1972 Book ExercisesInGroupTheory PDF

Exercises in
Group Theory
Exercises in
Group Theory
E. S. Lyapin, A. Ya. Aizenshtat,

and M. M. Lesokhin
Translated by David E. Zitarelli

Temple University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Plenum Press· New York

Wolters-N oordhoff Publishing • Groningen
1972
The original Russian text, published by Nauka Press in Moscow in 1967,
has been corrected by the authors for this edition. The English translation
is published under an agreement with Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga, the Soviet
book export agency.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 78-141243

ISBN-13:978-1-4613-4591-6 e- ISBN -13:978-1-4613-4589-3
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-4589-3
© 1972 Plenum Press, N ew York

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1972
A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation

227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011
and Wolters-Noordhoff Publishing, Groningen
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without

written permission from the publisher
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
The present book is a translation of E. S. Lyapin, A. Va. Aizenshtat, and

M. M. Lesokhin's Uprazhneniya po teorii grupp. I have departed somewhat
from the original text in the following respects.
I) I have used Roman letters to indicate sets and their elements, and
Greek letters to indicate mappings of sets. The Russian text frequently
adopts the opposite usage.
2) I have changed some of the terminology slightly in order to conform
with present English usage (e.g., "inverses" instead of "regular conjugates").
3) I have corrected a number of misprints which appeared in the original
in addition to those corrections supplied by Professor Lesokhin.
4) The bibliography has been adapted for readers of English.
5) An index of all defined terms has been compiled (by Anita Zitarelli).
6) I have included a multiplication table for the symmetric group on
four elements, which is a frequent source of examples andcounterex::Imples
both in this book and in all of group theory.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank the authors for their
permission to publish this translation. Special thanks are extended to
Professor Lesokhin for his errata list and for writing the Foreword to the
English Edition. I am particularly indebted to Leo F. Boron, who read the
entire manuscript and offered many valuable comments. Finally, to my
unerring typists Sandra Rossman and Anita Zitarelli, I am sincerely grateful.
Philadelphia, Pa., 1971 David E. Zitarelli
v
FOREWORD TO THE ENGLISH EDITION
The two years which have passed since this book came off the press have fully
confirmed· the author's belief concerning the expediency of actively studying
the fundamentals of modern algebra. By discovering the answers to specially
posed problems and gradually overcoming the increasing difficulties; the
beginning student of group theory is led step-by-step to certain fundamental
concepts, where he encounters important results and becomes proficient in
methods of reasoning.
Just as we assumed, the book has proved to be suitable both for in-
dependent study and as a supplementary textbook for classwork and for
semmars.
We base our conclusion both on the authors' use of the book and on
the actual experience of a number of mathematicians whose opinions have
been communicated to us.
It was with great satisfaction that the authors became aware of the
intentions to publish the book in English. This will extend considerably the
domain of its use. We will be interested in determining to what extent the
indicated ideas concerning the teaching of modern algebra will be confirmed
by work being carried out in other countries under different conditions.
The authors have taken this opportunity to correct a number of typo-
graphical errors which occurred in the first (Soviet) edition of this book.
Leningrad, 1971 M. Lesokhin

E. s. Lyapin
A. Aizhenshtat
vii
FOREWORD
The aim of the present book is to promote the study of the basic methods,
results, and points of departure of modern algebra. Group theory is unques-
tionably the most developed of a number of algebraic disciplines which
comprise what is often called general, or modern, algebra (and which
properly speaking should be called general theory of algebraic operations).
Thus it is natural to begin the study of modern algebra with group theory.
Furthermore, one should take into account that at the present time group
theory touches upon nearly all of the other algebraic disciplines.
The points of departure of group theory itself can be learned most
naturally as they arise in connection with the ideas of a general character
which go beyond the bounds of modern group theory. It is this consideration
which determines the scope of the material in this book.
We here consider those parts of group theory which form the basis for
the most general concepts. These sections illustrate the foundations of group
theory and serve as a suitable vehicle for studying other algebraic disciplines.
The important role that algebra plays in all mathematics has been
evident for a long time. Various ideas, concepts, and methods are often
developed in algebra and later spread to other mathematical domains.
Therefore an acquaintance with the rudiments of algebra is necessary for
mathematicians in various special fields.
In this connection it is desirable to introduce this material as soon as
possible in the first courses taken at the undergraduate level. However,
in trying to achieve this, one encounters considerable difficulties. For the
abundance, complexity, and complete generality ("abstractness") of the
concepts impede a mastery of this material by those students just beginning
their study of higher mathematics. The most successful way of surmounting
this difficulty is to illustrate the newly introduced concepts by a large number
of concrete examples which show how such concepts arise in various cases.
In addition it is desirable for the student to work out these examples in-
dependently, rather than merely having them displayed for him by the
instructor or the author of a book. An active role by the student will
ix
x Foreword
guarantee him a complete and effective understanding of the material. It

is to this end that we have written this book.
A brief introduction to new, basic concepts ·is given at the beginning
of each section. Examples are then cited in order to make these concepts
concrete. Next, by means of a sequence of exercises, the reader himself is led
to prove various properties of the given concepts. These properties fall into
three categories: important basic theoretical results, less significant but
useful auxiliary results, and, finally, simply practice exercises.
The authors have found that a beginning student of mathematics who
works through this book (either in its entirety or in part) should be able not
only to learn and remember some results and methods of group theory but
also to master the basic concepts creatively. After this he can continue his
study of group theory and also become acquainted with other directions of
modern general algebra.
It is clear that a student's chances of success with this book will be
enhanced if, while studying it, he can attend classes and obtain guidance from
his instructor or if he consults other texts (a list of appropriate works is cited
in the Bibliography). This is all the more important since this book does not
provide extensive explanations or meanings of introduced concepts and
obtained results, and does not give the history of various questions or the
origins of the concepts encountered. Thus, to become acquainted with these
facets of group theory, and, perhaps, later to extend the study of the material
itself, it will be necessary for the reader to consult specialized monographs or
appropriate lecture notes.
Taking into account that different readers come from quite different
backgrounds, the present book was written so that it could be used without
any further sources. Thus the book is self-contained, which naturally
increases the number of ways in which it can be used. Of course the reader
who is already familiar with some of the material from another source can
simply omit the corresponding exercises recommended in the book.
Answers to all of the problems are given at the end of the book. Short
hints are supplied, sketching solutions to the more difficult ones. The letter
H after a problem number indicates that a hint to the solution is found at
the rear of the book. The letter T means that the result obtained bears
significant theoretical interest.
Some problems are followed by remarks. The purpose of these is to focus
attention on some feature in the solution or a meaning of the obtained result
which deserves attention but might otherwise go unnoticed.
The material is divided into chapters and sections. The problems are
enumerated separately in each section, preceded by the number of the
chapter and section. For example 2.3.13 denotes the thirteenth problem in
Chapter 2, Section 3.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Sets
I. Basic Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
2. Mappings of Sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
3. Binary Relations ........................................ 11
4. Multiplication of Binary Relations ....................... , 16
Chapter 2
Algebraic Operations of a General Type
I. The Concept of an Algebraic Operation .................... 21
2. Basic Properties of Operations ............................ 25
3. Multiplication of Subsets of a Multiplicative Set. ............ 31
4. Homomorphisms ....................................... 33
5. Semigroups ............................................ 38
6. Elementary Concepts of the Theory of Groups .............. 42
Chapter 3
Compositions of Transformations
I. General Properties of the Composition of Transformations ... 51
2. hi.vertible Transformations ............................... 58
3. Invertible Transformations of Finite Sets ................... 62
4. Endomorphisms ........................................ 65
5. Groups of Isometries .................................... 70
6. Partial Transformations ................................. 74
Chapter 4
Groups and Their Subgroups
I. Decomposition of a Group by a Subgroup .................. 79
2. Conjugate Classes ....................................... 83
3. Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups .................... 86
4. Subgroups of Finite Groups .............................. 90
xi
xii Contents
5. Commutators and the Commutator Subgroup ............. , 91

6. Solvable Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
7. Nilpotent Groups ....................................... 96
8. Automorphisms of Groups .............................. , 99
9. Transitive Groups of Transformations .................. : .. 102
Chapter 5
Defining Sets of Relations
1. Defining Sets of Relations on Semigroups .................. 107
2. Defining Sets of Relations on Groups ...................... 112
3. Free Groups ........................................... 117
4. Groups Defined by Sets of Relations ....................... 121
5. Free Products of Groups ................................. 125
6. The Direct Product of Groups ............................ 127
Chapter 6
Abelian Groups
I. Elementary Properties of Abelian Groups .................. 133
2. Finite Abelian Groups ................................... 136
3. Finitely Generated Abelian Groups ........................ 139
4. Infinite Abelian Groups .................................. 141
Chapter 7
Group Representations
1. Representations of a General Type ........................ 145
2. Representations of Groups by Transformations ............. 148
3. Representations of Groups by Matrices .................... 152
4. Groups of Homomorphisms of Abelian Groups ............. 156
5. Characters of Groups .................................... 159
Chapter 8
Topological and Ordered Groups
1. Metric Spaces .......................................... 161
2. Groups of Continuous Transformations of a Metric Space .... 166
3. Topological Spaces ...................................... 170
4. Topological Groups ..................................... 174
5. Ordered Groups ........................................ 180
Hints
Chapter I ................................................ 185
Chapter 2 ................................................ 186
Chapter 3 ................................................ 187
Contents xiii
Chapter 4 ................................................ 189

Chapter 5 ................................................ 193
Chapter 6 ................................................ 195
Chapter 7 ................................................ 196
Chapter 8 ................................................ 198
Answers
Chapter 1 ................................................ 201
Chapter 2 ................................................ 204
Chapter 3 ................................................ 209
Chapter 4 ................................................ 216
Chapter 5 ................................................ 220
Chapter 6 ................................................ 222
Chapter 7 ................................................ 224
Chapter 8 ................................................ 227
Appendix. Multiplication Table for S4 .. ......................... 231
Bibliography . ............................................... 233
Index ...................................................... 237

Chapter 1
SETS
1. Basic Concepts
Let us define a property such that for each object which can be considered
in any mathematical theory, one can determine, at least in principle, whether
or not this object has the given property. We can then consider the collection
of all objects having this property as a ne~ mathematical object, which is
called a set. The objects are called elements of the given set.
Thus in order to describe a set one can either state the property, so that
if a mathematical object has the property it becomes an element of the set,
or list all of its elements. (Properly speaking, the fact that a given set contains
elements can also be considered as such a property. Thus these two approaches
differ only in a minor way.)
The fact that x is an element of a set M is denoted by x E M. In this case
we also say that x belongs to M, or that x is contained in M.
Two sets are equal, i.e., they coincide, ifthey consist of the same elements.
Therefore the proof that two sets M and N are equal usually consists of two
parts. First one proves that for each x EMit follows that x EN; second that
YENimpliesYEM.
The terms "collection," "totality," and "class" are used in the same
sense as the term "set." We should point out, however, that a distinction
is made in some of the deeper axiomatic theories between the concepts of
"set" and "class." Since this is not necessary within the limits of this book,
we will make no such distinction.
We will use braces to denote that a set M consists of the elements
x, y, . .. , t, . ... Thus
M = {x, y, ... , t, ... }
If the elements of a set are denoted by means of indices, for example,

x~, x p ' ••• , x~, . .. , then we also write
M={xd or M={xd EU
where r is a set of indices, r = {IX, p, ... , ~, ... }.

2 Sets
It will not be necessary in this book to distinguish between an object x

and the set {x} consisting of the one element x (a unit set), although such a
distinction is necessary in some other theories.
A set can consist of a finite number of elements, or it can be infinite.
The so-called empty set is the set which does not have any elements. We will
denote the empty set by 0.
If all elements of a set M are also elements of another set N, then we say
that M is a subset of N (or that M is contained in N). We write MeN or
N ;:) M.
In particular, the set N itself and the empty set are always subsets of N.
These subsets are called improper. All other subsets are called proper subsets
of N.
It is clear that two sets M and N are equal, M = N, if and only if the
conditions MeN and N c M are satisfied simultaneously.
The union (or set-theoretic sum) of two sets M and M' is the set consisting
of all elements which belong to at least one of the sets M or M'. The union is
denoted by M U M'.
The intersection of M and M' is the set of all elements which belong
simultaneously to M and M'. The intersection is denoted by M n M'.
If MIl M' = 0, then we say that M and M' are disjoint.
Let there be given a collection of sets:
The union of all sets M ~, denoted by
Ma U M~ U ... U Me U
or by
U M~
~Er
is the set of all elements which are contained in at least one of the sets M ~.
The intersection, denoted by
or by
is the set of all elements which belong to everyone of the sets M~.
Basic Concepts 3
If a set M has subsets Ma, Mp, ... such that their union equals M,
and no two of these subsets have any element in common (they are mutually
disjoint), then we say that M is the disjoint union of the sets Ma. Mp •....
We also say that this defines a partition of M into classes M a, Mil' .... If in
addition all of the sets Ma. Mil"" are nonempty, and there is more than one
of them, then we say that the partition is proper.
For two sets M and N, we denote by M"-N the set of all elements in M
which are not contained in N.
r
Let M be any set, and let be a set of indices (i.e., elements which are
considered only as distinctive symbols)
T= {el, ~, ... }
To each of the indices ~ E r there corresponds an element x~ in M. In this

connection one element in M can correspond to distinct indices. We then
say that (x a • x fJ , • •• ) = (X~)~Er is a system of elements in M. For example,
an infinite sequence of numbers is a system in which the set of indices consists
of all natural numbers: 1,2,3, ....
It is possible to consider a pair of elements (x, y) in a set M, taken in a
definite order, as a system of elemen ts in M with set of indices {I, 2} (i.e., x
is the first entry in this pair, corresponding to the index 1, and y the second,
corresponding to the index 2).
r
Suppose that to each index ~ in a set of indices = {(X, p, ... } there
corresponds a set (where it is assumed that some of the sets M a' M fJ" •• , or
even all of them can coincide). The Cartesian product of the sets M a , Mil' ...
is the set of all elements x of the following form:
To each index ~ E r there is associated an arbitrary element x~ E M~.
Then x is- defined by
x=(xe)~Er' X= (xa, x~, ...)
(xa EMa, x~ EM~, ...)
We can say that x is a system of elements of the set U M ~ with set of
~Er
indices r (obviously not just any system, but one in which x~ E M ~ for each
~ E f). The Cartesian product of the sets M a' M fJ, ... is denoted by
Ma X M~ X ... X M; ... (e Er)

or by
n X M~
~EI'
4 Sets
When the set of indices r of a Cartesian product is finite and consists

of n elements, we usually regard this set as being the integers 1, 2, ... , n.
The Cartesian product 'is then written M 1 X M 2 X ••• x M n' and the
elements are denoted by finite sequences
In particular, if M j =M for i = 1,2, ... , n, then we have the Cartesian

product
.MxMX ... XM
n times
1.1.1. Determine which of the following numbers are elements in the sets
given below:
1
0, 1, : ' V2, - 2, 'It, 7' I,
Sets:
M1 = set of all natural numbers;
M2 = set of all integers;
M3 = set of all rational numbers;
M4 = set of all positive real numbers;
M5 = set of all complex numbers z with the property Z2 = z:
M6 = set of all numbers z such that Z2 = Z.
1.1.2. Which of the matrices
x=(_: ~). v=G :). z=n - ~)

u= (~ ~), v=(! !)
are elements of the set of matrices whose determinant equals one?
1.1.3. How many elements are contained in the set of all roots of the equation
x 'l -2x3+x=O
1.1.4. Determine which of the sets M l' M 2 , M 3 , M 4 , M 5 of Problem 1.1.1

are subsets of the others.
Basic Concepts 5
1.1.5. Let J(x) and g(x) be two algebraic polynomials. Prove that the set of
roots of the polynomial F(x) = J(x)g(x) is the union of the set of roots of
J(x) and the set of roots of g(x).
1.1.6. Find the intersection of the set of all nonnegative integers and the
set of all non positive integers.
1.1.7. For each real number IX let M(J. denote the set of all real numbers
(J.
n
greater than IX. Find (1) U M (J. and (2), M(J. (the union and intersection taken
(J.
over all real numbers IX).

