber-to-the-premises GTTP) accoss networks. Typically a FTIP link transmie thae
independent bidirectional channels at 1310, 1490, and 1550 nm over the same fiber Chapter 13 has
more details on FTTP networks.
$.{-S RecommGrrdatlon G.658
Dispersion-shified fiber (DSF) was developed for use with 1550-nm lasers. As Fig. 3.28 illusu'ates, in
*ris nUer type the zero-dispersion point is shifted to 1550 nm where the flber attefluation is about half
that at 131ifnm, Therefore this fiber allows a high.speed data sff"eam of a single-wavelength chanrtel at
or Rear 1550 nm to niaintain its fidelity over long distances. However, it presents dispersion-related
problems in dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) appllcations in the center of the Gband
wtre.e many wavelengmB are packed tightly into one or more of the operatironal bands. As noted in
Chapter 10, to prevent urtdesirable nonlinear effects in DWDM systems, the chromatic dispersion values
stroutd be positive (or negative) over the entirt operational band. Figure 3.28 shows that for G.653
fibers the chromatic disp&sion has a different sign above and below 1550 nm. Therefore the use of
G.653 fibers for DWDM should be restdcted to either the s-band (wavelenglhs lower than 1550 nm) or
the l-band (wavelengths higher than 1550 nm). These fibers are seldom deployed anymore, since G.655
fibers offer a better solution.

8.4.{- Recoaneniatio+. ITU.t G.654

This recommendatlon deals vtith catoff.wavelength"shifted ftber that is designed for'long-distance high'
power signal hansmission. It dEscribes the geometrical, mechanical and fansmission characteristics of
a single-mode optical fiber, which has the zero-dispersion wavelength around 1300 nm wavelength.
fne nUer has a very low loss in the 1550-nm band, which is achieved by using a pur-e silica core. Since
it has a high cutoff wavelength of 1500 nm, this fiber is restricted to operation in the 1500 to 1600-nm
region. It typically is used only in long-distance undersea applications.

s.*.s Rsuonppq{}tlqq, ffiI-t Q:9!Q

Non-ryro dispersion-shiftedfiber (I.{ZDSF) was introduced in the mid-1990s for WDM applications. Its
prineipal eharacteristis is that it has a positive nonzefo dispersion value over the entire Gband, which is
tfre specrat operating region for erbium-doped optical fiber amplifiers (see Chapter 11). This is in
eontrast to C.653 fiberi in which ttre dispersion varies from negative through zero to positive values in
the Gband. Version G.655b was intrsdued to extend WDM applications into the S-band. As shown in
Flg. 3.28, die ptineipat eharactetlstie of a G.655b fiber is that it has a nonzero dispersion value over the
entire S-b4nd gnd the Gband. fitis is in conmast to staildard G.655 fibers in which the dispersion varies
from negative ttrrough serc to positive values in the S-band. Version G.655c specifies a lower PMD
value of 0.2 pslJfrm than tre 0'5 pVJkm value of C'6554/b.
S.r[,6 Recorrnendatlon G.656
stics of a single-rnode optical fiber which hp a politivg
chromatic tlisper:slon value rangiag from 2 to 14 pd(irm-km) in the 1460-to-1625-nm wavelength band.
This means that tlre dispercion slope is sigtrificantly lower than in C.655 frbers for which the chromatic
dispersion raligps fsom 1 m l0 ps(nm-knr) in the 1530-to-1565 band. The consequence of a lower
dispenion rlopc rre.ars that thehromatic dispersionchaages slower with wavelengft so thatdisPersion
eompensatiorris simpler Br not neoded. This allows the use of CWDM without chrematic dispersion
compe.nsation and also means &at 40 additionat DWDIvI charrnels can be implemented in this wavelength
Uan*" Ottrer G.656 attribtmes re similar to those of G"655 fibers. F& exanple tlre mode-tield diameter
rangps foom ? to t 1 pm (comparcd to 8 to 1 1 pm fur G.655 fibers), the maximum PMD valuo of cabled
fiber is 0"2 p$Jf<nn, ard the eutoffwavelength is 1310 nrn (the same as for G.655).
 ffi SPecialtl ribere
Telecommunica.tionfibers. such as those described in Sec. 3.4, aredesigned to transmit light
with minimal
changein the signalidelity..In cont{as.t, specialty
fib9rs are designeJ to interacr with fight ;Jth";"by
manipulate or control some characteristic of an optical signal. The light manipulation appfcations
includl
optical signal amplification, optical po*er diipersion ;;;;H;h;;;;irr,
sensins.of physical pu**Lt"rs such as "oup^li.g,
t".p".u-t*, "ol-p"rrutio;,
.tr".r, pr..rur", uii;"r, #ffi;-;;;;;
1n$
light-control.applications a specialty fiber can be insensitiveio bends, maintain polarization states,
redirect.specific wavelengths, or provide a very high aftenuation for fiber terminations.
- Specialty fibers can be of either a multimode or a single-mode design. Among the optical devices
ftulT1v use aspecialty fiber are light ftansmitters, light sig:nal modulatorf, opti.JrZ."ir#, wavetengtrr
multiplexers, light couplers and splitters, optical u*ptiii"r., optical switches, wavelenlth add/drop
modules, and optical power attenuators. Table 3.5 givis a ro.-ury of some specialty fi#; ;; rh;;
applications.

Specialty Fiber Type Application

Erbiurn-doped fiber

Photosensitive fibers Fabrication of fiber Bragg gratings

Bend-insensitive fi bers Tightly looped connections in device packages
Termination fiber Termination of open optical fiber ends
Polarization-presdrving fibers Pump lasers, polarization-sensitive devices, sensors
High-index fibers Fused couplers, short-2 sources, D,WDM devices
Photonic crystal fibers Switches; dispersion compensation

t i

Arb\1!ndo@ FlW .These frbers have small,amounts of erbiqm ions (for example, 1000 parts
per million weight) added to the silica material !o form a basic building block for optical
fiber amplifiers.
As described in Chapter 1l,a length of Er-doped fiber ranging from 1-0 to 30 m ."*". ur , luin medium
for amplifying optical signals in either the C-band (1530 to 1560,nm) or thel.band (1560;,1625 nm).
There are many variations on the doping level, cutoff wavelength, mode-field diameter,'numerical aperture
and cladding diameter for thgse fibery. Specific erbium-dop-ed fiber configurations witt yieta u u*i"ty
of optical amplifier'designs that can be selected according to pump hslr power requirement, noise
figure, signal gain, and flatness of the output spectrum. uigher erbium concentrations allow the use of
shorter fiber lengths, smaller claddings are useful for compact packages and a higher numerical aperture
allows the fiber to be coiled tig.htly in small packages. Table 3.6 listi some g"noi. parameter values of
an erbium-doped fiber for use in the C-band.
l

Photo*ttsithre *nsitiue llilr;r The retiactive index of aphotosensitive sensitive tiberchanges

when it is exposed to ultraviolet light. This sensitivity may be provided by doping the fiber material
with germanium and,boron ions..The main application is to create a fibei Bragg-grating, which is a I
t
I
 Signal Degradation in Optieal Flbers

Parameter Specification

Peak absorption at 1530 nm 5 to 10 dB/m

Effective numerical aperture 0.14 to 0.31

Cutoff wavelength 900 + 50 nm; or 1300 nm

Mode field diameter at 1550 nm 5.0to 7.3 pm
Cladding diameter 125 1tm standard; 80 pm for tight coils
rt
Coating material ri UV-cured acrylic

periodic variation of the refractive index along the fiber axis (sge Chapter 10). Applications of fiber
Bragg gratings include light-coupling mechanisms forpump lasers used in optical amplifiers, wavelength
add/drop modules, optical filters, and chromatic dispersirin compensation modules.

Bend-ittstrlttsitioe IIifur Increasing the numerical aperture (NA) reduces the sensitivity of a
single-mode fiber to bending loss. The higher NA decreasei the mode-field diameter MfD), thereby
confining optical power more tightly within the core than in conventional single-rnode fibers. For exarnple,
at 1310 nm a fiber designed with an'NA of 0.16 can have a MFD of 6.7 pm, An increase of the,NA to
0.21 decreases.the MFD to 5.1 lrm. Bendinsensitive fibers are available comniercially in a range of core
diameters toprovideoptimum ped.otnrance at speciflc,operating wavelengths, such as 820, 1310 nm, or
1550 nm, These fibers are offered with either an 80.Frm or a 125-lrn cladding diameter as standard
products. T'he 8}1tm,reduced-cladding fiber results in a much smaller vslurne compared with a'l25-pm
cladding diameter when a'fibef'lengthiscoiled up within a device package. Whereas'there is a high
bending loss for tightly wound conventional single-mode fibers, the induced attenuation when bend-
insensitive fiber is wound into five coils with a l0-mm radius is less than 0.01 dB at 1310 nm and less
than 0.5 dB at 1550 nm.

Tertnination lliber Often an optical device with multiple ports will.have one or more unused or
open:branches. Back reflections from these pbrts can cause instabilities and need to be suppressed. This
can be achieved by using a termination fiber. An example of such a fiber is a coreless silica tonstmction.
A termination that has a return loss of better than 65 dB can be achieved by spliCing about 25 cm of a
termination fiber onto the end of unused fiber branches.