1.1.8. Let Mn be the set of all natural numbers which are divisible by the
natural number n. Find:
1) U Mn (the union taken over all n);
n
2) n M (the intersection taken over all n);

n
n
3) Mn n Mm;
4) ~ M p (the union taken over all primes p = 2,3,5, 7, ... ).
1.1.9. Prove that the following equalities hold for any sets M, N, and S:
MUM=M, MnM=M
MUN=NUM, MnN=NnM
M U(NU S)=(MU N)US
M n(NnS)=(M N)n S n
M n
(N U S) = (M N) U (M S) n n
M U (Nn S)=(M U N) (M U S) n
1.1.10. Find (1) M U 0
and (2) M n 0 for an arbitrary set M.
1.1.ll. Let M be any set. We will employ the notation A = M"-A for each
subset A c M. For A, B c M, find:
1) A; 2) A U A; 3) A n A; 4) (AUB)
5) (A7TB); 6) (A nB) U (A n8); 7) A U (A n B)
8) (A n B) U (A n 8) U (A n B); 9) M; 10)d)
1.1.12. Find the number of subsets of a set with four elements. Find the
number of distinct proper partitions of this set.
1.1.13. Form as many partitions as possible of the set of all integers from the
sets given below:
Mo = {O}
M 1 ={1}
M 2 = set of all positive integers
6 Sets
M 3 = set of all negative integers

M4 = set of all even integers
M5 = set of all odd integers
M6 = set of all primes
M7 = set of all composite numbers
1.1.14. Suppose that
are two partitions of a set M. Will the collection of all nonempty sets of the
n
form A~ B;. be a partition of M?
1.1.15. For each element x of a set M, let
Find
1.1.16. Denote the number of elements of a finite set X by m(X). Prove that
the following equalities hold for any sets M, N, and S:
\) m(MUN)=m(M)+m(N)-m(MnN)
2) In (M U NUS) = m (M) + m (N) + m (S) - m (M n N) -
- m (M n S) - m (N n S) + m (M n N n S)
State and prove analogous formulas for an arbitrary number of finite sets.
1.1.17. How many systems of elements is it possible to construct from the
set { =-1, 0, 1} with set of indices {1, 2, 3,4, 5}?
1.1.18. Write out all elements of the Cartesian product of the three sets:
1.1.19. How many elements are there in the Cartesian product of three
finite sets consisting of k 1 , k 2 , and k3 elements?
1.1.20. What form must a partition of a finite set M into two nonempty
classes take,
M=M t UM 2
Mappings of Sets 7
in order that the Cartesian product MIx M 2 have a maximum number o f

elements?
2. Mappings of Sets
Let A and B be two given sets. A mapping ~ of A into B is a rule which

associates with each element a of A a unique element of B, which in this case
is denoted by fP{a) or ~a, and is called the image of the element a under the
mapping~. If in addition for any two distinct elements a, a' E A their images
q1{a) and fP{a') are also distinct , then ~ is called a one-lO·one mapping.
If for each be B there exists an element a e A (perhaps more than one)
such that fP{a) = b, then we say that ~ is a mapping of A onto B. The student
should always be on the alert to distinguish between "onto" and "into"
mappings, as the former is a special case of the latter.
For A' c A , by fP(A') (also ~A ' ) we mean the set of all images fP(x) of
elements x e A'. The set fP(A ' ) is called the image of the subset A' under tbe
mapping fP. Consequently, fP is a mapping of A onto B ifand only if fP{A) = B.
Let B' c B. The set of all a e A such that cp(a) e B' is called the inverse
image (or complete inverse image) of the set B'.
Let fP be a one-to-one mapping of a set A into a set B. Then we can define
in a natural way a mapping of the se t fP(A) onto the set A. We call this mapping
the inverse of fP. and denote it by fP - 1. Since fP is one-Io-one, for each
z e q>(A) there exists a unique a e A such that
Therefore we can define
.,,-1 (z)=a
In the discussion above, it is possible for A and B to ha ve elements in common,
and in particular for A and B to coincide.
An element a e A is called a fixed point of the mapping fP if fP(a) = a.
Let fPI be a mapping of a set A I into a set B I , and fPl a mapping of Al
intoB 2 ,whereA I c AlandB I c B2.ThemappingfPziscalledan extension
of the mapping fPI if fPl and fP2 coincide o n AI' i.e., if fPI(a) = fP2(a) for all
ae AI'
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent (or have the same cardinality)
if there exists a one-to-one mapping of A onto B (and by the same tokcn, as
follows from 1.2.9, also a onc-to-one mapping of B onto A).
Wc say that tbe cardinality of a se t A is less than the cardinality of a set
B if A and B are not equivalent but A is equivalent to a subset of B.
8 Sets
By the cardinality of a set M we mean the symbol associated with the

class of all sets which are equivalent to M (see 1.2.15). The cardinality is also
called the cardinal number.
If a set consists of n elements, then we say that it has cardinality n.
For a set with an infinite number of elements, we say that its cardinality is
infinite.
A set which is equivalent to the set of all natural numbers is called
countable. Thus a set is countable if its elements can be enumerated by means
of the set of natural numbers.
The following basic theorem is well-known. However, we shall not have
occasion to make use of it.
For any two sets A and B, precisely one ofthe following three possibilities
must hold:
1) A is equivalent to B,
2) the cardinality of A is less than the cardinality of B,
3) the cardinality of B is less than the cardinality of A.
It is necessary to point out that in some mathematical works the image
of an elemen t a under a mapping <p is denoted by aq> or alP (instead of q>a = q>( a),
which we have adopted in this book, and which is used more frequently).
1.2.1. Let A and B be sets consisting of nand m elements, respectively.

Determine the number of distinct mappings of A into B. What conditions
will insure the existence of mappings of A onto B, one-to-one mappings of
A into B, and one-to-one mappings of A onto B? How many of these last
mappings are there?
1.2.2.T. Prove that every infinite set has a countable subset.
Remark. This result shows that the cardinality of a countable set is less
than or equal to the cardinality of every other infinite set.
1.2.3.H. Let A be the set of integers, B the set of natural numbers, and C
the set of primes. Do there exist one-to-one mappings q> of C onto A and C
onto B such that
for all Pl' P2 E C, Pl ~ P2?

1.2.4. How many mappings are there of the set M = {a, b, c, d} into itself
which have fixed points?
1.2.5. Let n be a fixed natural number, and define a mapping q> of the set of
all natural numbers M = {1, 2, 3, ... } into itself by
Mappings of Sets 9
Is cp one-to-one? What is the image cp(M)?

1.2.6. Let N be the set of all continuous real functions defined on the real line.
Let cp be the mapping of N into itself which takes the function f(x) onto
(x~ - l)f(x)
Is cp one-to-one? Is cp onto?
1.2.7. Let S be the set of all real functions defined on the real line, and let
h(x) be a fixed function in S. Let I/lh be the mapping of S into itself which takes
f(x) E S onto
h(x) f(x)
What condition must the function h(x) satisfy for I/lh to be one-to-one?
Remark. Compare this result with the preceding problem.
1.2.S. Let T be a triangle whose sides have length a, b, and c. Is the mapping
which associates with T the triangle T' whose sides have length
a one-to-one mapping of the set of all triangles into itself? Is it onto? Which
triangles are fixed points of this mapping?
1.2.9. Let cp be a one-to-one mapping of a set A into a set B. Prove that the
inverse cp - I is a one-to-one mapping of cp(A) onto A.
1.2.10. Let cp be a one-to-one mapping of a set A into a set B. Prove that
1.2.11. Let M be a set which is written as a disjoint union of subsets which

have either one or two elements. Let cp be a mapping of Minto M defined by
<p(x) = x if x constitutes one of the components of the given partition, and
<p(x) = y if x is contained in a component consisting of two elements, where
y is the second element in this component. Prove that cp is a one-to-one
mapping, and that cp - I = cpo
1.2.12. Let cp be a one-to-one mapping of a set M into itself such that
<p - I = cpo Prove that cp can be obtained by the method described in the
preceding problem.
1.2.13.T. Let A, B, and C be sets such that the cardinality of A is less than or
equal to the cardinality of B, and the cardinality of B is less than or equal to
10 Sets
the cardinality of C. Prove that the cardinality of A is less than or equal to the
cardinality of C.
1.2.14. Prove that the cardinality of any finite set is less than the cardinality
of any infinite set.
1.2.15. Let A, B, and C be sets such that A is equivalent to Band B is
equivalent to C. Prove that A is equivalp.nt to C.
1.2.16. Prove that every infinite subset of a countable set is countable.
1.2.17. Given a countable collection of finite sets M 1, M 2, •.. , prove that
U M k is either finite or countable.
k
1.2.IS.T.H. Given a finite or countable collection of sets Mk (k = 1,2, ... ),
where each M k is either finite or countable, prove that U M k is finite or
k
countable. When is this union finite? When is it countable?
1.2.19.T.H. Prove that the set of all rational numbers is countable.
1.2.20.H. Let M be an infinite set, and let N be a set which is either finite
or countable. Prove that M and M U N have the same cardinality.
1.2.21.H. Prove that the set of all polynomials with rational coefficients is
countable.
1.2.22. Prove that the set of all matrices with rational entries is countable.
1.2.23.T.H. Prove that the set of all real numbers r such that 0 ~ r ~ 1 is
uncountable.
1.2.24. T.H. Prove that the set of all real numbers is uncountable.
Remark. The cardinality of the set of all real numbers is called the
continuum. A set which is equivalent to the set of all real numbers is called
continual, or is said to have continual cardinality.
1.2.2S.T.H. A complex number is called algebraic if it is the root of some
polynomial (different from zero) in one variable with integral coefficients.
A number which is not algebraic is called transcendental.
Prove that the set of all algebraic numbers is countable, the set of all
transcendental numbers is uncountable, and the set of all real transcendental
numbers is uncountable.
1.2.26.H. Prove that the following sets of points on a straight line are
equivalent:
1) the set of all points on the line;
2) the set of all points on an arbitrary open interval of the line;
3) the set of all points on an arbitrary closed interval of the line;
4) the set of all points on the line which are not contained in a given
interval (either open or closed).
1.2.27.H. Let A and B be any sets, where B contains more than one element.
Let M be the set of all mappings of A into B. Prove that the cardinality of M
is greater than the cardinality of A (A oF 0).
Binary Relations 11
1.2.28.H. Let PM be the set of all subsets of a set M. Prove that the cardinality
of PM is greater than the cardinality of M (M =/; 0).
1.2.29. Suppose a mapping q>2 is an extension of a mapping q>1' If q>2 is
one-to-one, then so is q>1' Prove.
1.2.30. Let q>1, q>2' and q>3 be mappings such that q>3 is an extension of
q>2' and q>2 is an extension of q>1' Prove that q>3 is an extension of q>1'
1.2.31. Let N be the set of all natural numbers, N' the set of all even natural
numbers, and q> a mapping of N' into N. When does there exist a one-to-one
mapping of N' into N which is an extension of q>?
3. Binary Relations
Let X 1 and X 2 be arbitrary sets. The Cartesian product of X I and X 2,
i.e., the set of all pairs of the form (a, b), where a E Xl' b E X 2' is called the
universal binary relation on elements of Xl and X 2 (the order in which the
sets X 1 and X 2 are given is essential). A binary relation on elements of X I
and X 2 is any subset of their Cartesian product, p c X 1 X X 2'
Let p be a binary relation on elements of the sets X 1 and X 2' We say
that the elements a EX land bE X 2 belong to this relation if (a, b) E p.
In addition to this notation, we will also write
For certain binary relations we use special symbols in place of "'. If no

confusion can arise as to which binary relation is being considered, then we
shall omit the term in parantheses. Let us point out that the condition
(a, b) E P is also written in the form apb.
Let p be a binary relation on elements of the sets X 1 and X 2' Denote by
pr 1 p the collection of all elements a E X 1 for which there exists bE X 2 such
that a '" b(p). Define przp c X z in an analogous manner.
Let p be a binary relation on elements of X I and X 2 such that pr lP = X I
and przp = X 2 , where a l '" b(p), az '" b(p) implies a l = a1 and a '" bl(p),
a '" b1(p) implies b l = b1 . In this case we say that p is a one-to-one corres-
pondence between the sets X 1 and Xl' In order to visualize this we often
write
where a~ '" b~(p), a~ '" b~(p), . ... In view of these properties of p, each
element a~ in X I appears in exactly one of these pairs (a~ +-+ b~) and each
element b~ in Xl also appears in exactly one pair (a~ +-+ b~).
Given a binary relation p on elements of X I and X 2' we define a binary
relation p* on elements of X 2 and X I by
b '" a(p*) ifand only if a '" b(p)
12 Sets
The relation P* is called the conjugate of P (or the inverse of p, in which case
we write p - I instead of p*).
We also define another binary relation jj on elements of Xl and X 2
by a ""' b(jj) if and only if a ""' b(p) does not hold, where a E X I ' bE X 2'
Since binary relations are subsets of the universal binary relation
XI x X 2 , it is clear what is meant by the expressions PI C Pz, PI U Pz,
PI n P2'
In what follows we will be interested in binary relations on one set X,
i.e., subsets of the Cartesian product X x X.
The universal binary relation X x X will often be denoted by w x , or
simply by w if no confusion can arise. The empty binary relation, i.e., the
binary relation corresponding to the empty subset of X I x X 2' will also be
denoted by 0.
The diagonal of a set X is the binary relation ~ on X defined by a '" b(M
if and only if a = b.
Let P be a binary relation on a set X. Then
p is reflexive if a '" a(p) for all a E X,
p is transitive if a '" b(p) and b '" c(p) imply a '" c(p),
p is symmetric if a '" b(p) implies b '" a(p),
pis antisymmetric if a '" b(p) and b '" a(p) cannot both hold for a# b.
A binary relation on X which is reflexive, transitive, and symmetric is
called an equivalence relation, or simply an equivalence, on X.
When p is an equivalence relation the notation a.= b(p) is often used
in the literature in place of the notation a '" b(p).
Let p be an equivalence on X. If x '" y(p) (and therefore y '" x(p)),
then x and y are said to be equivalent with respect to p, or p-equivalent.
A nonempty subset K of X is called a p-class if any two elements in K are
p-equivalent and no element in K is p-equivalent to any element in X"-K.
The set of all p-c1asses is usually denoted by X / p.
A binary relation on X which is reflexive, transitive, and anti symmetric
is called an ordering relation, or simply an ordering. The terms order, partial
order, and partial ordering are also used.
An ordering p on X is called linear if for all a, b E X, either a '" b(p) or
b '" a(p). A linear ordering of a set is sometimes called a chain.
A linear ordering p is called complete (or well-ordered) if for every non-
empty subset X' C X there exists an element ao E X' such that ao '" a(p)
for all a EX'.
The symbol ~ (or <) is often used to denote an ordering instead of "',
In addition. a ~ b has the same meaning as b ~ a. If a ~ b(p), then we say
that a "precedes" b with respect to the ordering p.
If a set has an ordering defined on it, then we say that it is an ordered set.
If the ordering is linear or complete, then we call the set linearly ordered or
completely ordered (well ordered).
Binary Relations 13
An element a of an ordered set X is called maximal if a :(; b cannot hold

for any b E X distinct from a, and minimal if c :(; a cannot hold for any c E X
distinct from a. An element a is called universally maximal if x :(; a holds for
all x E X, and universally minimal if a :(; x for all x E X.
1.3.1. Let X I and X 2 be any sets, and let P and a be binary relations on
elements of X I and X 2' Prove that the following conditions are equivalent:
1) a ~ b(p) implies a ~ b(a); 2) pea; 3) p U a = a;
4) P n a = P; 5) P n if = 0; 6) if c p.
1.3.2. Let P be a binary relation on elements of the sets X I and X 2' Show
that
PU P=OO,
Conversely, if
P U 0=00,
for some binary relation a on elements of X I and X 2' then a = p. Prove.