Polarizqtiotupnz*roing Flber In contrast to standard:single-mode optical fibers in which

that state of polarization fluctuates as a light signal propagates through theftber, polarization-preserving
fibers have a,speoial core design that maintains the state of polarization. Applications of these fibers
include light signal'nrodulators,fabiicated from lithium niobate, optical amplifiers:for polarization
multiplexing,, light-coupling fibers for pump lasers, and'pcilarization-mode dispersion compensators.
Figure 3;29 illustrates the cfbss-sectional geometry of four different:polarizatiion-maintaining fibers.
The light circles represei*thg,tffitldrrg and the dark areas are the core configurations. The goal in each
design is to use stress-applying prts to create slow and fast axes in the core. Each of these axes will
guide
fight at a different velocity. Crosstalk between the two axes is suppressed so that polarized light
launched into either of the axes will maintain its state of polarization as it travels along the fiber.
 PANDA Oval core

(w.
\_-/
w)
Slow
axis
a*l
\_/
1.ry, rast I

I ax$ axis I

ry @
Slow
axis

Oval iraor-clad Bow'tie

ftg. 9.29 Cross-sact&pnal ger;rwtry oJ Jour dfifferent ptmrz"afirl':rnrailTtorirtrrEfbers

I pnonlmMs
3.1 Veri$ the expression given ia Eq. (3.1d that and compare the result-s with,the curves in
relates a, which is in.u{its'of dB/km, to Fig.3.5. I
%,
which is in unis of km-r.. ', 3.6 The opical powerloss rcsulting from Rayleigh
3J A certein optical,fiber has au attenuation of scattering in a fiber can be calculated from 1

0.6 dB/km at 131O am and0,3 dB/fon at 1550
nm. Suppusethefollowing two opical sigruals
are launched simultaneously into the fiber: an
optical powerof l50pW at 1310 nm and an
optical power of 100 p\ry at 1550 nm. What
are the power level in plV of these two signals
at (a) 8 km and (,) 20 km?
33 An opticalsignal at a spocific,wavelength has
lost 55 percent,of its po*er after traversing
?.0 km of fiber. What is th.,atenuation ia dB/
km of this fiber?
3.4 A continuous 4.&km-long optiel fiber linkhas
a loss of 0.4 dB/km.
(a) What is the minimtrur optical power level
that must be launctrcd iats the fiber to
maintain aa opicat pwcr lewl of 2.0 pIV
ct &e,rccefuing end?
(t) What is &e ryuird input poui,er if the
fiber has a loss of $.6,dBrke?
35 Consider a stepindex ftber with a SiO2-GeO,
core having a rrole fraction 0.08 of Hr.
plot
Eqs (3.8) atrd (3.3) ftrom 500 nm m 5 ;rm,
eithe Eq. (3.4a) or Eq. (3.4&). Compare these
{
two equations for silica (z = 1.460 at 630 nm), J
girren thaf ttre.fictirae emperature ?}is 1400 K,
the isotliennel compressibiliry Pr is 6.8 x l0-
12 cm2ldyaand
tfre photoelastic loefficient is
0.?86. How does ttris agrce with measured ;
values ranging from 3.9 to 4.8 dB/km at 633 .i
nm?
t
3.7 Solve Eq.(3.7) to make plots of the radiusof
h,nd curvature versus ttrc fiber core radius a
for values of N*$Y- = 10,50, aad 75 percent
at wavelengths of 1300 nm ad 1550 nrn ["et
a be in the range 5 pm S a S 30 pm.
3.t Consider,gradetl-irdcr fibers, having index
profiles d,= ?.O, cldding refiective indices
I
rz = 1.50, ard iadex differe*es A = 0.01.
Using F4. (3.7)" plst the rario ffsg{- for bend
I
r4dii less than l0 cm at .1, = I pm for fibers
haviag core radii of 4, 25,.and 100 pm.
3.9 Three common fiber jacket materials arc ;
t
i'
Elvaxa 265 (Ej, = 21 }fu) and l{ytreto 4056
(Ei = 58 MPa), both made by DuPont, and
{
I
 versalon@ 1164 (Ei = 104 MPa) made by
General Mills. If the Young's modulus of a
glass fiber is 64 GPa, plot the reduction in
microbending loss as a function of the index
difference A when fibers are coated with these
materials. Make these plots for A values
il ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 percent and for a fiber
cladding-to-core ratio of bla = 2.
3.10 Assume that a step-index fiber has a Vnumber
of 6.0.
' ' Using Pig. 2,27, estimate the fractional
(a)
por.i r","ulr kaveling !n the cladding for
the six lowest-order LPmodes.
(b) If the fiber in (a) is a glass'core glass-clad
fiber having co. re and cladding attenuations
of 3.0,and 4'0 dB&m, respective-ly, find
the attenuations for each of the six lowest-
order modes.
3.11 Assume a given mode in a graded-index fiber
has a power densrt] p(r) = Po elry(-Kl), where
the factor K depends on the modal power
distribution.
(c) Letting n(r) in Eq. (3'11) be given by
Eq. (2.78) with a = 2, Ehow that the loss
in this mode is
dri=dr.*#
Since p(r) is a rapidly decaying function
of r and since A < 1, foreaseof calculation
assuine that the top felation in Eq. (2.78)
holds for all values of ;:
(b) Choose K such'that p(a) = 0.1 P6; that is,
l0 percent of the Power flows in the
cladding. Find ar, in terms of at and ur'
3.12 For wavelengths less lhan 1.0 pm the refractive
index n satisfies a Sellmeier relation of the
form6e
n-
, EnE' :
2- l+"---Y-!
E;_E'
where E - hct)"is the photon energy and Eo
and Ea are, respectively; material oscillator
energy and dispersion energy parameters. In
SiO2 glass, Eo = 13'4eV and Ea = l4'7 eY'
,]
Show that, for wavelengths between 0.20 and
1
1.0 Pm, the values of n found from the
Sellmeier relation are in good agreement with
those shown in Fig. 3.12. To make the
comparison, select three representative points,
for example, at 0.2, 0.6, and 1.0 Pm.
3.13 (a) AnLED operating at 850nmhas aspectral
width of 45 nm. What is the pulse spread-
ing in ns/km due to material dispersion?
What is the pulse spreading when a laser
diodehaving a2-nm specral widthis used?
(b) Find the material-dispersion-induced
pulse spreading at 1550 nm for an LED
75'nm spectral width. Use Fig. 3.13
with
a
to estimate dtldlu.
3.14 Verify the plots for b, d(W)tdv, arrd V dz(WY
dV2 shown in Fig. 3.15. Use the expression
for b given bY Eq. (3.38).
3.15 Derive Eq. (3.13) by using a ray-tracing
method.
3.16 Consider a step-index fiber with core and
cladding diameters of 62.5 and 125 pm,
respectively. Let the core index n r = l'48 and
let the index difference A = 1.5 percent'
Compare the modal dispersion in units of ns/
km at 1310 nm of this fiber as given by
Eq. (3.13) with the more exact expression
d,ro.l nr-n,(r-r
L - c I v)\
where Z is the length of the fiber and n2 is the
cladding index.
3.17 Consider a standard G.652 non-dispersion-
shifted single-mode optical fiber that has a
zero-dispersion wavelength at 1310 nm with
a dispersion slope of So = 0.0970 ps/(nm2 '
km). Plot the dispersion in the wavelength
range 1270 nm < 1S 1340 nm. Use Eq. {3.47)-
3.18 A typical G.653 dispersion-shifted single-
mode optical fiber has a zero-dispersion wave-
length at 1550 nm with a dispersion slope of
So = 0.0?0 Ps/(nm2 ' km)'
(a) ptot the dispersion in the wavelength
range 1500 nm S l. < 1600 nm using
Eq.3.49.
(b) Compare the dispersion at 1500 nm with
the dispersion value forthe non-dispersion-
shifted fiber described in Prob. 3.17.
i
3.19 Starting with Eq. (3.45), derive the dispersion
expression given in W. G.47).
3.20 Rennerle derived a simplified approximation
to describe the bend losses of single-mode
optical fibers. This expression for the bending
loss is
2(Z32)1t2
O.i.p = d"onu
';;,(4 + z) - (2, - Z r) cos (2@)
where the conventional bending loss is
-18
where V is given by Eq. (2,511, Bo is the
propagation constant in a straight fiber with
an infinite cladding given by Eq. (2.46), K, is
themodifiedBessel function (seeApp. C), and
Z, = k' 4Q + zbl R) - p; = t<'
4(t+ zul R)
fot q =
'=ffi(f-,)"
y =(Bi -*'nl)u' = *(nl -n;)'''
# RET'ERENCES
1. B. C. Bagley, C. R. Kurkjian, J. W. Mitchell,
G. E. Peterson, and A. R. Tynes, "Materials,
properties, and choices," in Optical Fiber
Telecommunications, S. E. Miller and A. G.
Chynoweth, eds., Academic, New York, 1979.
2. D. Gloge, "The optical fibre as a transmission
medium," Rpts. Prog. Phys.,vol.42,pp. 1777-
1824, Nov. 1979.