1.3.3. Define the binary relations Pk (k = 0, 1,2, 3, ... ) on the set N of all
natural numbers by n ~ m(Pk) if n - m = k. Find: (1) prl(Pk); (2) pr2(Pk);
(3) (J = U Pk; (4) a*; (5) r = npk; and (6) r*.
k k
1.3.4. Let p, PI' and pz be binary relations on elements ofthe sets X I and X 2'
Prove that: (1) pUp = P; (2) P n P = P; (3) (p*)* = P; (4) (PI U P2)* =
pf U p!; (5) (PI n pz)* = pf n p!; (6) P* = (p)*; (7) P = P; (8) PI U pz =
PI n pz;and(9)PI n P2 = PI U Pz·
1.3.5. Let R be the set of all real numbers, and let r be the Cartesian product
n times
Let Pij(i,j = 1,2, ... ,n) be binary relations on r defined by
if a l + a2 + ... + ai = b l + b2 + ... + bj • Find each of the following

binary relations:
1) = Pu
'tl n P21 n ... n Pnb
2) 't~= PH n P2g n··· n Pnn>
3) 'ta= n Pi}
i,l
14 Sets
1.3.6. What basic properties (reflexivity, transltlVlty, symmetry, anti-

symmetry) do each of the following binary relations on the set of all natural
numbers satisfy:
1) n '" m(Pl) if nand m are relatively prime;
2) n '" m(P2) if n divides m;
3) n '" m(P3) if n = m2 ;
4) n '" m(P4) if n < m;
5) n '" m(ps) ifn ~ m;
6) n '" m(O"k) if m - n = k (k = 0,1,2, ... )?
1.3.7. Let X' c X, and let p be a binary relation on X. Define a binary
relation p' on X' by a '" b(p') if a '" b(p)(a, bE X'). Show that if p has any
of the basic properties (reflexivity, transitivity, symmetry, antisymmetry) on
X, then p' also has that property on X'. If p is an equivalence relation, then
so is p'. Similar assertions can be made if p is an ordered or linearly ordered
relation. Verify.
1.3.8. Suppose that a partition is given on a set M. Define a binary relation
P on M by x '" yep) if x and y lie in the same class of the partition. Prove that
P is an equivalence relation.
1.3.9.T. Let p be an equivalence relation on a set M. Prove that any two
p-classes either coincide or are disjoint, and that the collection of all p-classes
forms a partition of M. The equivalence corresponding to this partition is,
by 1.3.8, the original equivalence p.
Remark. Comparing 1.3.8 and 1.3.9 we see that being given a partition
of a set is the same as being given the equivalence relation corresponding to
this partition, and vice versa. We do not usually distinguish between
equivalence relations and partitions (without empty classes), so that if p
is an equivalence then the corresponding partition is also denoted by p.
1.3.10.T. Let P be a binary relation on a set X. Define a binary relation P'
in the following way: a '" b(p') if there exist C l' C2" •• , Cn E X such that
c 1 = a, c 1 '" c 2 (p), C2 '" c 3(p),· .. , Cn - 1 '" cn(p), Cn = b. Prove that:
1) pcp';
2) p' is transitive;
3) p' is the intersection of the set of all transitive binary relations 0" on X
which contain p.
Remark. The relation p' is the universally minimal element (under
inclusion) of the set of all transitive binary relations on X .containing p.
We call p' the transitive closure of p.
1.3.11. Let B be any fixed positive real number. Define a binary relation p
on the set R of all real numbers by a'" b(p) if 0 ~ b - a < B. Determine
the transitive closure of p and the transitive closure of p U p* (cf 1.3.10).
Binary Relations 15
1.3.12. Consider the binary relations PI and pz on the set K of complex

numbers, where Zl '" ZZ(PI) iflzd ~ Izzl, and Zl '" zz(pz) if arg ZI = argz z
for all Zl' Zz E K. Find: (1) PI n pt; (2) PI U pt; (3) PI n pt n pz; and (4)
the transitive closure of (PI n p!) u pz (cf. 1.3.10).
1.3.13. Given a binary relation P on a set X, find the binary relation P'
which is the universally minimal element in the ordered set (by inclusion)
of all symmetric binary relations (J on X such that P c: (J (the symmetric
closure of p).
1.3.14. Given a binary relation P on a set X, find the binary relation P'
which is the universally minimal element in the ordered set (by inclusion)
of all reflexive binary relations containing P (the reflexive closure of p).
1.3.15. Determine which of the following binary relations on the set of all
continuous real-valued functions defined on the interval [a, b] are orderings:
1) f(x) '" g(x)(PI) if ftc) ~ g(c) for all c E [a, b];
2) f(x) "" g(x)(pz) if f(cl) ~ g(c z), where f(cl) is the maximum value of
f(x) in [a, b] and g(c z) is the maximum value of g(x) on [a, b];
S:
3) f(x) "" g(X)(P3) if [f(x) - g(x)] dx ~ 0;
4) f(x) "" g(x)(P4)ifthereexistc l ,czE[a,b]suchthatf(cd ~ g(cz);
5) f(x) "" g(x)(ps) if f(a) ~ g(a) and f(b) ~ g(b).
1.3.16. Which of the following binary relations are equivalences (orderings)
on the set of all infinite sequences of real numbers:
1) (ai' az, .. .) "" (b l , b z , .. ,)(PI) if ak ~ bk for all k = 1,2,3, ... ;
2) (ai, az , . .. ) "" (b l , b1 , . . ,)(Pl) if there exists a number n such that
ak = bk for k = n, n + 1, ... ;
3) (ai' az , .. .) "" (b l , b1 , ... )(P3) if there exists a number n such that
ak ~ bk for k = n, n + 1, ... ;
4) (ai' az," .) "" (b l , b2 , .. ,)(P4) if either ak = bk for all k = 1,2, ... or
there exists a number n such that an < bn and ak ~ bk for k = n + 1,
n + 2, ... ?
1.3.17. Prove that every finite ordered set has both minimal elements and
maximal elements.
1.3.1S.T.H. Prove that for each ordering P on a finite set X there exists a
linear ordering P' for which pcp'.
Remark. This statement is also valid for infinite sets.
1.3.19. Let (P~)~er be a collection of orderings on a set X. Prove that the
binary relation
is also an ordering on X.
16 Sets
1.3.20. Let X be a set with the property that whenever a ~ b there can be at
most a finite number of elements c for which a ~ c ~ b. Find all linear
orderings on X.
1.3.21. Which of the following ordered sets of rational numbers (with the
usual ordering) are well ordered:
1) the set of all integers;
2) the set of all positive integers;
3) the set of all negative integers;
4) the set of all rational numbers;
5) the set of all numbers of the form (~)" (n = 1,2,3, ... );
6) the set of all numbers of the form (t)n (n = 1,2,3, ... );
7) the set of all numbers of the form lin (n = 1,2,3, ... )?
1.3.22. What can be said about a set M which has a linear ordering p such
that both p and p* are well-ordered?
1.3.23. Suppose that there is defined a well-ordering on the classes of a
partition {Nd~Er of a set M, and in turn a well-ordering on each of these
classes. Define a binary relation p on M by x '" y(p) if either (1) x E N a ,
y E N p , oc =1= 13, and N a ~ N p with respect to the ordering of the classes of the
partition, or (2) x, YEN ~ and x precedes y in the ordering of N ~. Prove that
p is a well-ordered relation on M.
4. Multiplication of Binary Relations

Let p and a be binary relations on a set X. Their product is the binary
relation r = pa on X defined by a '" b(r) if and only ifthere exists c in X such
that a '" c(p) and c '" b(p).
In particular, it is possible to consider the product of a binary relation p
with itself, where we use the notation pp = p2. Since this multiplication is
associative (see 1.4.4) one can write p3, keeping in mind that p3 = (pp}p =
p(pp), etc.
Let X' c X, and let p be a binary relation on X. We define the subset
pX' as the set of all a E X for which there exists bE X' such that a '" b(p).
Similarly X' p denotes the set of all a E X for which there exists bE X' such
that b '" a(p).
If, in particular, X' consists of one element, X' = {a} for some a EX,
then the sets pa and ap are sometimes called the right and left cuts (or sections)
of the binary relation p by the element a.
1.4.1. Define the binary relations p, a, r, Ak (k = 1,2,3, ... ) on the set N of

natural numbers by
n '" m(p) if n divides m;
n '" m(a) if n < m;
Multiplication of Binary Relations 17
n '" m( r} if nand m are relatively prime;

n '" m(;'k) if 1m - nl = k, for k = 1,2,3, ....
Find the following products:
Remark. Note those cases which show that multiplication of binary

relations is not commutative.
1.4.2. Let P and (J' be binary relations on a set X. Prove that
prl (po) C prl p, pr~ (po) C pr~ a
1.4.3. For a binary relation P on a set X, prove that

and przp = Xp
1.4.4. Let PI' Pz, and P3 be binary relations on a set X. Prove that
(the associative law of mUltiplication of binary relations).

1.4.5. Let X' c X, and let PI and pz be binary relations on X. Prove that
and
1.4.6. Let Z be the set of all complex numbers. Define the binary relations
p, (J', and r on Z by
Z, ' " Z2 (p) if \ z, \= \ Z2\

z, '" Z2 (a) if arg z, = arg Z2
z, '" Z2 ("t) if ZI = Z'l
Let R be the set of all real numbers, C the set of complex numbers z for which
Izi
~ 1, and P = {i}. Find:
pR, Rp, oR, R"t, pC, Co, C"t, pP, Po, P"t
1.4.7. Let PI' pz and (J' be binary relations on a set X, with PI c pz. Prove
that
18 Sets
1.4.8. Show that the following hold for any binary relations T, P~, P{J, ...
on a set X:
't (p~ UP~ U ...) = 'tp~ U 'tP~U .. .
(Po: U P~ U ...) 't = PIl't U P~ 't U .. .
't (Po: () P~ () ...) C 'tPo: () tp@() .••
(p~ () p@ () ...) t C Po: t () p@t n ...
1.4.9. Define the binary relations P1 and P2 on the set {a, b} by
P1 = {(a, a), (b, a), (b, b)}, p~ = {(a, b), (b, a)}
Find and compare
Remark. Compare this result with 1.4.8.

1.4.10. Find the following products of binary relations on a set X:
1.4.11. Define the binary relations Pk (k = 1,2, ... , n) on the set of all
sequences of n elements from a given set M by
Find PiPj'
1.4.12. Consider the binary relation P of inclusion on the set PM of all
subsets of a given set M (i.e., P '" Q(p) if P c Q, where P, Q eM). Find
p,'J pp,
- PP,
- PP *-*
, PP
1.4.13. Let P be an arbitrary binary relation on a set X. Determine the

products P~, ~P, wp, pw.
1.4.14. Which binary relations P on a set X satisfy the following equalities:
(l).wp == w; (2) pw = w; (3) pwp = w; (4) wpw = w; (5) PP* = w?
1.4.15. Define the binary relations IT 1, IT 2, and IT 3 on the set of all real
continuous functions defined on the closed interval E = [a, b] by
f(x) '" g(X)(lT 1) if f(c) ::::;; g(c) for all c E E
f(x) '" g(X)(lT2) if f(a) = g(a),J(b) = g(b)
f(x) '" g(X)(lT 3) if f(c) "# g(c) for all c E E
Multiplication of Binary Relations 19
Find
1.4.16.T. Let P be an arbitrary binary relation on a set X. Prove that in

order for P to be transitive it is necessary and sufficient that pZ c p.
1.4. 17.T. Let PI and pz be binary relations on a set X. Prove that
1.4.1S.T. Let P be an arbitrary binary relation on a set X. Prove that PP* is

symmetric.
1.4.19.T. Prove that a binary relation P on a set X is an ordering if and only
if it satisfies the two conditions
1.4.20. If PI and P2 are reflexive (transitive, symmetric, antisymmetric)

binary relations on a set X, does it necessarily follow that PIP2 is a reflexive
(transitive, symmetric, antisymmetric) binary relation on X?
1.4.21. Let PI and P2 be equivalence relations on a set X such that PIPZ =
P2PI' Prove that PIP2 is also an equivalence relation on X.
1.4.22. Let PI and P2 be linear orderings on a set X. Under what conditions
will PIP2 be a linear ordering on X?
1.4.23. Let PI and P2 be symmetric binary relations on a set X, with P1P2 c
P2PI' Show that PIP2 = P2PI'
1.4.24. Let P be an equivalence and (J a linear ordering on a set X. Which of
the basic properties (reflexivity, transitivity, symmetry, antisymmetry) do
each of the following products satisfy:
1.4.25. Let P be an arbitrary binary relation on a set X. Prove that
if and only if a '" b(p) and b '" c(p) implies a '" c(p).
Chapter 2
ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS
OF A GENERAL TYPE
1. The Concept of an Algebraic Operation
We say that an algebraic operation, or simply an operation, is defined on

a set M if there is a rule which to certain ordered pairs of elements of M
associates another element of M. Thus an operation is a mapping from some
subset of the Cartesian product M x Minto M.
The term "composition" is also used in place of the term "operation."
Sometimes we use the more precise terminology of "binary operation." This
is necessary since one can consider rules which associate an element of M
with each triple of elements of M (a ternary operation), or even rules which
associate an element with each sequence of n elements of M (an n-ary
operation). A set which is being considered with respect to an operation
defined on it is sometimes called a groupoid, or operative, although the term
groupoid is often used in a narrower sense.
The element z which corresponds to the ordered pair (x, y) (x, Y EM)
under a given operation is called the result ofthis operation performed on the
elements x and y. Various notations are employed to indicate the result of an
operation. For example, having fixed a letter, say I, we can write z = I(x, y).
However, we often use the following forms of notation instead of the functional
one given above. We write the elements on which the operation is performed
side by side, putting some special symbol between them. Some well-known
symbols from elementary mathematics are +, -, x, and -;-. These will be
used to denote the usual operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division of numbers, as well as for other operations which bear no
resemblance whatsoever to these usual operations. Other symbols which
we shall have occasion to use are 0,·, and *.
We shall make use of the multiplicative notation and terminology
extensively. When an operation is performed on elements we write these
elements side by side with either a dot between them or without any symbol
separating them whatsoever:
xy=z, x·y=z
21
22 Algebraic Operations of a General Type
In this case the elements x and yare called factors (left and right, respectively),
and z is their product. Moreover, this operation may have no connection
whatsoever with ordinary multiplication.
The additive notation and terminology are sometimes used. The result
of the operation on x and y is then denoted by x + y, and corresponding
terminology is employed: sum, summand, etc.
When the name of a specific operation and its corresponding symbols are
firmly established (for example, addition and multiplication) on a concrete
set (the integers, functions, matrices), they will be used without express
mention. In general the multiplicative terminology is employed, and we too
will usually adhere to this.
The actual description of an operation on a set M can be carried out by
various methods. If the elements of M are of a concrete nature, it is possible
to state a law (in particular, a formula) which distinguishes those pairs for
which the result of the operation is defined. The element so constructed is
then the result of the operation for each such pair.
It is also possible to list directly all results of the operation. This can be
accomplished by means of the so-called Cayley table (also called a multi-
plication table). All elements of the set are written on the left and above the
square table. At the intersection of the row corresponding to the element x
and the column corresponding to the element y, we write the result of the
operation by the ordered pair (x, y), or by a dash if the result of the operation
is not defined.
Although a Cayley table of this form can only be constructed for a finite
set M, indeed for a set with not too many elements, one can theoretically
consider a Cayley table for any set M, either finite or infinite.
If an operation is defined on a set M, then for each subset M' c M the
operation on M induces, in a natural way, an op'eration on M'. Namely, (or
x, y E M ' , the result of the operation on M' is defined and equal to Z E M'
if for x, y considered as elements of M, the result is defined and equal to
z E M'. (It is very important to remember that when considering an operation
on a set we always require the results of the operation to be elements ofthe set.
We will have no occasion to consider "external operations," where the
results are regarded as not being elements in the given set.) Generally speaking,
we call this new operation the restriction of the original operation to M' ..
Let M 1 and M 2 be sets, and let 0 and 0 be operations defined on M 1
1 2
and M 2' respectively. Then the sets M 1 and M 2 are called isomorphic relative
to these operations if it is possible to establish a one-to-one correspondence
between the elements of M 1 and M 2'
The Concept of an Algebraic Operation 23
such that Xl 0 Y1 is defined in M 1 if and only if X 2 0 Y2 is defined in M 2'

1 2
and the element Xl 0 Y1 corresponds to the element X2 0 Y2' i.e.,
I 2
The significance of the concept of an isomorphism lies in the fact that

isomorphic sets with operations are absolutely identical with respect to
these operations. If the elements on the border of the Cayley table of one
of these sets are placed in a certain order, and the elements in the second
set are arranged correspondingly, then the Cayley tables of the two sets
coincide (up to the way in which the elements are denoted). This indicates
that operations on isomorphic sets are essentially identical.
2.1.1. Consider the set of intergers 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10 relative to the
operation of addition. Determine for how many pairs of integers the operation
is defined.
Remark. Remember that certain results of the operation (e.g., that on
the integers 6 and 7) are regarded as undefined since they (e.g., 13) are not
contained in the set being considered.
2.1.2. Construct the Cayley table for the set {1, 2,3,4,5} relative to the
operation of subtraction. Take into account the Remark following problem
2.1.1.
2.1.3. Consider the set consisting of the elements XI' x 2 , x 3 , X 4 , x s , X 6 ,
where the operation Xi 0 Xj is given by the Cayley table
XI X 2 Xa X 4 x. X6
XI X2 X4 x. Xa
Xl! Xl! Xl! x. X 2 XI
Xa Xa Xa Xs Xa
Xi XI X, Xl! X. XI XI
X. X. X. Xl! X 3 XI
X6 X6 X6 Xl! XI
Determine for which Xi the results (Xi 0 x;) 0 Xi and Xi 0 (Xi 0 Xi) are defined.
2.1.4. Is it possible to construct a Cayley table for the set {ZI,Z2,Z3,Z4}
such that Zi 0 Zi is defined for all Zi except Z I' where Z 10 Z I is undefined,
and neither (Zi 0 z) 0 Zk nor Zi 0 (Zj 0 Zk) is defined for any triple Zi' Zj' Zk
(i,j, k = 1,2,3, 4)? If so, find the general form of such a table.
2.1.5. Each of the following formulas defines an operation which is defined

for all pairs of elements in the set M of all rational numbers.
aob= at b
- a(a+l)+b(b+l)
ao b - 2
aob=a'J-2ab+b'J
Consider these operations on the set N of all natural numbers. For
which pairs of elements of N are the results of these operations defined in N?
2.1.6. Prove that every set with an operation is isomorphic to itself relative
to this operation.
2.1.7. Consider the set of all positive rational numbers relative to the opera-
tion of ordinary multiplication. Let A be the subset of all numbers greater
than one and B the subset of all numbers less than one. Prove that A and B
are isomorphic relative to multiplication.
2.1.S. Let M be the set of all natural numbers, M 1 the subset of odd integers
and M 2 the subset of even integers. Are any of the sets M, M l' and M 2
isomorphic relative to the operation of multiplication?
2.1.9. Prove that the set of all positive real numbers and the set of all negative
real numbers are isomorphic relative to ordinary addition.
2.1.10. Consider the set G = {2, 3,4, 5} under addition, and H = {2,4, 5, to}
under multiplication. Prove that G and H are isomorphic relative to the
stated operations.
2.1.11.". Let G be the set of all positive real numbers under ordinary
multiplication and H the set of all real numbers under ordinary addition.
Prove that G and H are isomorphic relative to these operations.
2.1.12. How many nonisomorphic sets having n elements (n ~ 3) are there
whose operation is given by a Cayley table in the following form? One entry
is a dash (the result of the operation is undefined), while the other n2 - 1
entries consist of a specific element.
2.1.13. Define an operation on the set M 1 = {a, b, c, d, e} by the Cayley table
abc d e
a a a a a a
b abcae
c acbbe
d ddddd
e e e e e e
Basic Properties of Operations 25
Let M 2 be the set consisting of - 1,0, 1 relative to ordinary multiplication.

Is M 2 isomorphic to any of the subsets of M 1 relative to the operation
defined by the table above? How many are there?
2.1.14. Consider the set M of all matrices of the form
where x is any real number, relative to the operation of multiplication of

matrices. Prove that M is isomorphic to the set of all real numbers under the
operation of addition.
2.1.15. Define an operation 0 on the set M = {x 1, X2' X 3 , •.. } by
(I, j = 1, 2, ...)
Determine which of the subsets of M (relative to the operation on M) are
isomorphic to M.
2.1.16. Suppose that M l' M 2' and M 3 are sets with operations such that
M 1 is isomorphic to M 2 and M 2 is isomorphic to M 3 relative to these opera-
tions. Prove that M 1 is isomorphic to M 3'
Remark. Combining this result with 2.1.6 and the fact that the relation
of isomorphism is symmetric, we can conclude that the relation of isomorphism
is an equivalence relation on the class of all sets which have operations.
2.1.17.1. Define an operation on a set X such that for any a, b, C EX,
1) aOa=a;
2) if a 0 b is defined, then a 0 b E {a, b} ;
3) if a 0 b is defined, then bOa is also defined and a 0 b = bOa;
4) if a 0 b = a and b 0 C = b, then a 0 c is defined and a 0 C = a.
Define a binary relation on X by a '" b(p) if a 0 b is defined and a 0 b = a.
Prove that p is an ordering relation.
2.1.18.1. Let p be an ordering relation on a set X. Define an operation on
X by a 0 b = bOa = a if a '" b(p) (a, b E X). Prove that this operation
satisfies each of the four conditions of the preceding problem.
2. Basic Properties of Operations

The general theory of algebraic operations is broken down into a number
of algebraic disciplines. Each of these disciplines is concerned with sets
having one or more operations, which must satisfy certain conditions. In
addition there are conditions which relate these operations. We shall
restrict ourselves in this book to the study of sets with one operation. (Of
course, other operations can be defined rather naturally on each of these sets,
but we shall only be interested in one operation at a time.)
The theory of sets with one operation is composed of a number of
particular theories which differ only in the basic properties which they satisfy.
Which properties are regarded as basic and, by the same token, how the
general theory is composed of course depends, to a considerable degree, on
the actual state of science at the given moment. The boundaries of these
disciplines are currently changing.
At the present time we regard the properties stated below as being basic.
These have been chosen because they fall into the separate divisions into
which the general theory of operations has been classified.
Let M be a set with an operation, which we shall denote by 0 (although
we have not used multiplicative notation, we shall usually do so in that which
follows).
(1) The operation is called closed if the result of the operation x 0 y
is defined for all elements x, y E M.
(2) The operation is called commutative if for each pair x, Y E M for
which the result x 0 y is defined, y 0 x is also defined and satisfies
xOY=YOx
(3) The operation is called associative if for each triple x, y, Z E M for

which the products x 0 y and (x 0 y) 0 z are defined, the products y 0 z and
x 0 (y 0 z) are also defined, and vice versa, and satisfy
(xOy) OZ =xO (YOz)
(4) The operation is called left invertible if for each pair u, v E M there
exists an element x EM such that x 0 u is defined, and satisfies
xOu=v
(5) The operation is called right invertible if for each pair u, v EM there
exists an element y E M such that u 0 y is defined, and satisfies
UOy=v
(6) The operation is called left cancellative if whenever x 0 u and

x 0 v are defined (x,
U, v E M) and satisfy
xou=xOv
it follows that u = v.
(7) The operation is called right cancel/ative if whenever u 0 x and

v 0 x are defined (x, u, v E M) and satisfy
UOx=vOx
it follows that u = v.
The following concepts are closely related to the properties stated above
for an arbitrary operation.
An element e is called a left identity of M if for each x E M, eO x is
defined and satisfies
eOx = x
An element e is called a right identity of M if for each x EM, x 0 e is defined

and satisfies
xOe=x
An element is called a two-sided identity of M, or simply an identity, if e is
both a left and a right identity of M.
The terms "identity element" and "neutral element" are also used instead
of "identity. "
If a set M has an identity e, then the elements x and x' are called inverses,
and each one is called an inverse of the other, if both x 0 x' and x' 0 x are
defined and satisfy
xOx'=x'Qx=e
In the multiplicative notation the element x', the inverse of x, is usually

denoted by the exponent -1,
x'=x- 1
An element z is called a left zero of M if for each x E M, z 0 x is defined

and satisfies
zOx = z
An element z is called a right zero of M if for each x EM, x 0 z is defined

and satisfies
xOz=z
An element is called a two-sided zero, or simply a zero, of M if it is both

a left and a right zero of M. Other terms used synonymously with "zero"
are "zero element" and "annihilating element."
28 AJgebraic Operations of a General Type
An element x is called an idempotent if x 0 x is defined, and x 0 x = x.

All of the foregoing definitions are simplified if the operation is closed.
The reader should keep these simplifications in mind.
For the remainder of this section, M will denote a set with an operation,
denoted by O.
Recall from Chapter 2.1 that for each M' c M we consider the operation
on M' as the same operation on M, in the sense stated in Chapter 2.1.
2.2.1. Determine which of the basic properties hold, and find all identity
and zero elements, for the set of all real numbers relative to each of the
following operations:
1) addition;
2) multiplication;
3) subtraction;
4) division.
2.2.2. Determine the same questions as in 2.2.1 for each of the following
sets relative to each of the operations above:
1) the set of all natural numbers;
2) the set of all integers;
3) the set of all rational numbers;
4) the set of all positive numbers;
5) the set of all negative numbers.
2.2.3. Let M be the set of all continuous functions defined on the closed
interval [a, b]. Determine which of the basic properties are satisfied when
considering M relative to each of the operations below. Also find all identity
and zero elements of M.
1) addition of functions;
2) multiplication of functions;
3) subtraction of functions;
4) division of functions.
2.2.4. Prove that if a set M has both a left identity and a right identity, then
M has a two-sided identity e, in which case there are no left identities or right
identities other than e.
Remark. In particular, a set M can have at most one identity.
2.2.5. Prove that if a set M has both a left zero and a right zero, then M has
a two-sided zero 0, and there are no other left zeros or right zeros except O.
Remark. Hence it follows that a set M can have at most one zero.
2.2.6. Let N denote the set of all natural numbers. For each of the operations
stated below, determine which of the basic properties hold. Are there any
identities or zeros (left, right, two-sided)? Which of the elements are indem-
potents?
1) a 0 b = c, where c is the greatest common divisor of a and b;
2) a 0 b = c, where c is the least common multiple of a and b;
3) aO b = ab ;
4) a 0 b = (a/b) + (b/a)
2.2.7. Consider the set of all complex square matrices of order n relative to
multiplication of matrices. Determine which of the basic properties are
satisfied. Is there a zero or an identity? Which elements have inverses?
2.2.8. Let p, q, and r be any fixed real numbers. Consider the set of all real
numbers relative to the operation defined by
aob=pa+qb+r
for all integers a and b. For what values p, q, r does this operation satisfy the
basic properties?
2.2.9.H. Consider the set Rx of all binary relations on a set X relative to
multiplication of binary relations. Which of the basic properties hold? Is there
a zero or an identity?
2.2.10. Let R denote the set of all positive real numbers relative to the
operation of finding the geometric mean, i.e., a 0 b = ,j(a· b) for all a, b E R.
What basic properties hold? Does R have a zero or an identity? Which
elements of Rare idempotents?
2.2.11. Let M be the set of all points in the plane. Let rand s be real numbers
such that 0 < r < 2n and s > o. Define an operation 0 on M by a 0 b = c,
where c is the point such that the distance from a to c is equal to s times the
distance from a to b and, for a ;/= b, the angle between the line through a and b
and the line through a and c is equal to r (measured in a counterclockwise
direction). Determine which of the basic properties are satisfied.
2.2.12. Let M be the set of all directed line segments in the plane, i.e., all
pairs of numbers (a, b). Define an operation on M in the following manner.
If (a, b), (c, d) E M then (a, b) 0 (c, d) is defined if the terminal end b of the first
segment coincides with the initial end c of the second, and
(a, b)O(b, d)=(a, d)
Determine the geometrical meaning of this operation. Which of the basic

properties hold?
2.2.13. Suppose an operation is defined on a set by a Cayley table. How is it

possible to tell directly from the table whether the operation satisfies each
of the following properties:
1) closure;
2) commutativity;
3) left invertibility;
4) right invertibility;
5) left cancellation;
6) right cancellation?
2.2.14. For which of the basic properties of an operation IS II l'ossibl~ to
assert that if this property holds in M, then it also holds for each N c M
relative to this same operation?
2.2.15. Consider the sequence of sets
where each Mn has an operation O(n

n
= 1,2,3, ... ). For x,YEM n , define
x0 y
m
= z (m ;;::: n) if and only if x 0n y is defined in Mn and x 0n y = z, Z E Mn.
Define an operation 0 on the set M = U
n
M n by x 0 y = Z (x, y, Z EM) if
there exists an n such that x, y, z to M n and x 0 Y = z.
n
Prove that such a rule du" ... , in fact, define an operation on M.
Prove that if all the operations 0 (n = 1,2,3, ... ) satisfy one of the basic
n
properties, then 0 also satisfies this property on M.
2.2.16.T. Let Px denote the collection of all subsets of a nonempty set X
(in particular, the empty set is included in Px). Consider Px relative to the
operation of union and the operation of intersection, and determine which
of the basic properties are_satisfied for each.
2.2.17. Define an operation 0 on the set of all sequences of n real numbers by
(al> a2, ... , an)o(bl> bg, ... , bn)=(at +b h a, +ag+b, +bg, ... ,
at +a\!+ ... +an+bt +b\!+ ••• +bn)
Which of the basic properties does this operation satisfy?

2.2.1S.T. Given a system of sets M~{~ E n, each of which has an operation
denoted by 0, we define an operation on the Cartesian product of these sets
(cf. Chapter 1.1)
Multiplication of Subsets of a Multiplicative Set 31
in the following way. The result on (X~)~Er and (Y~)~Er in M is defined if

x~ 0 Y~ is defined in each M ~. In such a case set
Prove that if each of the M ~ satisfies one of the basic properties, then M
also satisfies this property.
3. Multiplication of Subsets of a Multiplicative Set

If M is a set which has a closed operation defined on it then M, when
considered relative to this operation, is called a multiplicative set. We are,
of course, using multiplicative terminology here.
Let A and B be subsets of a multiplicative set M. The product AB is
defined as the set of all Z EM which can be written in the form z = xy, where
XE A, yE B.
We say that a nonempty subset A c M is closed with respect to multi-
plication (the term "stationary" is also used) if AA c A.
A is called a left ideal of M if MAc A;
A is called a right ideal of M if AM c A;
A is called a two-sided ideal of M if it is both a left ideal and a rig~t ideal
ofM.
If A is either a left ideal or a right ideal (in particular, a two-sided ideal)
then A is called an ideal.
However, one should keep in mind that in the literature the term ideal
sometimes refers only to two-sided ideals. If the multiplication is commu-
tative, then the concepts of left ideal, right ideal, two-sided ideal, and ideal
are obviously equivalent.
2.3.1. Let R be the multiplicative set of all rational nunibers, Z the set of all
integers, P the set of all positive rational numbers, and N the set of all
negative numbers. Find the following products:
RR, RZ, ZR, ZZ, PP, PN, NN

2.3.2. Define an operation on a multiplicative set M by the multiplication
table
I abc
a aaa
b aaa
ebb b
Find (MM)M and M(MM).
2.3.3. Let K 1 , K 2 , K 3 , K~, and K~ be subsets of a multiplicative set M,

where K~ c K 1 and K~ c K 2' Show that the following relations hold:
1) Kt (K9 U Ka) = K1K9 U KlKa

n
2) Kt (Kg K3) C KlKg KtKa n
3) K~K~ C KlK'A
2.3.4. Let M be a multiplicative set and PM the collection of all subsets of M.
Then PM is also a multiplicative set relative to multiplication of subsets.
Prove that if M satisfies any of the basic properties-associativity, com-
mutativity, left identities, right identities, left zeros, right zeros-then PM
also satisfies this property.
2.3.5. Let M be the multiplicative set of all positive rational numbers and
PM the multiplicative set of nonempty subsets of M (see 2.3.4). Show that
PM does not satisfy any of the following properties: left cancellation, right
cancellation, left invertibility, right invertibility.
Remark. Note that M satisfies all of the stated properties. Compare this
result with the results of 2.3.4.
2.3.6. Prove that every ideal of a multiplicative set is closed with respect to
multiplication.
2.3.7. Let N be the multiplicative set of all natural numbers, A the set of all
even natural numbers, B the set of all odd natural numbers, C n the set of all
natural numbers less than or equal to n (n = 1,2, 3, ... ), and Dn the set of all
natural numbers greater than or equal to n.
Determine which of the sets
A, B, Cm Dn, Cn n Dm (n, m = 1, 2, 3, ...)
are closed with respect to multiplication, and which are ideals of N.

2.3.8. Consider the set of all real numbers and the set of all pure imaginary
numbers (i.e., numbers of the form bi, where b is a real number different from
0) as subsets of the multiplicative set of all complex numbers. Determine if.
either of these subsets is closed and if either is an ideal.
2.3.9. Consider the multiplicative set M of all real square matrices of order n.
Is the set of all nonsingular matrices, or the set of all singular matrices, either
closed or an ideal of M?
2.3.10. Prove that every nonempty intersection of closed subsets of a
multiplicative set is closed.
2.3.11. Prove that every nonempty intersection of left ideals is a left ideal.
The same holds for right ideals and two-sided ideals.
Homomorphisms 33
2.3.12.H. Let L be a left ideal and R a right ideal of a multiplicative set.