3. R. Olshansky, "Propagation in glass optical
waveguides," Reu. Mod. Phys.,vol.51, pp. 341-
367, Apr.1979.
4. K. Tsujikawa, K. Tajirna, andJ. Zrou, "Intrinsic
' loss of optical frbers," Optical FiberTech.,vol.
. ll, no. 4,pp.319-331, Oct.2005.
5. E. M. Dianov and V. M. Mashinsky,
"Germania-based core optical fibers,"
J. Lightwave Technology, vol.23, pp. 3500-
3508, Nov. 2005.
* = k't - Fi = *2 1nl -nl1
R, = 2k'n1 bly' = the critical bend radius
Using a computer, (a) verify the plot given in
Fig.3.27 at 1300 nm, and (b) calculate and
plot the bend loss as a function of wavelengtl
for 800 nm < ,1, < 1600 nm at several different
bend radii (e.g., 15 and 20 mm). Let n, = 1.436,
nz=1.475,n1=l.QJnr= 1.578, and D = 60 Ltm.
3.21 Faustini and Martini2o developed a more
detailed formula for describing the oscillatory
zz'n
) behavior ofbend loss as a function ofthe bend
radius and war.elength. Using a computer, use
)
their formulation to reproduce the three-
dimensional plots of bend loss versus radius
of curvature and wavelength given in Fig. 5
of their paper (J. Lightwave Tech., vol. 15, pp.
671-679, April 1997).
- k'z nl 3.22 Calculate the waveguide dispersion at 1320
),3 nm in units of [ps(nm . km)] for a single-mode
fiber with core and cladding diameters of
9 pm and 125 pm, respectively. Let the core
index n, = 1.48 and let the index difference
L = 0.22 percent.
A. Iino and J. Tamura, "Radiation resistivity in
silica optical fibers, " J. Lightwave Tech., vol.
6, pp. 145-149, Feb. 1988.
7. R. H. West, I{. Buker, E. J. Friebele, H.
Henschel, and P. B. Lyons, "The use of optical
time-domain reflectometers to measure
radiation-induced losses in optical fibers," .I.
Lightwave Tech., vol.12, pp. 614-620, Apr.
1994.
8. H. Henschel and O. Krihn, "Regeneration of
irradiated optical fibers by photobleaching,"
IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 47, pp.699-704,
June 2000.
9. S. Girard, J. Baggio, and J.-L. Leray,
"Radiation.induced effects in a new class of
I
optical waveguides: the air-guiding photonic l
crystal fibers," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., vol. 52, i
I
pp. 2683-2688, Dec. 2005.
t*
10. S. R. Nagel, "Fiber materials and fabrication
methods," in S. E. Miller and I. P Kaminow,
eds., Optical Fiber Telecommunications-ll,
Academic, New York, 1988.
11. K. Nagayama, M. Matsui, M. Kakui, T. Saitoh,
K. Kawasaki, H. Takamizawa, Y. Ooga, I.
Tsuchiya, and Y. Chigusa, "Ultra low loss
(0.1484 dB/km) pure silica core fiber," SE1
Technical Review, vol. 57, pp. 3-6, Jan. 2003.
12. Y. Chigusa, Y. Yamamoto, T. Yokokawa, T.
Sasaki, T. Taru, M. Hirano, M. Kakui, M.
Onishi, and E. Sasaoka, "Low-loss pure-silica-
core fibers and their possible impact on
transmission systems," ,I. Lightwave
Tbchnology,vol. 23, pp. 3541-3550, Nov. 2005.
13. H. Osanai, T. Shioda, T. Moriyama, S. Araki,
M. Horiguchi,T.Izawa,and H. Takata, "Effects
of dopants on transmission loss of low OH
content optical fibers," Electron. Lett.,vol. 12,
pp. 549-550, Oct.1976.
14. R. Maurer, "Glass fibers for optical communi-
cations," Proc.IEEE,vol. 61, pp.452462, Apt.
t973.
15. D. A. Pinnow, T. C. Rich, F. W. Ostermeyer,
and M. DiDomenico, Jr., "Fundamental optical
attenuation limits in the liquid and gassy state
with application to fiber optical waveguide
material," Afpl. Phys. Lett., vol.22, pp. 527-
529,May 1973.
16. D. B. Keck, "Fundamentals of optical
waveguide fibers," IEEE Commun. Magazine,
vol.23, pp. 17-22, May 1985.
17. D. Marcuse, "Curyature loss formula for optical
fibers," J. Opt. Soc. Amcr, vol. 66, pp. 216-
22A,Mar.1976.
18. D. Gloge, "Bending loss in multimode fibers
with graded and ungraded core index," Appl.
Opt.,vol.11, pp. 2506-2512, Nov. 1972.
19. H. Renner, "Bending losses of coated single-
" mode fibers: A simple approach," J. Lightwave
Tech., vol. 10, p-p. 544-55l,May 1992.
20. L. Faustini and G. Martini, "Bend loss in single-
mode fibers," J. Lightwave Tech., vol. 15, pp.
671-679, Apr. 1997.
21. S.-L. Tsao and W. M. Cheng, "Realization of
an on-line fiber-optic bending loss measurement
system," IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 53,
pp.72-:79, Feb. 2004.
22. K. Makino, T. Nakamura, T. Ishigure, and Y.
Koike, "Analysis of graded-index polymer
optical fiber link performance under fiber
bending," J. Lighnuave Tech., vol. 23, pp. 2062-
2072, June 2005.
23. J. Koning, R. N. Rieben, and G. H. Rodrigue,
"Vector finite-element modeling of the full-
wave Maxwell equations to evaluate power loss
in bent optical fibers,"./. Lightwave Technology,
vol. 23, pp. 4147 4154, Dec. 2005.
24. K. Himeno, S. Matsuo, N. Guan, and A. Wada,
"Low-bending-loss single-mode fibers for fiber-
to-the-home," J. Li ghnv av e k c hnolo gy, v ol. 23,
pp. 3494-3499, Nov. 2005.
25. P. Matthijsse and W. Griffioen, "Matching
optical fiber lifetime and bend-loss limits for
optimized local loop fiber storage," Optical
Fibe r Tech., vol. I l, no. L, pp. 92-99, Jan. 2005'
26. T. P. Hansen, J. Broeng, C. Jakobsen, G. Vienne,
H. R. Simonsen, M. D. Nielsen, P. M. W.
Skovgaard, J. R. Folkenberg, and A. Bjarkleu
"Air-guiding photonic bandgap fi bers: Spectral
properties, macrobending loss, and practical
handling," J. Lightwave Technology, vol. 22,
pp. 11-15, Jan.2005.
27. W. B. Gardner, "Microbending loss in optical
fibers," Bell Sys. Tech. J., vol. 54, pp.457465,
Feb. 1975.
28. J. Sakai andT. Kimura, "Practicalmicrobending
loss formula for single mode optical fibers,"
IEEE J. Quantwn Electron., vol. QE-15, pp.
497-500,June 1979.
29. S.-T. Shiue and Y.-K. Tu, "Design of single-
coated optical fibers to minimize thermally and
mechanically induced microbending losses," ../'
Optical Commun.,vol. 15, pp. 16-19,Jan.1994.
30. V. Arya, K. A. Murphy, A. Wang, and R. O.
Claus, "Microbend losses in single-mode optical
fibers: Theoretical and experimental
investigation," J. Lightwave Tech., vol. 13, pp.
1998-20f2, Oct. 1995'
31. D. Gloge, "Optical fiber packaging and its
influence on fiber straightness and loss," Bell
Sys. Tech. J., vol. 54, pp. 245-262, Feb. 1975-
32. D. Gloge, "Propagation effects in optical
fibers." IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech.,
vol. MTT-23, pp. 106-120. Jan. 1975.
 Opticai F'ibsr- t iorrr.rur-u{:4,*iorti