Prove that L n R is always nonempty.
2.3. 13.H. Prove that the intersection of a finite number of two-sided ideals
is a two-sided ideal.
2.3.14. Prove that the union of any class of left ideals of a multiplicative set
is a left ideal. The-same holds for right ideals and two-sided ideals.
2.3.15. Let TI and Tz be two-sided ideals of a multiplicative set M. Prove
that Tl Tz is closed with respect to multiplication.
2.3.16. Define an operation on the multiplicative set M consisting of the
five elements a, b, c l , C2, d by means of the multiplication table
Ia b C1 C2 d
a a a a a b
b a a a a a
c, a a a a a
c2 a a a a a
d b a a a a
Determine which of the sets Tl = {a, b, cd, Tz = {a, b, cz }, and TI T2 are

ideals of M.
2.3.17. Let M be a multiplicative set, zeM. When is the set {z} closed?
When is {z} a left ideal, right ideal, or two-sided ideal of M?
2.3.18.H. How many ideals are there of the multiplicative set of all complex
square matrices of order n?
4. Homomorphisms
A mapping qJ of a multiplicative set M 1 into a multiplicative set M 2 is
called a homomorphism if for any x, Y E M 1 the equality
If (xy) = cp (x) cp (y)
holds in M 2 •
A one-to-one mappmg qJ which is a homomorphism is called an
isomorphism.
Note that for a homomorphism (and in particular for an isomorphism)
qJ(M 1) does not have to coincide with M 2' Indeed, qJ(M 1) is in general a
proper subset of M 2 .
If <p(M 1) = M 2 then the homomorphism qJ is sometimes called an
epimorphism. If <p is a homomorphism which is one-to-one, i.e., <p(x) '" <p(y)
if x '" y, then it is sometimes called a monomorphism.
To every homomorphism qJ of a multiplicative set M 1 into a multi-

plicative set M 2 there corresponds a binary relation Pip on M 1 defined by
x '" Y(Pip) if and only if qJ(x) = qJ(Y).
It is easy to see that Pip is an equivalence relation. As we already know
(cf. Chapter 1.3), this means that to each homomorphism qJ there corresponds
a partition of the set MI' Each class of this partition consists of the set of all
elements of M 1 which are mapped by qJ onto a particular element in M 2'
An equivalence relation (J on a multiplicative set M (and also the
corresponding partition) is called left compatible (or left stable or left regular)
if x '" y((J) (x, Y EM) implies zx '" zY((J) for all Z E M. An equivalence (J is
right compatible if x '" y«(J) implies xz '" yZ((J) for all Z E M. If (J is both
left and right compatible, then it is called a congruence (or is two-sided
compatible).
Let M be a multiplicative set and let r be a partition of M having the
property that for any two r-classes K and K' there exists a r-class K" (which
is obviously unique) such that KK' ~ K". (The product KK' is obtained by
set multiplication; see Chapter 2.3.) It is then possible to introduce an
operation of multiplication on the set of all r-c1asses, i.e., on M/r, by setting
KK' = K". In such a case M/r becomes a multiplicative set relative to this
operation. It is called the multiplicative factor-set (or quotient-set) of the multi-
plicative set M by the partition (or the equivalence) r.
It is necessary to keep in mind that the product of r-classes as elements
of the factor set MIT: does not coincide with the product as subsets of the
multiplicative set M, since one can evidently have KK' c;: K" and KK' :f. K"
inM.
2.4.1. Let C be the mUltiplicative set of all complex numbers and R the
multiplicative set of all real numbers. Which of the following mappings of C
into R are homomorphisms?
'fl(z)=lzl
'f2 (z) = I z 1+ 1
'fa (z)= 0
'fi (z)= 2
2.4.2. Let R be the multiplicative set of all rational numbers. Find all
homomorphisms qJ of R into R for which qJ(R) c;: { - 2, -1,0, 1, 2}.
2.4.3. Let M be the multiplicative set of all complex matrices of order n > 1,
and C the multiplicative set of all complex numbers. Define the mappings
qJl' qJ2' and qJ3 of Minto C by
Homomorphisms 35
tfda)=det a
tf'l (a) = all
tfa (a) =1
where det a is the determinant of the matrix a and all is the entry in the first
row and first column of a. Determine which of these mappings are homo-
morphisms.
2.4.4.T. Let cp be an isomorphism of a multiplicative set M 1 onto a multi-
plicative set M 2' Prove that M 1 and M 2 are isomorphic in the sense of
Chapter 2.1.
2.4.S.T. Prove that if two multiplicative sets are isomorphic in the sense of
Chapter 2.1, then there exists an isomorphism on M I onto M 2 .
Remark. Compare the results of 2.4.4 and 2.4.5.
2.4.6. Prove that if cp is an isomorphism of a multiplicative set M 1 onto a
multiplicative set M 2. then the inverse mapping cp - I (cf. Chapter 1.2) is
an isomorphism of M 2 onto MI'
2.4.7. Find all homomorphisms of the mUltiplicative set of integers of the
form sn(n = 1,2, 3, ... ) into itself. Which of these homomorphisms are iso-
morphisms?
2.4.8. Let M 1 and M 2 be multiphcative sets and cp a homomorphism of M 1
onto M 2' Show that if M 1 has any of the properties-associativity, com-
mutativity, left invertibility, right invertibility, left identities, right identities-
then M2 will also have the corresponding property.
2.4.9. Let M 1 be the multiplicative set of all positive integers and M 2 the
multiplicative set {O, 1}. Prove that the mapping cp of M 1 onto M 2 defined
by
cp(t)=l, cp(n)=O
is a homomorphism.
Remark. Note that even though the commutative operation on M 1

is cancellative, this property does not hold for M 2' Compare this result with
2.4.8.
2.4.10. What condition must be placed on a multiplicative set M 0 such that
for every multiplicative set M there exists a homomorphism of Minto M 0 ?
2.4.11. Suppose a is an equivalence relation on a multiplicative set M.
Prove that in order for a to be a congruence on M it is necessary and sufficient
thatx 1 ~ Yl(a)andx2 ~ Yz(a)implyx1x2 ~ YIY2(a)forallx 1,x2'Yl'Y2 EM.
2.4.12. Let M be a multiplicative set whose operation is defined by the table

I abc
a abc
b bee
c c c c
Define a binary relation a on M by
a rv b (0), b rv C(0),
a,......" a (0), b rv b (0), c ,......"c(o)
Prove that if x '" y(a) then xz '" yz(a) and zx '" zy(a) for all x, y, z EM.
Find elements XI,X2'YI'Y2EM such that Xl'" YI(a) and x 2 "'" Y2(a), but
that X I X2 '" YIY2(a) does not hold.
2.4.13. Let M be the set of all nonzero complex jfolynomials relative to the
usual multiplication of polynomials, and let C be the multiplicative set of all
complex numbers. Determine which of the following mappings of Minto C
are homomorphisms and describe the partition of M which corresponds to
each homomorphism.
F = aoxn + alXn - 1 + ... + an_tX + an (ao::l= 0)

1) CPI (F) = au
2) CP2 (F) = ilo (where ao is the conjugate of ao)
3) CPa (F) = ao at+ + ... + an + an _l
4) cp, (F)=ao +
an
5) CPG (F)=I an I
6) 96 (F) = c~ ( where c is any real number different from zero)
2.4.14.T. Let l' be a partition of a multiplicative set M. Prove that in order
for Mirto be a multiplicative factor-set (i.e., for l' to satisfy the property
stated in the introduction) it is necessary and sufficient that l' be a congruence
onM.
2.4.15. Partition the set Q of all rational numbers into three classes: Q+
consists of all positive numbers, Q- all negative numbers, and QO the number
O. Prove that this partition p is a congruence on Q. Construct the multiplica-
tion table for the multiplicative factor-set QIp.
2.4.16.T. Suppose T is a two-sided ideal of a multiplicative set M. Denote
by PT the partition of M in which T is one PT-class and all other classes of
Homomorphisms 37
PT consist of single elements which do not belong to T. Prove that PT is a

congruence on M.
Remark. A partition (and the corresponding congruence) of this type is
usually called ideal. * The corresponding factor set is often denoted by M jT
instead of MjpT' It is called an ideal factor set.
2.4.17. Let M denote the multiplicative set of real numbers of the form
2"(n = 0, 1,2, ...), and Tk the subset of M consisting of all numbers 2" where
n ~ k (k = 0,1,2, ... ). Prove that each Tk is an ideal of M. Construct the
multiplication table for the multiplicative factor-sets M jT1 , M jTz, and
MjT3 •
2.4.18.T. Let P be a congruence on a multiplicative set M. Define the
mapping q> of Minto Mj P by letting q>(x) be the p-class of Mj Pwhich contains
the element x for each x EM. Prove that q> is a homomorphism and that the
equivalence Pip which corresponds to this homomorphism coincides with p:
Prp=P
For which cases is q> an isomorphism?
Remark. The homomorphism q> is called the canonical homomorphism,
or natural homomorphism, of the multiplicative set M corresponding to the
congruence p.
2.4. 19.T. Let q> be a homomorphism of a multiplicative set M 1 into a
multiplicative set M z. Let Pip be the equivalence relation on M 1 correspond-
ing to q>. Prove that Pip is a congruence.
2.4.20.T. Let M 1 and M z be multiplicative sets, q> a homomorphism of M 1
onto M z , and Pip the congruence on M 1 corresponding to q>. Prove that the
multiplicative sets M d Pip and M z = q>(M 1) are isomorphic.
Remark. The results of 2.4.18, 2.4.19, and 2.4.20 as a whole show that
if we do not distinguish between isomorphic multiplicative sets, then all
hOloomorphisms of one multiplicative set M onto another can be viewed as
canonical homomorphisms corresponding to distinct congruences on M
(cf 2.4.18).
2.4.21. Find all congruences on the multiplicative set whose operation is
given by the table abc d I
a b a b b
b b b b b
ebb b b
d b b b b
How many congruences are there?
*Another name for this congruence which is used more often in English is the Rees congruence
of M modulo T [Trans.]
2.4.22.H. How many nonisomorphic multiplicative sets can be mapped by a

homomorphism onto the multiplicative set of problem 2.4.21?
5. Semigroups
A set which has a closed and associative operation defined on it is called
a semigroup with respect to this operation. Hence in the usual multiplicative
terminology a semigroup is a multiplicative set with an associative multiplica-
tion.
Let K be a subset of a semigroup S. A finite sequence of elements of K
written as a row of symbols without any marks separating them is called a
word over K:
By multiplying pairs of adjacent elements of K we can transform the word

into one element belonging to S (of course it need not belong to K). This
transformation is accomplished in a finite number of steps by reducing the
length of the word (i.e., the number n). The element thus obtained in S is called
the value of the given word in S. In an arbitrary multiplicative set, the value
of a word depends on the order in which the operation is performed on each
of the pairs of elements, since different processes can lead to different results.
Thus a word in the form
where associativity does not hold, can have two different values, namely,
In a semigroup every word has a unique value (cf 2.5.1). Therefore when a
word is written
without any further information being given, then we mean the value of the
word in S. An element of the form
xx ... xx
~
n
is denoted briefly by x".
For K c S, the set of all elements which are values of different words over
K is denoted by [KJ., and often simply by [KJ. If K = {x, y, z, . .. } then
Semigroups 39
instead of writing [{x,y,z""}]s' we will simply write [x,y,z""]s' The set

K is called the generating set for [K] with respect to the operation on S.
A particular case occurs when the set generated by K is equal to the semi-
group, [K]s = S. If, in addition, no proper subset K' c K (K' =1= K) is a
generating set for S, i.e., [K']s i= S, then K is called an irreducible generating
set of S.
A semigroup which has a one-element generating set is called cyclic, or
monogenic.
A nonempty subset of a semigroup S which is closed relative to the
operation on S is called a subsemigroup of S. A subsemigroup is obviously a
semigroup relative to the operation on S. Conversely, every subset of S
which is a semigroup is a subsemigroup of S.
An element of a semigroup S is called regular if there exists an element
XES such that
axa=a
If all elements of a semigroup S are regular, then the semigroup S is said to be

regular.
A nonempty subset K of a semigroup S is called a normal complex,
or a normal subset, if for all k. k' E K, a, b E S, akb E K implies ak' bE K,
ak E K implies ak' E K, and kb E K implies k'b E K.
2.5.I.T.H. Prove that every word in a semigroup S has a unique value (i.e.,
if we multiply pairs of adjacent elements of a given word in any order
whatsoever, the same element is always produced).
2.5.2. Prove that for any element a in a semigroup S
for all natural numbers m and n.

2.5.3. For the multiplicative semigroup of all natural numbers, find the
generating set which is contained in every other generating set for this
semigroup (i.e., the universally minimal generating set).
2.5.4. In the multiplicative semigroup of all 2 x 2 square matrices over the
integers, find [x], [x, t], [y, z], and [y, t], where
x=(~ ~), y=G ~), z=(~ ~), t=(~~)

2.5.5. Prove that for any nonempty subset K of a semigroup S the set [K]s
is a subsemigroup of S.
2.5.6. Prove that [K]. is the intersection of all subsemigroups of S which

contain K.
2.5.7. Prove that for any K, K' c A,
[KU [K]s]s=[KU K]s
2.5.S. Show that in an infinite cyclic semigroup S = [x]., if m t: n then

xm t: xn.
2.5.9. Prove that any two infinite cyclic semigroups are isomorphic.
2.5.10. Suppose that in the cyclic semigroup S = [x]., xr = x' for some
natural numbers rand s (r t: s). Prove that:
1) S is finite;
2) there exist natural numbers hand d such that Xh+d = Xh, and
S = {x, x Z, •.• , Xh+d-l}, where all of the elements in S are distinct;
3) the pair of numbers (h, d) defined in part 2 is unique for a given
semigroup;
4) the equality xn+m = xn holds if and only if n ~ hand m is divisible
by d.
Remark. The pair of numbers (h, d) is called the type of the cyclic
semigroup [x]., as well as the type of the element x. If S = [x]. is infinite,
then we say that the type of S, as well as the type of x, is infinite.
2.5.11. Prove that two finite cyclic semigroups are isomorphic if and only
if they have the same types.
2.5.12. Determine the number of all subsemigroups and ideals of the cyclic
semigroup of type (5, 3).
2.5.13. Find all possible types of those finite cyclic semigroups which have
h + d - 2 generating sets, each consisting of one element.
2.5.14. Prove that if T] and Tz are two-sided ideals of a semigroup S, then
Tl Tz is a two-sided ideal of S.
2.5.15. Define an operation on the set S consisting of the elements
by
ajaj = bi]
and xy = 0 for all other cases.
1) Prove that S is a semigroup.
2) Find the types of all cyclic subsemigroups of S.
3) Which subsets of S are left, right, and two-sided ideals?
Semigroups 41
2.5.16.H. Prove that for each regular element a of a semigroup S there exists
an element asuch that
alia = a, Daii = ii
Remark. The elements a and a which satisfy the above equalities are
called inverses, * or regular conjugates.
2.S.17. Define an operation on the set of all sequences of four integers by
Prove that this operation is associative. Determine which elements in this

semigroup are regular, and find all inverses of each regular element.
2.S.I8.T. Let <p be a homomorphism of a semigroup S into a semigroup T,
and let t be an arbitrary element of T. Denote by K/ the set of all elements
XES such that <px = t. Prove that if K/ is nonempty then it is a normal
complex of S.
2.S.I9.T.H. Let K be a normal complex of a semigroup S. Prove that there
exists a semigroup T and a homomorphism <p of S onto T such that K
consists of all XES for which <px = t for some t E T.
2.5.20. Let S be any semigroup, T a semigroup with an idempotent e, <p a
homomorphism of S onto T, and K the set of all XES such that <px = e.
What kind of subset is K?
2.5.21. Find all normal complexes of a cyclic semigroup of type (3, 2).
2.S.22. Let S be a commutative semigroup containing at least one idempotent.
Prove that the set of all idempotents in S is a subsemigroup of S.
2.5.23.H. Prove that every finite semigroup has an idempotent.
2.5.24. Prove that every finite commutative semigroup has a unique
partition in which each component is a subsemigroup containing exactly one
idempotent. Show that each component ofthis partition is a normal complex.
2.5.25. Every regular semigroup has an idempotent. A regular semigroup
has exactly one idempotent if and only if it is two-sided invertible. Prove.
2.5.26. If a semigroup S has a left identity and is left invertible, then S is
two-sided invertible. A similar result holds for a right invertible semigroup
having a right ide~tity. Prove these assertions.
2.S.27.T. If an infinite semigroup has a finite or countable generating set,
then it is countable. Prove.
·We are following here the terminology of Clifford and Preston, The Algebraic Theory of
Semigroups. The terms "generalized inverses," "reciprocal elements," and "relative inverses"
are also used for this concept. [Trans.]
6. Elementary Concepts of the Theory of Groups

An algebraic group, or simply a group, is a set with an operation defined
on it which satisfies the properties of
1) closure,
2) associativity,
3) two-sided invertibility.
Thus a group is a semigroup which is two-sided invertible.
According to what has previously been said, we will almost always
adopt multiplicative notation and terminology, usually without express
mention. However, some authors use additive notation, especially when
considering commutative groups.
In exercise 2.6.1 it will be shown that every group has an identity, which
we will denote by eG or e (the identity is oftimes denoted by O. Moreover, the
identity is unique by 2.2.4. Each element x of a group G has an inverse, which
will be denoted by X-I. The inverse element of each x EGis unique by
2.6.1. We will use the notation xn for all elements x in a group just as we did
for semigroups. In addition, in the group case we will write
Further, by XO we will always mean the identity of the group.

If a group satisfies the commutativity property it is called commutative
or abelian (the latter term being used more often).
Although in general a group G need not be commutative, it is possible
for G to have an element z which commutes with every element x in G:
xz=zx
The set Z of all such elements z is called the center of the group G. If the center
of G contains more than one element (cf 2.6.32), then we say that the group G
has nontrivial center.
A nonempty subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G if H is closed
relative to the operation on G and if the inverse of each element of H also
belongs to H. (This latter condition can be stated by saying that H is closed
relative to the operation of taking inverse elements.) If H 1= G and H 1= eG ,
then H is called a proper subgroup of G.
A subgroup H of a group G is called normal (or a normal divisor of G) if
a-1xa EH
for all a E G and x E H. The importance of normal subgroups will become

manifest in Chapter 4.
Elementary Concepts of the Theory of Groups 43
If a subgroup H is finite, then the order of H is defined to be the number

of elements in H. If H is infinite, we say that it has infinite order. Since every
group is obviously a subgroup of itself then, according to the above, the order
of a finite group is defined to be the number of elements in it. If the group is
infinite it is said to have infinite order.
Let K be an arbitrary subset of a group G. The set of all elements in G
which can be represented in the form
(n= 1,2,3, ... )
where each Xi (i = 1,2, ... , n) either belongs to K or is the inverse of some

element in K, is called the set generated by K in the sense of the theory of
groups. It is denoted by [K]g. We call K the generating set for [K]g. If[K]g = G
then K is called the generating set of the group G. If in addition, no proper
subset of K generates G, then K is called an irreducible generating set. A
group which has a finite generating set is called finitely generated. We should
point put here that the term "system of generators" is often used in place of
the term "generating set" in the literature on group theory.
One should note that when considering a group as a semigroup (every
group is obviously a semigroup), it is altogether possible to have
[K]g '* [K]s
It is immediately clear, however, that
[Kl g = [K UK'ls
always holds, where K' is the set of all elements of G which are inverses of
elements of K.
Where no confusion can arise as to the difference between group-
theoretic and semigroup-theoretic generators, we will omit the expression
"in the sense of the theory of groups." We will also omit the subscript g, and
write [K] instead of [K]g. Those chapters which are entirely devoted to
groups will be treated similarly.
Let us point out that in the literature the notation {K} is often used
instead of [K]. We have not adopted this notation here, even though it is
customary in group theory, because such braces are used in the general
theory of sets in a way that may lead to confusion.
If 1-1 is a subgroup of a group G for which there exists an element X E H
such that H =; [x]g, then H is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by the
element x. If H = G then G is called a cyclic group.
Let x be an arbitrary element in a group G. If there exists a positive
integer n such that x" = eG' then the smallest such integer is called the
order of the element x. If no such integer exists we say that x has infinite order.
A group G is called periodic if the order of every element of G is finite.

The relation between the order of an element and the order of a subgroup
will be established below (2.6.9).
2.6.1.T. Prove that a set G with an operation is a group if and only if the
operation satisfies the following properties:
1) closure;
2) associativity;
3) the existence of a two-sided identity e;
4) the existence for each element x E G of an inverse element (i.e., an
element X-I such that XX-I = x- I X = e).
Moreover, the inverse of each element is unique. Prove.
Remark. This system of four conditions is often taken as the definition
of a group. Many other equivalent definitions exist (see, for example, 2.5.25
and 2.5.26).
2.6.2.T. Let <p be a homomorphism of a group G onto a multiplicative set M.
Prove that M is a group, <peG is the identity of the group M = <pG, and for
any xeG the element <p(x- I ) is the inverse of <px [i.e., (<pX)-1 = <p([I)].
2.6.3. In the multiplicative set M of all n x n complex matrices, determine
which of the subsets consisting of the following matrices are groups:
1) the real matrices in M;
2) the nonsingular matrices in M;
3) the real nonsingular matrices in M with positive entries;
4) the nonsingular diagonal matrices in M;
5) matrices of the form
all a 12 ••• a l • n-l aln
o a22 • •• a2. n-I a 2n

o 0
o 0 ••. 0 ann
au ali 0 ... 0
ail a220 ... 0
o 0 0 ... 0 (al1a2~ - alia~1 *' 0)
o 0 0 0

o al~ au ... al n
a21 ° a23 a 2n
a31 a32 0 . .. a3n
2.6.4.- In the multiplicative semigroup of all real 3 x 3 matrices, find the

maximal (with respect to inclusion) subset M such that M is a group and
contains the matrix
°0)
(0010
000
2.6.S.T. Prove that for any integers nand m, and for every element x in a
group,
2.6.6. In the multiplicative group of all nonsingular complex 2 x 2 matrices,

find the order of the following elements:
(o1- ~)
l'
(10 1)l ' (l0 - l0) ' (-2+3l
1- I
-2+21) (2 1)
3 - 2i' 1 1
2.6.7.T. Let x be an element of finite order n in a group G. Prove that all of
the elements
are distinct, and that
X g = {e, x,
[] ~
X, ••• , x n-l}
For Xk (0 ~ k < n) show that
Elements in the group [x]g' when written as powers of x, can be multiplied

according to the formula
where ° ~ k, I < n (note that in the second case, obviously 0 :::; k + I - n < n).
2.6.8. Let x be an element of infinite order in some group. Prove that for any
integers n ::f. rn, we have x" ::f. xm.
2.6.9. Let x be an element of a group. Prove that [xJg is a subgroup (and, by
definition, cyclic) and that the order of [x]g is equal to the order of the
element x.
2.6.10. Prove that two cyclic groups are isomorphic if and only if they have
the same order.
2.6.11. Let G be a cyclic group of order 15. Find the number of elements
x E G such that
2.6.12. In a cyclic group of order 20, find the number of distinct irreducible
generating sets consisting of two elements each.
2.6.13. Suppose that for the three elements x, u, v of a group G,
X=llV=VU, uP=e, vq=e
where p and q are relatively prime integers. Prove that for some relatively
prime integers p' and q' we have
II = x P', V = x q'
2.6.14. Let the order of an element x of a group G be pq, where P and q
are relatively prime. Prove that there exist elements u and v in G such that
X=UV=Vll, uP=e, V9 =e
2.6.15. Assume that the four elements U I , VI' U z , V z of a group satisfy the
equations
lllVl = VIllI = IlgVg = V211~,
ll~ = u{ = vy = v~ = e
where p and q are relatively prime. Prove that
2.6.16.H. Suppose the order of an element x of a group G is equal to

n = P~lp22 ... p~m, where PI' Pz, ... ,Pm are distinct primes. Prove that there
exists a unique set of rn elements YI' Yz, . .. ,Ym such that
X=YIY2 •.. Ym' YiYJ=YJy;(i= 1, 2, ... , m)
2.6.17. In every group G both G itself and the subset consisting of the
identity element eG are normal subgroups of G. Prove.
2.6.1S.T. Prove that a nonempty subset H of a group G is a group with
respect to the operation defined on G if and only if H is a subgroup of G.
Let eG be the identity of G and eH the identity of H; let x' be the element
in G which is the inverse of x E H. Prove that eG = eH and that x' E H.
2.6. 19.T. Let H be a subgroup of a group G and x E H. Prove that
xH = Hx = H.
2.6.20. Let K be any nonempty subset of a group. Prove that
and that the equality
[K]g=K
holds if and only if K is a subgroup of the group.
2.6.21.T.H. Let G = [x]g be a finite cyclic group of order n. For a natural
number d which is a divisor of n, denote by Hd the set of elements
Xd, x2d, X 3d , ... , x(n/d)d = xn. Prove that:
1) Hd is a subgroup of G;
2) if d l i= d2 then Hdl i= Hdz ;
3) G has no other subgroups except Hd , where d runs over the set of all
divisors of n.
2.6.22.T.H. Let G = [x]g be an infinite cyclic group. For each nonnegative
integer m denote by H m the set of elements ofthe form xkm (k = 0, ±1, ± 2, ... ).
Prove that:
1) H m is a subgroup of G;
2) if m1 i= m 2 , then Hml i= Hm2 ;
3) the Hm are the only subgroups of G.
2.6.23.H. Prove that every infinite group has an infinite set of subgroups.
2.6.24.T.H. Find all groups which have exactly (1) one subgroup, (2) two
subgroups, and (3) three subgroups.
2.6.25. In the multiplicative group of all complex numbers different from
zero, find:
1) [l]g
2)[- J..2 + va2 l] g

4) [ - ~ t]g
5) [2, - 5]g
6) the intersection of each of the subgroups stated above with the

subgroup of all real number~ different from zero.
2.6.26. Suppose that in a group G,
where H 1 is a subgroup of G and H 2 is a subgroup of H l' Prove that H 2 is a

subgroup of G.
2.6.27. Prove that the intersection of any class of subgroups of a group is a
subgroup.
2.6.28. Let K be a nonempty subset of a group G. Prove that [KJ g is the
intersection of all subgroups of G which contain K.
2.6.29. Find those groups which have the property that for any subset K,
[K]g=lKl,
2.6.30. Suppose all elements (different from the identity) of a group G have
order 2. Prove that G is abelian.
2.6.31. Let H l' H'l , H 2 ,H~ be subgroups of a group, where H 1 c H'l and
H 2 C H~. Prove that
2.6.32. Prove that the center of a group is always nonempty.

2.6.33. For what groups does the center of the group coincide with the group
itself?
2.6.34. Prove that every subgroup of the center of a group G (including the
center itself) is a normal subgroup of G.
2.6.35.T. Prove that a subgroup H of a group G is normal if and only if
xH=Hx
for all XE G.
2.6.36. Let H be an arbitrary subgroup of a group G, and N a normal
subgroup of G. Prove that H N is a subgroup of G, and that H N = N H.
2.6.37. Prove that the product of a finite number of normal subgroups is

also a normal subgroup, and that the intersection of any class of normal
subgroups is a normal subgroup.
2.6.38. Let G be the set of all triples of the form (k) , k2' 1) or (k) , k 2' - 1),
where the ki' i = 1,2 are integers. Define an operation on G by the rule
(kJ, ki' 1)(11) 12• e)=(k, +Iz, k, +/2• e)

(kl> k 2• -1)(11) 12• e)=(k,+li, k 2 +1j, -6)
where e = ± 1.
Prove that G is a group. Prove that HI = [(1,0, 1), (0, L l)J g is a normal
subgroup of G and H 2 = [(1,0, l)Jg is a normal subgroup of HI· Is H 2 a
normal subgroup of G?
2.6.39. In the set Q consisting of the elements 1, -1, i,j, k, - i, - j, - k (here
the minus sign plays no other role than to distinguish elements which are
distinct), an operation is given by the multiplication table
-\ -i -j j -k k
-I -i i -j j -k k
-1 - \ 1 I -i j -j k -k
-i 1 - \ -k k j -j
-i -i -1 k -k - j j
j j -j k -k 1 -1 - I
-j -j j -k k -1 -i
k k -k - j j - i 1 -I
-k --k k j -j -i -I 1
Prove that Q is a group. Find all subgroups of Q, and show that each of these
is a normal subgroup of Q.
Remark. The group Q is called the quaternion group. It plays a very
important role in all of algebra.
2.6.40.T. Prove that if an infinite group has a finite or a countable generating
set, then it is countable.
Chapter 3
COMPOSITION OF TRANSFORMATIONS
l. General Properties of the Composition of Transformations

Let X be any set. A mapping of X into itself is called a transformation
of X. Since a transformation is a special case of a mapping of sets, we will
naturally retain the terminology and notation of Chapter 1.2, with one dif-
ference. By convention we will denote transformations by lower-case Greek
letters, and elements of the set by lower-case Roman letters. In particular, if Q(
maps x onto y, then y will be called the image of x under 0(, and we write
o(x = y or O(x) = y.
The set of all transformations of a set X will be denoted by Tx.
We introduce an operation of multiplication on the set Tx in the follow-
ing way (this multiplication is also called composition). Let 0(, p, Y E Tx.
Then oe = py if oex = P(yx) for all x E X.
If X is any set of real numbers, every function defined on X with values
contained in X is a transformation of the set X, and the product of two such
transformations is the usual composition of functions.
Let us point out one difference in notations. Functions are usually
written in the formf(x), where this notation denotes the image of the element
x under the transformation f When considering functions we will usually
adopt this notation.
Let X be an arbitrary set, oe E Tx. Write all the elements of X on one line
and the image of each directly beneath it:
X, y, z, ... )
(
oex, oey, oez, .. .
The resulting expression is called the permutation corresponding to the trans-
formation 0(. Conversely, if under each element of X we write an element
from the set, we obtain a table
(
X, y, z, ... )
x', y', z', .. .
51
52 Composition of Transformations
which obviously is a permutation for the transformation ex of X defined by

oex = x', oey = y', oez = z', ...
If the elements in the upper row of a permutation are written in another

order, and the elements in the lower row are changed accordingly, we obtain
a permutation which corresponds to the same transformation ex. Any two
permutations which correspond to ex will bt: considered as equal. We will
identify all of them with ex, and write
(
X, y, z, ... )
ex = exx, exy, exz, .. .
The commas in this notation will, as a rule, be omitted.
Each transformation can be viewed as a permutation, even for infinite
sets. However, it is clear that the actual permutational notation is possible
only in the case of a transformation of a finite set.
The cardinality of the set exX, i.e., the cardinality ofthe set ofall images
under the transformation ex, is called the rank of ex, denoted by rex.
The transformation i defined by ix = x for all x E X is called the identity
transformation. It is obvious that i is the identity of Tx.
F or a given set X, every set oftransformations of X which is a semigroup
with respect to the multiplication of transformations defined above is called a
semigroup of transformations.
The only operation of transformations which we shall consider in this
section is the mUltiplication (composition) introduced above.
One should keep in mind that in some books the transformation ex which
is obtained by first applying p and then y (which we have denoted by ex = yP)
is denoted by py. This notation is quite natural when mappings are written
on the right, as opposed to what was stated in the beginning of the introduc-
tion to Chapter 1.2. Indeed, it is natural to write x(py) = (xP)y in this case.
Throughout this book we shall write mappings and transformations on
the left, and multiplication of transformations will always be carried out as
was shown first.
3.1.1.T. Prove that multiplication of transformations is associative.

Remark. Thus Tx is a semigroup for every set X.
3.1.2. Let X = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8},ex,P,YETx ,
ex = (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8) (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
38124567 P= 21231838
( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
y = 2 8 1 384 5 6
Properties of the Composition of Transformations S3
Find rJ.y, YrJ., p 2 rJ., rJ.y3, rJ.py.

Remark. Note that rJ.y '# YrJ., i.e., multiplication of transformations is
not commutative.
3.1.3. Let X = {I, 2, 3, 4,5,6, 7}, rJ., PE Tx ,
(1 2 3 4 5 6 7) (1 2 3 4 5 6 7)
rJ.= 2313212 p= 2323112
Find the types of rJ., p, rJ.p, and prJ. in the semigroup Tx.
3.1.4. Let X be the set of all real numbers. What basic properties does the
operation of composition satisfy for each of the following sets of real functions
defined on X:
1) all polynomials;
2) all polynomials of even degree;
3) all polynomials of odd degree;
4) all polynomials of degree one;
5) all polynomials of degree one whose leading coefficient is one;
6) all power functions (i.e., functions of the form f(x) = xn for any
natural number n)?
3.1.5. Let X be the set of all real numbers. Find the zeros (left, right, two-
sided) with respect to the operation of composition for each of the following
sets of real functions defined on X :
1) all continuous functions;
2) all continuous functions which are equal to the identity on the
interval [0, 1](i.e.,J(x) = x for all x E [0,1]);
3) all polynomials of even degree;
4) all polynomials of odd degree.
3.1.6. Let X by any set consisting of at least two elements. Find all left zeros
of the semigroup Tx , and show there are no right zeros.
3.1.7. Let X be the set of all real numbers. Which of the following sets of real
functions defined on X are semigroups? Which are groups?
1) The sets given in 3.1.4;
2) sets given in parts (1) and (2) in 3.1.5;
3) all even functions [f( -x) = f(x)];
4) all odd functions [f( - x) = - f(x)] ;
5) all bounded functions (for each function f there exists a number
M f > 0 such that If(x)1 ~ M f for all x);
6) all functions which assume the value 0 at x = 1.
3.1.S. Let X be the set of all points in the plane, rJ. the projection onto a given
line 1, and p the symmetry with respect to a point lying on 1.
1) Prove that the transformations IX and p commute.
2) Find the types of IX and fJ in Tx.
3.1.9. Let X be the set of points in the plane, rx the symmetry with respect to
a line 11 and 13 the symmetry with respect to a line 12 which is parallel to /1 ,
Prove that ap and pa are parallel translations.
3.1.10. Prove that every parallel translation ofthe plane is the product of two
symmetries with respect to parallel lines.
3.1.11. Let X be the set of real polynomials, rx, 13, Yc E Tx (c is any real num-
ber).
a[f(x)] = f2(X)
P[f(x)] = f'(x)
Yc[f(x)] = cf(x) [f(x) E X]
Which of these transformations commute?
3.1.12. Let X = {I, 2, ... , n}, a E Tx ,
rx = (1 2 n 3 4 ... n - 1)
33311 ... 1
Find all transformations 13 E Tx which commute with rx.
3.1.13. Let N be the set of all natural numbers, rx, /3 E TN'
ex(n) = n + I (nE N),
n - I,n > 1
p(n) ={ (nEN)
1, n = 1
1) Find all elements in the semigroup [a, P] •.