-l _1. D. Marcuse, Theory of Dielectric Optit:s! F. Buchali and H. Btilow, "Adapti'.'r rr..:i:
Waveguides, Academic, New York, Jnd. eci.. coapensation by electrical and ;I'. ,i
1991. techniques,l' J. Lighwave Teclutalor'.'.'.,;,, ' r.
34. D. Gloge, E. A. J. Marcatili, D. Marcuse, ancl pp. I 1 I6-1 126. Apr. 20f,1.
S. D. Personick, "Dispersion properties of 46. M. Jiger', T. Rankl, J. Speidel. fi. lil,ilii*.1'= , ,:. i
fibers." in Optical F ib e r Te lecommunic ati orts, Bucl:ali, "Perforrnance of turbo equ&ii.,,r.. ;,,'
S. E. Miller and A. G. Chynoweth, eds., optical PMD channels," J. Lir;t!.'',',
'Academic, New York, 1979. Te t: hna I o g,*, v o1. 24, pp. 1226-1236. Li,r t. . i :r "'
35. D. Marcuse, "Interdependence of waveguide i,. S. Yan, X" Steve Yao. Y. Shi. rr'-l :,.i:
'\&illner,
and material dispersion," Appl. Opt.. vol. 18. "Siarultaneous monitorlii'; iji' ii,': ,
pp. 293U2932, Sept. 1979. aptical signal-t+-noise-ratio and prillii:'r, " '
36. B. E. A. Saleh and M. Ieich, Functameflt$l.s d trrode-dispersil:'n 6uint ptiarizatiari t.r:ir 1 ::':i.
Photonics.Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2nd ed.. 2007. and poiar-izati.:n-beam-splitting." J. i-: :: :' i',
D. Gloge. "Weakly guiding fibers" Ap1ti. iipr., Tbcfuioiogt. 'r,oi.23, pp. 3291L3294. u;,'r"'. .: ,',
vol. 10, pp.2252-2258, Oct. 1971; "Dispeisicn ,48_ L. S. Yan, X. Steve Yao, C. 1'u. G. Xie. 1 ', :i:'.
in weakly guiding fibers,l'Appl. Opr., r,oi. 1l). L. Lin, Z.Chen,and A. E. Willner, "l-lir:, '-"'.''-'
pp. 2442-2445, Nov. 197L and highly repeatable polarizi.ilir i:-' :.,ii
38. C. D. Poole and J. Nagel. "Polarization efferrs geflerator and anal-vzer for 40-{.inl: , ;