2) Find all irreducible generating sets of [a, 13]•.
3.1.14. Let N be the set of all natural numbers,
( 1 2 3 ... n ... )
1 2 3 ... n ... )
( /3=
a= 234 ... n+l .. . 112 ... n-l ...
Find all inverses of ex and /3 in:
1) the semigroup TN;
2) the semigroup [a, 13]. (see 2.5.16).
3.1.15. Prove that Tx is a regular semigroup for any set X.
3.1.16. Let a be a transformation of a set X, and let P~ be the binary relation
on X defined by (x, y) E p~ if ay = x. Prove that:
1) P~PfJ = P~fJ for all a, 13 E Tx;
2) P~ # ppifa # 13;
3) the set of all binary relations P~ (a E Tx) is a semigroup with respect to
the operation of multiplication of binary relations, and that this
semigroup is isomorphic to Tx;
4) Pi (i is the identity transformation) is the diagonal.
Properties of the Composition of Transformations 55
Remark. Transformations can thus be regarded as a special case of

binary relations.
3.1.17. Let ~ be a one-to-one transformation of a set X onto itself, and let P
be any transformation of X. Prove that
r(~fJ) = r(p~) = rp
3.1.1S. Prove that the rank of the product of two transformations does not
exceed the minimum of the ranks of the factors.
3.1.19. Let X be the set of all infinite sequences of real numbers. Consider
the subset T' of the semigroup Tx consisting of all transformations of the
form
where n is a nonnegative integer and m is any natural number.

1) Prove that T' is a semigroup.
2) Prove that the collection of all transformations of the form Pl.O'
/Jl.l,Pp"O,PP2.0"'" where the Pi are primes, is an irreducible
generating set for T'.
3) Find all idempotents in T'.
3.1.20. Let T' be the semigroup defined in the preceding problem. Which of
the following subsets of T' are subsemigroups, ideals (left, right, two-sided),
or normal subsets:
1) M 1 = {Pm.n: m fixed, m > I};
2) M 2 = {Pm.n: m = n};
3) M 3 = {Pm.n: n is a multiple of a fixed number I} ;
4) M 4 = {Pm.n: m is a multiple of a fixed number I} ;
5) M 5 = {Pm.n: m and n are multiples of a fixed prime p} ?
3.1.21. Let X = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, p, ~1' ~2' ~3 E Tx ,
( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8) ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
P= 3 1 3 8 141 8 ~1 = 3 8 1 7 5 6 4 2
( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8) ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
~2 = 4132454 1 ~3 = 3 1 6 3 6 8 4 6
Whichoftheequations~iY = P(i = 1,2, 3)are solvable? How many solutions
does each solvable equation have?
3.1.22. Let ~,P E Tx. In order for the equation ~Y = P to be solvable it is
necessary and sufficient for pX c ~X. Prove.
3.1.23. For which pairs of transformations ~,P E Tx does the equation
rxy = p have a unique solution?
S6 Composition of Transformations
3.1.24. Let N be the set of all natural numbers, a1 , a2 , a3 , fJ E TN'

1 2 3 4 2n - 1 2n 0 0 0)
000
fJ= (
1133ooo2n-12n-1ooo
1 2 3 n 000)
000 1 2 000 n 0 0 0)
a1 =( a2 = (
112ooon-1ooo 24 000 2n ...
_ (1 2 3 4 5 .. 2n 2n +1 .
a3
0 0 .)
-
12244 ... 2n 2n ...
Which of the equations ya j = fJ are solvable? Which of these have unique
solutions?
3.1.25. For what pairs of transformations a, fJ E Tx is the equation ya = fJ
solvable? When does a unique solution exist?
Remark. It follows from 3.1.22 and 3.1.25 that composition of transfor-
mations is neither left nor right invertible.
3.1.26.H. Find the conditions under which
1) a transformation a is a right divisor of the identity transformation i
in the semigroup Tx;
2) a transformation a is a left divisor of i in Tx;
3) a transformation C( is idempotent.
3.1.27. Let X be the unit interval [0, 1] and let T c Tx be the set consisting
of all transformations of the form
0, if x < c
C( x ={
c 1, if x ~ c
O, if x :(; c
fJ x = {
c 1, if x>c
where c is any real number in X.
1) Prove that T' is a semigroup.
2) Find all idempotents in T'.
3) Find all left and right ideals of To
3.1.28. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Which of the following subsets of Tx
are normal subsets:
1) all transformations whose rank does not exceed three;
2) all transformations of rank 5 ;
3) the set of all transformations X M of rank 6 satisfying the properties:
foranyrx,fJEXM,exX = fJX = M,andrxx = rxyifandonlyiffJx = fJy
(X,YEX, M s;;: X);
Properties of the Composition of Transformations 57
4) the set of permutations
(
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
(
I 2 a4 5 6 7 8)
38385513' 83831158
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
( ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
51513385' 1 5 1 588 3 1
5) the set of permutations
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
( (
38137562' 4425831 7
3.1.29. Let a be any real number, and let A be the set of real functions f(x)
which are differentiable at a and such that f(a) = a. Prove that:
1) A is a semigroup with respect to composition of functions;
2) the mapping {} defined by (}[f(x)] = f'(a) [f(x) E A] is a homomor-
phism of A into the multiplicative semigroup of real numbers.
3.1.30. Let X be any set. Let n be a fixed natural number. Show that the set
J n of all transformations in Tx whose rank is less than n is a two-sided ideal
of the semigroup Tx.
3.1.31.". Prove that if J is a two-sided ideal of the semigroup Tx and IY. E J,
rIY. = n (n is a natural number), then J contains every transformation whose
rank does not exceed n.
3.1.32. Let X = {I, 2,3,4,5,6,7, 8}. Which of the following subsets of Tx
are groups:
{( I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8) (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
1) M 1 = 167 1 16 7 6' 7 1 677 1 6 1 '
(1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
7
)}
,6 7 1 6 6 7 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)J
2) M~ = [( 2 2 2 3 5 5 6 6 s
3) Ma = [( 2I 32 34 41 56 67 87 58)J s
4) {( I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8) ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
M4 = 3 3 3 6 3 6 3 6 ' 666 1 6 1 6 1 '
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
( ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)}
11161616' 6 6 6 3 6 3 6 3
3.1.33. Let G be a group of transformations of a set X. Prove that the follow-

ing conditions hold for all C(, PEG:
1) C(X = PX;
2) c(x = C(y implies px = py.
3.1.34.H. Prove that if a transformation C( is contained in a group of trans-
formations of a set X, then
1) c(x =F C(y for all x, y E C(X, x =F y;
2) for each y E o:x there exists x E o:X such that c(x = y.
3.1.35.H. Show that if a transformation C( of a set X satisfies parts 1 and 2
of 3.1.34, then C( is contained in some group of transformations of X.
3.1.36. Let X denote the set of all complex numbers, c(, p, y, b E Tx ,
c(z = z, f3z = Z2, yz = 1 - z, c5z = zz
(z EX, Z is the conjugate of z). Prove that every irreducible generating set of
the semigroup [C(, p, y, bJ. has exactly four elements.
3.1.37.H.Let X be a set with n elements. Prove that every generating set for
the semigroup Tx contains a transformation of rank n and a transformation
of rank n - 1.
3.1.38.H. Let X be a set with n elements. Prove that the set of all transforma-
tions of rank n - 1 is a generating set for the ideal J n (see 3.1.30).
3.1.39.H. Let X be a set with n elements. Every generating set for the semi-
group Tx containing two permutations of rank n - 1 is irreducible. Prove.
Remark. It follows from 3.1.37, 3.1.38, and 3.1.39 that if X is a set con-
sisting of n elements, then every irreducible generating set for the semigroup
Tx contains permutations of rank n and a single permutation of rank n - 1.
3.1.4O.H. The set M consisting of a transformation of rank n - 1 and all
transformations of rank n is a generating set for the semigroup Tx , where X
is a set with n elements. Prove.
2. Invertible Transformations
Let C( be a transformation of a set X. The transformation C( - 1 of the same
set X is called the inverse of C( if c(c( - 1 = i = C( - 1 c(, where i is the identity
transformation.
A transformation is called invertible if it has an inverse.
We will show (see 3.2.7 and 3.2.8) that a transformation is invertible
if and only if it is one-to-one and onto. Hence, if an invertible transformation
is written as a permutation, then all elements of X appear in the lower row
of the permutation and are distinct.
The set of all invertible transformations of a set X is a group with respect
to composition of transformations. The identity transformation is the
identity of this group (see 2.2.6). Any subgroup of this group, including the
group itself~ is called a group of transformations.
Invertible Transformations 59
In what follows the phrase "group of transformations" will refer only to

groups of transformations considered with respect to composition.
3.2.1. Which of the transformations in 3.1.2 and 3.1.4 are left or righ t divisors
ofthe identity transformation? Which are invertible? Find the inverses ofthe
invertible transformations.
3.2.2. Let X be the set of all real numbers. Which of the following functions
defined on X are invertible transformations of X:
1) f1(X) = xn (n natural number);
2) f2(X) = 22x;
3) f3(X) = mx + b(b,mEX,m =1= 0);
4) f4(X) = sin x?
3.2.3. Let a be an invertible transformation of X, and let P~ be the binary
relation on X defined in 3.1.16. Find
1) pr 1 Pa andpr 2 Pa.;
2) the left and right cuts of the relation Pa. over each element.
3.2.4. Prove that every invertible transformation has a unique inverse.
3.2.5. Let rx and f3 be invertible transformations of a set X. Prove that rxf3 is
invertible, and find its inverse.
3.2.6.T.H. Prove that the set of all invertible transformations of an arbitrary
set X is a group of transformations. What is the identity of the group? Find
the inverse element of each transformation a in the group.
3.2.7.T. Show that an invertible transformation a of a set X satisfies the
following two conditions:
1) c( is one-to-one, i.e., ax =1= ay for all x, y EX, x =1= y;
2) aX = X, i.e., for each y E X there exists x E X such that ax = y.
3.2.8.T.H. Prove that every transformation satisfying conditions (1) and (2)
of the preceding problem is invertible.
3.2.9.H. Suppose an invertible transformation a of a set X is given by a
permutation,
rx = (a a c ... )
a' b' c' .. .
Write a- 1 in permutational form.
3.2.10. Which of the two conditions of 3.2.7 are satisfied for the transforma-
tions given in 3.1.11, 3.1.19, and 3.1.36?
3.2.11. Using problems 3.2.7 and 3.2.8, determine which of the following
transformations are invertible, and find the inverse of each:
1) the transformation gi yen in 1.2.5;
2) the transformation given in 1.2.6;
3) the transformation given in 1.2.8;
4) the transformations referred to in the preceding problem.
3.2.12. Let k, /, m, n be rational numbers with kn - 1m i= O. Let X be the

field of real numbers of the formf(t)/g(t), where f(x) and g(x) are polynomials
over the field of rationals, and t is an arbitrary but fixed transcendental real
number. Prove that the transformation of X defined by
is invertible, and find its inverse.

3.2.13. Let G be the set of all transformations in problem 3.2.12 (for all
rational numbers k, 1, m, n satisfying kn - 1m i= 0).
1) Prove that G is a group of transformations.
2) Determine whether the set of all transformations (X with m = 0 and
n = 1 is a group.
3) Describe all transformations in G of order two.
3.2.14. Let X be the set of all real numbers different from zero and one.
Let G be the set consisting of the following transformations of X :
(X2X = l/x, (X3X = 1 - x,
(X5X = (x - 1)/x, OC6X = 1/(1 - x)
1) Prove that G is a group of transformations, and construct the multi-

plication table for G.
2) What is the identity of G? Which elements in G are equal to their
inverses?
3) Prove that G is isomorphic to the group of all invertible transforma-
tions of a set with three elements.
3.2.15. Let X be the set of all real numbers, and let G be the set of all trans-
formations of X ofthe form oca.b(x) = ax + b, where a and b are arbitrary real
numbers, a i= O. Prove that G is a group of transformations. Show that G
does not have a finite generating set.
3.2.16. Let G be the group in the preceding problem. Which of the following
subsets of G are subgroups, and which are normal:
1) the subset H of transformations (Xu;
2) the subset H' of transformations oca•a ;
3) the subset H" of transformations lXa.O?
3.2.17. Let G be the group of invertible transformations of a set X and G
the collection of binary relations p" from 3.1.16 for all IX E G. Prove that G
is a group with respect to multiplication of binary relations, and that G is
isomorphic to G.
Invertible Transformations 61
3.2.18. Let X be the set of all points in three-dimensional space. Determine

which of the following transformations of X are invertible:
1) rotation of the space about an axis through a given angle;
2) projection of the space onto a given plane;
3) symmetry of the space with respect to a given plane (reflection with
respect to a given plane);
4) the transformation tX such that p(tXX, tXy) = 2p(x, y), where p(x, y) is
the distance between the points x and y.
3.2.19. Let X be the set of points in the plane. Which of the following sets of
transformations of X are groups:
1) all parallel translations of the plane;
2) all rotations of the plane about a given point;
3) all rotations of the plane about all points in the plane through a
fixed angle qJ ;
4) all rotations of the plane about all points and all parallel translations
of the plane;
5) all axial symmetries of the plane?
3.2.20. Let
How many invertible transformations of the set of variables {Xl' X2, X3, x4 }
do not change f(x l , X 2 , X 3 , x 4 )?
3.2.21. Let
j(Xl> X2, Xa) = xix~ - XIX~ + X~X3 - XIX: + X~Xa +

+ x2xi + 3XtX2Xa - 5
Find all invertible transformations of the set of variables {X I ,x 2 ,X 3 }

which do not change f(x l , X2, X3)' Show that these transformations form a
group.
3.2.22. Let F(XI' x 2 , ... , x.) be any polynomial. Prove that the set of all
transformations of the set of variables {x I, x 2 , ••• , xn} which leave F fixed
forms a group of transformations.
3.2.23. Let
(Xn - Xt)(xa - X2) ... (xn - X n _l) =
= n
j<.i
(Xi -Xj)
62 Composition of Tratlsfonnations
Prove that every invertible transformation of the set of variables {x I '

X2, ... , xn} either leaves Vn fixed or changes its sign only.
3.2.24. Let !,,(x I , X 2 , ••• ,xn) be the polynomial in the preceding problem.
Prove that the transformation rx of the set of variables {Xl' X 2 , ... , xn}
defined by rxx i = Xj' rxXj = Xi' rxXk = Xk (k '" i,j) changes the sign offn only.
3.2.25. Prove that the order of the group of all transformations of a set X
with n elements is n! .
3. Invertible Transformations of Finite Sets
In this section we will consider invertible transformations of finite sets.

Since we are concerned with the composition of transformations of a set,
the nature of the elements in the set is of no consequence. So for convenience
we will only consider in this section transformations of sets of natural
numbers.
The group of all invertible transformations of the set X = {I, 2, ... , n}
is called the symmetric group of degree n, denoted by Sn. Each transformation
in Sn will be called a permutation of degree n or a transformation of degree n.
A permutation of the form
(
Xl X2 •. , Xk - l Xk YI ... Yn~k)
X 2 X3 ... X k Xl Yl ... Yn-k
is said to be a cycle of length k, and is denoted by (Xl, X2"'" Xk)' Of course

this notation can begin with any Xi' In addition, the commas are often
omitted.
Two cycles (Xl' X2"'" Xk) and (YI' Y2,"" Yk) are called disjoint (or
independent) if the sets {x 1, X 2 , ••• , Xk} and {y I, Y2 , ••. , Yk} are disjoint.
We will prove that each permutation can be represented as a product
of disjoint cycles (see 3.3.5). When a permutation is represented in such a
way, we shall say that it is decomposed into disjoint cycles.
Cycles of length two are called transpositions.
A permutation of degree n is said to be even if it can be decomposed into
a product of an even number of transpositions, and odd if it can be decom-
posed into an odd number of transpositions.
We will prove (see 3.3.14) that every permutation of degree n can be
decomposed into a product of transpositions, and that every such decom-
position of a given permutation is even or everyone is odd (see 3.3.16).
Hence every permutation of degree n is either even or odd.
The set of all even permutations of degree n is a subgroup of Sn (see
3.3.17). This subgroup is called the alternating group of degree n.
Invertible Transformations of Finite Sets 63
3.3.1. Let a, fJ, y, /;, r E Ss,

a = (123)(4568), fJ = (34)(52618), y = (134)(2357)(1846)
/; = (82143)(12)(15), r = (874312)(56)
Find a\ fJ 2a, y/;r, y4/;2, and r/;y.
3.3.2. Find the orders of the following elements of S12 :
a = (1,3,2,5,4,6,7,8,12,10,9,11), p = (2, 1,5,8,4)
3.3.3. Prove that any two disjoint cycles commute.
3.3.4. Decompose the following permutations into products of disjoint
cycles:
a = (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
2 3 1 568 7 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12)
(
fJ = 9 12 8 11 6 7 5 3 2 4 101
(1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9)
y = 965 1 8 7 234
3.3.S.T. Prove that every permutation can be decomposed into a product of
disjoint cycles.
3.3.6. Let
(X = (XllX12'" XlkJ(X21 X 22 ••• X2k)'" (XIlXI2" ,Xlk )
Prove that
(X-I = (X 1k / ••• XI2XIl)'" (X2k 2 '" X22X21)(Xlk, .•. X 12 X ll )
3.3.7. Find all powers of the cycle a = (Xl' X2" .. , xn).