in lightwave systems," Chap. 6, pp. i14-16!. in perforrnence rnonitoring." IELE i:-;u.'.:. . .r

I. P Kaminow and T. L. Koctr, eds., Optical Fiber Tech. I-en., val. 18, pp. 643*645. ?i;{!t:.
Telecommunications*Ill, Vol. A, Acaden:1c" 4.5. D. A. Nolan. X. Chen, affitr M.-J. i-i. "i::::rr':.
New York, 1997. with .iorat polarization-mode ii!.,pt; ' .;
-ftdzno!ogl" vi:i. :,1.
39. A. E. Willner, S. M. R. Motaghiau Neza-ni 1.. .1. Liglitt,,,ote .il:r, ;' ,'.
Yan,Z. Pan, and Iv{. C. Hauer, "L{onitoring aiiil 1077. Apr 2004.
control of polarization-related impairments ir: 5S. A. Caliarossa, \-. Jurg, I\''1. .i. Kin'. v i; :.
optical fiber systems," J. L! ghtw,ave TechrutLtz\' . K. Oh. U.-C. I'aek, L. Peimieri. t\" ii:;', ,..,.'
vo7.22, pp. 106-125, Jan. 2004. and L. Scirenatr-. ''Effects of spir, r',r
40. J. Cameron, L. Chen, X. Bao, and J. Stear:, rx F-tuJD reductir:n in spun fibem." ! i .! t: !,, .

"Time evolution of polarization ni;:<l* klluilii; t:r.vci.,l,.l, pp. 4 I.8.i*-1 I +I, ir,'r-'', ;'
dispersion in optical fibers." IEEE ilh.cto::i,'. :! J. d'. Lai:p, V. A" Hhagavlrtula. andA "i
''i :, ,i
Tech" l,ett., vol. 1i). pp. i2rr5-1257. Scpl. i"il' "'Si:gr:rcnted-t:():'e siflgie-modelibt: lltl:, .

D. S. trVaildy, L Chen, ;ind,-{. Bar;, "Pr.rliiniri:: :,rr hUrriii'lo pCr f,it'ntalicc." J. Ligi,.,. ,.,'t'
etltcts in aeria j illiers." Apil cal f iber Ter it " -:' i. vi;i. fi, pp. l46i-\,465. rfct" i9ii8.
i i, ro. i :;p. r-"i 1]. Jer:. 2tliis. i:.^ J, :'"1,.,,,11* rri* i-1. 8." Ile1,,. "1 1gvig,,",r ;:i ::i
(.iit,'rtl.
"
.: i-.;,t:,:,,.:: :iit;! F "i't'it,j... ,i :r-;:-',rj,: iii:r:ii,,'itli l;,t',:iiil'ied ii';;11cr :.;
' i : .-.i , r',' ,, i, :1' , cliirr':.,,:,e;:isLi;>.' J. Li;llnrawT?ch". \'ci. i, j

,,':.;l '. i'.,t11 , .l:, i!:i:!;'.:I ' :i ' -i 1.,.t:ita ",,'

. rr;,.,. . ,t?9. 1.u$, i986.

i'i.i::..iji.-.,.:;:.r. !. !. .:: : i:r : iir:r]. "_1 "t. f-iil

'. ' ,. il. i .;.,iri,.xrowski, U. C. Paek, andL. S. \Vali ' :""
il. t' :;:,. ..,':1 " r.:;r:: \ilt": ... ilil,'l "Opticai l'iber manufacturing techniquec.:' ii ; ':' ''
K. j:r:-. :;r irrir !1 . l jr:'::iiit,,.r.v; ''Ft'i:riilrie'; ,,: Tbch. J., vol. 66. pp. 33-44, Jan./Feb. l9iil
, i.,, i. !,: ..t .tr: {r' EI. J. Hagemann, H. Lade, J. Warnier, rud i-; ll.
)+.
ir.:l,t.i.{..t.,r,:.; rrr(ii
aii,.. ;,;ti',';, J.,i.:'li:,,':;,'t, 1-,:tit;,i'!,{' :.,'i
" ",11. 22, Wiechert, "The perfonnance of deprer::r;ii.
:, ,i.. .,;,1 - ,'i* cladding single-mode fibers with differetr; i,t;r
I'i,.
Il. ...,'.:. Li :,r.r",ii.;l: and \. Minriila, "PNID in ratios," J. Lighnvave Tech., vol. 9, pp. ;":iti :' ",
ii!:i..i- Jr.-ratLj .ransrnission ard means for its miti- June 1991.
r,i1ron," IEEE J. Sel. Topit:s Quantrun Electron., 55. Y. W. Li, C. D. Hussey, and T. A. Birks. " l';.
r,'o1. 10, no. 2, pp. 341-35-5, Mar./Apr. 2004. clad single-mode fibers for dispersion-shiitr;;':
 Sir7ri<;i {i :. :! tt'{i, A3

1. ,.i;-.'i iri.:i:r., l;.' i"' . r.:.,., i:;.r di:,:-:1. .,.-;,

i l9-i.
,:!

!'r( ),- .t't lr ir,:. ;ri ' -'3i , iLt',. . ',,,. -

.'. L. G. Co*r:1. liliri ii. T^ lili;r,,;.
r.. Reeri,
i;lii.rring optical e:iaracledstics of disi:elsii:ir-
i. :
P K. lSacitrr:iii1fl, D. Lci':'-i. ii,
\\t*irr' .D. :-'.
:iiii.'-i lightguicies fot applicatiiliis n'j;li li'iec.;rri, i. .,\ Vlr,, Stucn'.';k. :''. L. ,\. Tiaci. .
, --,:: t,;:.r,"';i j-;L?'Tt;:h.1., r,+1. {:::, i;p. ii.i5-1:'.1. a;:d E. R. &rlu'li.,hrr, "'L.:rspe::ion-flatietr,'J
. , . ,: '.:i. i:iiiir. i i i:gii,- rnr:r*e ii b;::s prci-rarei wi tir PCVl-t :
, (i. Cohel, "Si;;gi*-:noiie lit-":r: i;erfcrmance, iiniitir.iicris, riesigtr optimizatiot.
"
' ir,.r,isn antl L"
: Lrii resr *rch and developrnent i* i. Lighrtttave Tech.,val. UI- 4, pp. 858-863' July
.II;I,;:,j:-,;1sfit'g,"A?&?Gr:,4. J.. vol" 56. pp. 1!l" r986.
.i .i;li: rTr:tr. 198?. 64 D. L. Franzea, "Dci;:rmining the er ciive cutoff
. '. wnveiength ol single-mode fibers: An
i,i:r:i. K" Krirtkerva, aad 1'. Mi;'ajima. ";t
' iii:rigr: for dispersion-shifted tli:er with tl irrterlnboratory comparison," J. Lightwave
,.' : .i-r re core iirea inrger thaa 100 pm: anri goc,c Tbch., vol.3, pp. i28-134. Feb. 1985.
, -,'i i :-r;' *hirr&ctryislics." J qjgB O SA ! r ilt " i) i g3 sr a.i ITU-T Recomrnenilation G.650. I, Definitions
:.-i::t. Fii:tr Camm. Conf {t}FC 98;. and lest ltlethods -for Lineari ileterministic
r:ii -30:. Fri:. I998. Anributes ai Singit''FIotie Fibre und Cable, Apr.
'
' erii},{Ltil}. "Fibcr ciesign improver; iong-iraui
r'. 20u4.
, ;: :,ririi:illce.'' lstse.r Focrt; \4brfui, vcl- 33, pp" 66. TLA/EIA455-8(Xl (I:OTP-8{\ t, AMJ| Wtn'e Ien gth,

' " -0. Mu1' 1997. t1

2()03.
,:,, '.: llelov, "Fiber design with efi'ective are;r A. l. Barlow, R. S. Jones, and K' W. Forsyth'
.- r ii .l rl0 pml for long-haul comrriunicatioli "Technique for direct measurement of single-
ii111,;1: " J. {)pt. Cornmun.,vsl.22, no. 2, pp. 64- mode fiber chromatic dispersion," J. Lighm'ave
;0iri .
Terlr.. r.'ol. 5. pp. 1207-1217. Sept. 1987.
' "ir;;rq aird R. Wiu:g, "Non-zero dispersion- lr6 ITl-r-T Recor:mendation G. 652, Characte ristic s
';,ia..(l r"rpiical fiher with ulffa-large effective o|a Sing,le-Made Optical Fiber and Cctble,lune
.,r,::; airtl lcw dispersion slope for teratiil 2005.
.'r',ir:r:iinication system," Opt. Comman.. vol. 69. M. Dilomenico, Jr., "Material dispersion in
'' ir(). l--j. pp. 69-:74.2AJ4. optical fiber wavegurdes," Appl. Apt., vol. !1 ,
,,. ,:r .Ili;agav:ttula, M, S" Spotz, W. F. Love, aad ,Sp. 652-654, Mar. i972,
'. i]. Keck, "segmented-core single-mode