3.3.8. Prove that if a permutation a is decomposed into disjoint cycles of
lengths m1 , m2 , ••• , mk , then the order of a is the least common multiple of
the numbers ml , m2 , · · . , mk •
3.3.9. Let a be a permutation written as a product of cycles, and let fJ be any
permutation. Prove that fJap-1 is obtained by replacing every number in the
cycle decomposition of a by its image under p.
3.3.10. By using the rule stated in the preceding problem compute (X<5a -1,
r-2yr2, and fJ-slJps, where a, fJ, y, lJ, r are the permutations in 3.3.1.
3.3.11. Let (X = (123)(456)(789), fJ = (147)(258)(369), y = (456)(789). Prove
that (X commutes with both fJ and y, and that a can be decomposed into a
product of p and y.
3.3.12. Find all elements of the group Sn which commute with the cycle
(x t ,x2 , ••• ,xn ), where X1'X2""'Xn is a permutation of the numbers
1,2, ... , n.
3.3.13. Find all elements in S10 which commute with the permutation
IX = (XIX2X3X4X5)(X6X7XSX9XlO) E S1O, where all of the Xi' i = 1,2, ... ,10, are
distinct.
3.3. 14.H. Prove that every permutation can be decomposed into a product of
transpositions.
3.3.15. Let
= (123)(456789), ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9)
IX
P= 1 594 768 2 3
Prove that:
1) IX can be decomposed into a product or9, 11, and 15 different trans-
positions, but cannot be decomposed into a product of 5 transposi-
tions;
2) p can be decomposed into a product of 4, 6, 8, and 10 different
transpositions;
3) IX can be decomposed into a product of any odd number of trans-
position greater than five;
4) p can be decomposed into a product of any even number of trans-
positions greater than two.
3.3. 16.H. Prove that any two distinct decompositions of a given permutation
into transpositions have the same parity.
3.3.17.T.H. Prove that the set of all even permutations of degree n is a
subgroup of Sn, and that it has order n !f2.
3.3.18. Prove that the subset
K = {e, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}
of the group S4 is a commutative subgroup. Construct the multiplication
table for K.
Remark. The group K is called the Klein group or the Jour-group.
3.3.19.H. Prove that each of the following sets of permutations generates the
symmetric group Sn:
1) the set of all cycles;
2) the set of all transpositions;
3) the set of transpositions (1 2), (2 3), ... , (n - 1 n);
4) the set of transpositions (1 2), (1 3), ... , (1 n);
5) the set consisting of the two permutations (X 1X2) and (X 1 X2 ••• x n),
where X t , X2"'" Xn is any permutation of the numbers 1,2, ... , n.
Endomorphisms 65
3.3.20. Prove that each of the following sets generates the alternating group
of degree n:
1) the set of all 3-cycles;
2) the set of cycles (123), (124), ... , (12n).
3.3.21.". Prove that each of the following sets is an irreducible generating
set for S6:
1)M1 ={(12), (34), (56), (23)(45)}

2) M 2 ={(12), (34), (123)(456)}
3) M3 ={(12), (23), (24)(156)}
3.3.22. Let A be a generating set for the group S4 consisting of two elements.
Prove that neither of these elements can belong to the Klein group (see
3.3.18).
3.3.23.". Prove that for every ~ E Ss«(X -:f. e), there exists f3 E Ss such that
Ss = [~, f3J.
3.3.24.". A permutation is called regular if it can be decomposed into
disjoint cycles of the same length. Prove that every power of a cycle of
degree n is a regular permutation. Prove that the length of each of the disjoint
cycles in this decomposition divides n.
3.3.25. Prove that every regular permutation is a power of some cycle (see
3.3.24).
3.3.26.". Let ~ and ~' be regular permutations (see 3.3.24) which commute,
are of degree mn (where m and n are relatively prime), and do not have fixed
points. Suppose in addition that (1 has order m and (1' has order n. Prove that
(1~' is a cycle of length mn.
3.3.27. For what integers m do there exist elements in the symmetric group
S4 of order m?
4. Endomorphisms
Let there be given certain relations on a set X. As an example, one can

consider binary relations, in particular, orderings, algebraic operations, etc.
A,transformation of X is called an endomorphism of X with respect to the
given relations if every system of elements connected by one of the relations
is mapped into a system of elements which are also connected by this same
relation.
F or example, if an algebraic operation 0 is defined on a set X, then every
transformation (1 of X which satisfies the condition
if a 0 b = c, then (1a 0 ~b = (1C (a, b, C E X)
is an endomorphism of X with respect to this operation. If an ordering is

defined on X, then every transformation (X of X satisfying
if x ~ y, then ax ~ ay (x, yE X)
is an endomorphism of X with respect to this ordering. Linear transforma-
tions of a vector space are endomorphisms of the space with respect to the
two operations defined on this space. Let a relation p be defined on three-
dimensional space by requiring three points P1, P2 • P3 to be p-related if they
are collinear and P2 lies between P1 and P3 • Then all affine transformations
(see 3.4.27) are endomorph isms of the space with respect to p.
We say that an endomorphism of a set X preserves the relations defined
onX.
It is easy to verify that the set of all endomorphisms of an arbitrary
set X with respect to relations defined on X forms a semigroup of trans-
formations (see 3.4.7).
An invertible transformation a of a set X which is an endomorphism
with respect to relations defined on X is called an invertible endomorphism
of X with respect to these relations. If (X-1 is also an endomorphism with
respect to these relations, (X is called an automorphism of X.
We will prove (see 3.4.12) that the set of all automorphisms of X with
respect to relations defined on X is (1 group of transformations.
If it is clear from the context which relations are being considered, we
shall omit the phrase "with respect to relations defined on X."
Let us point out that in group theory the term "endomorphism" is
usually used in a more restricted sense, namely, an endomorphism is a
mapping which preserves the operation of the group. A subgroup H of a
group G is called a completely characteristic subgroup if H is mapped into
itself by every endomorphism of G which preserves the operation of G.
3.4.1. Consider the set R of all real numbers with respect to the usual order-
ing. Which functions define on all of Rare endomorphisms?
3.4.2. Define a binary relation p on the set N of natural numbers by (m, n) E p
if n divides m. Which of the following transformations of N are endo-
morphisms:
1) the transformations a and f3 in 3.1.14;
2) the transformation, defined by Tn = n2 (n E N);
3) the transformation y defined by
I, ifn = 1
yn ={
Pn' ifn> 1
where PH is the largest prime which divides n;
4) the transformation Dm defined by Dmn:;: mn, where m is a fixed natural
number, n E N?
Endomorphisms 67
3.4.3. Let N denote the set of all natural numbers. Which of the transforma-
tions defined in 3.4.2 are endomorphisms of N preserving the operation of
addition or multiplication?
3.4.4. Define an operation on the set 2 of integers by m 0 n = m +n if
m and n are natural numbers, and undefined otherwise.
1) Prove that the transformation a defined by
2/, if 1 ~ 0
a(l) = { -I, if I < 0 and is odd
lj2, if 1 < 0 and is even
is an invertible endomorphism of 2.
2) Is a an automorphism of 2?
3.4.5. Let A be a set on which a closed operation is defined. Prove that every
invertible endomorphism of A is an automorphism.
3.4.6. Prove that the transformation a in 3.2.12 is an automorphism of X
with respect to the usual operations addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. Further, show that a leaves each rational number fixed.
3.4.7.T. Let a family of relations be defined on a set X. Prove that the set of
all endomorphisms of X which preserve these operations forms a semigroup
under multiplication (composition) of transformations.
3.4.8. Let A be a multiplicative set, a E A, and rJ. a the transformation of A
which maps each element of A onto a. Prove that rJ. a is an endomorphism of A
if and only if a is an idempotent.
3.4.9. Let Q denote the additive group of rationals, r E Q. Prove that the
transformation A, defined by Ar(x) = rx(x E Q) is an endomorphism of Q.
3.4.10. Let Q be the additive group of rationals. Prove that the semigroup of
endomorphisms of Q consists of all An r E Q(see 3.4.9).
3.4.11.T. Using the results of the last two problems, prove that every endo-
morphism of the additive group of rational numbers, different from the null
endomorphism, is an automorphism (the null endomorphism maps each
number onto zero).
3.4. 12.T. Let X be a set on which a family of relations is defined. Prove that
the set of all automorphisms of X which preserve these relations forms a
group of transformations.
3.4. 13.H. Let X be a finite set on which a family of relations is defined.
Prove that every invertible endomorphism of X is an automorphism. Does
this statement hold for any set X?
3.4.14. Let G denote the group of all nonsingular 2 x 2 matrices with
rational entries, d the determinant of the matrix A E G, written in the form
d = (m/n)2'A, where m and n are odd, and lA is an integer. (It is obvious that
every rational number d can be written in this form.)
1) Prove that the transformation a E TG defined by
1 IA)
a(A) = ( 0 1
is an endomorphism of G with respect to matrix multiplication.

2) Find the image of the matrix
under this endomorphism.

3) Prove that the center of G is not a completely characteristic subgroup.
3.4.15. Find all completely characteristic subgroups of the quaternion
group (see 2.6.39).
3.4.16. Define a binary relation p on the set X = {1, 2, 3,4,5, 6} by (m, n) E p
if m and n are relatively prime. How many endomorphisms of X have rank
less than three?
3.4.17. Let X = {a, b, c, d,f} and define an ordering on X by a < b < t
for t = c, d,j.
1) Find all automorphisms of X.
2) Prove that the group of automorphisms of X is isomorphic to the
symmetric group S3 (cf Chapter 3.3)
3.4.18. Suppose an ordering on a finite set X is given by a ::::; t, where a is
fixed and t is any element of X. Describe all endomorphisms of X.
3.4.19. Let X be the ordered set in problem 3.4.18. Let X' be the set obtained
by adjoining an element v to X which is not comparable to any element of
X (v ~ t, t ~ v, t E X). Prove that the groups of automorphisms of X and X'
are isomorphic.
3.4.20. Let p be a nonempty binary relation on a set X, and J the set of all
transformations of X of rank one. Prove that the semigroup of all endo-
morphisms of X contains J if and only if p is a reflexive relation.
3.4.21. Let p be a reflexive binary relation on a set X. Prove that the semi-
group of endomorphisms of X with respect to p coincides with the semigroup
of all transformations of X if and only if p is the diagonal or the universal
binary relation (see Chapter 1.3).
3.4.22. Let X be an ordered set. We say that X is connected iffor any x, Y E X
there exists a chain tl = x,t 2 , ... ,tn = Y (tl, ... ,tnEX) in which any two
adjacent elements are comparable (t i ::::; t i + 1 or t i + 1 ::::; tJ Prove that if X
is connected then, for any endomorphism a, the set aX is also connected.
Endomorphisms 69
3.4.23.H. Prove that every invertible endomorphism of a linearly ordered

set is an automorphism. Does this statement hold for any ordered set?
3.4.24. Let N be the set of natural numbers with the usual ordering. Prove
that the group of automorphisms of N is the unit group. Does this statement
hold for the set of all integers with the usual ordering?
3.4.25. Let p be an equivalence relation on a set X, a, b, c E X. Prove that the
transformation a defined by
a, if(x,c)Ep
ax = {
b, if(x, c) ~ p
is an endomorphism of X.
3.4.26. Let X be an ordered set, with a ~ b, c ~ d (a, b, c, d E X, a =F b,
c =F d). Show that there exists an endomorphism of X mapping a onto c and
b onto d.
3.4.27.H. Define a relation p on three-dimensional space by requiring three
points Pl , P2 , and P3 to be p-related if they lie on the same line and P2 is
between Pl and P3 • Prove that every affine transformation of the space is an
endomorphism with respect to p (an affine transformation is an invertible
transformation which maps lines onto lines). Are affine transformations
necessarily automorphisms of the space with respect to p?
3.4.28. Let X be the set of all real numbers of the form a + b.J2 + c.J3 +
d.J6, where a, b, c, d are rational numbers, and let Gx be the group of all auto-
morphisms of X with respect to the usual arithmetic operations for which
each rational number is a fixed point (see 3.4.12).
1) Find aJ2 and aJ3 foranyaEG x .
2) Prove that Gx is finite.
3.4.29. Let Gx be the group in the preceding problem. Prove that the subset
H of Gx consisting of all automorphisms which leave J2 fixed is a normal
subgroup of Gx .
3.4.30.H. Let X be the field in problem 3.2.12. Prove that the group of all
automorphisms of X with respect to the usual arithmetic operations is
infinite.
3.4.31. Let P be the set of endomorphisms of an ordered set X with the
property that aX is linearly ordered for every a E P. Prove that P is a two-
sided ideal of the semigroup of all endomorphisms of X.
3.4.32.H. Let X = {1, 2, ... , n} have the usual ordering.
1) Find all idempotents of rank n - 1 in the semigroup of endomor-
phisms of X.
2) Prove that the set of all idem po tents of rank n - 1 forms a generating
set for this semi group.
3.4.33. Let X be the ordered set in problem 3.4.18. Prove that the semigroup
of endomorphisms of X is regular.
3.4.34.H. Prove that the semigroup of endomorphisms of the ordered set X
in problem 3.4.17 is not regular.
5. Groups of Isometries
Let R be the set of all points on the real line. A transformation of R
which preserves the distance between any two points on R is called an
isometry of R.
For each nonnegative real number c we define the binary relation Pc
on R by (PI' P2 ) E Pc ifthe distance between the points PI and P2 is c. Then the
isometries of R are the only endomorphisms of R which preserve all of the
relations Pc.
In addition to isometries of the line we also consider isometries of the
plane and of space, i.e., transformations which preserve the distance between
any two points. As in the case of lines, isometries of the plane and of space
are those endomorphisms which preserve all of the Pc.
Every transformation which is the result of a rigid displacement is
obviously an isometry. Such isometries are usually called isometries of the
first kind. There are isometries which are not of the first kind. For example, a
reflection of the plane about a line (otherwise called a symmetry with respect
to the line) is an isometry which is not of the first kind. Isometries not of the
first kind are said to be isometries of the second kind. However, we shall not
have any occasion in this book to distinguish between these two kinds of
isometries.
Each of the sets of isometries of (1) the real line, (2) the plane, and (3)
space is a group oftransformations (see 3.5.1). Subgroups ofthese groups are
called groups of isometries.
Let X be the set of all points on the real line, plane, or space, and let F
be a figure in X (i.e., F is a subset of X). By a self-coincidence of F in X we
mean an isometry of X which maps F onto itself.
For each figure F in X we define the binary relation !F on X by
(PI' P2 ) E!F if PI' P2 E F. We will prove that the set of self-coincidences of F
consists of all automorphisms of X with respect to TF and all relations Pc
defined above (see 3.5.11). Hence it follows that the set of all self-coincidences
of a figure is a group of transformations.
We can say that the group of self-coincidences of a figure characterizes
the "degree of symmetry of the figure." In other words, determining the
group of self-coincidences of a figure F is equivalent to knowing its symmetry.
The determination of the symmetry of F is often very important in the study
of its structure. In particular, an important facet in crystallography is the
study of the group of self-coincidences of figures having special forms.
Groups of Isometries 71
3.5.1. Let X be the set of points on the real line, plane, or space. Prove
that:
1) every isometry of X is an invertible transformation;
2) the set of all isometries of X is a group of transformations.
3.5.2. Prove that the group of all isometries of the real line has a subgroup
which is isomorphic to the additive group of real numbers.
3.5.3. Find all elements of finite order and of order two in the group of all
isometries of the plane.
3.5.4. Prove that the set of all axial symmetries (reflections about an axis)
of the plane is a generating set for the group of all isometries of the plane.
3.5.5. Prove that the set of all parallel translations of the plane is a normal
subgroup of the group of all isometries of the plane.
3.5.6. Let F be a figure in space, and let G be the class of all isometries of
space for which any point in F is a fixed point. Prove that G is a group of
isometries.
3.5.7. Find the order of the group G in the preceding problem where
1) F is a line;
2) F consists of two intersecting lines;
3) F consists of two skew lines.
3.5.8. Let F be a figure in space and A the set of all isometries rx of space with
rx(F) ~ F. Prove that A is a semigroup with an identity. For what elements
rx E A is rx - 1 E A?
3.5.9. For which of the following figures will the semigroup A in the pre-
ceding problem be a group:
1) a sphere;
2) a half-plane;
3) a regular polyhedron?
3.5.10. Let F be the set of all points in the first quadrant of the plane and A
the semigroup defined in problem 3.5.8. Prove that the only subgroup of
[A]g is the set consisting of all elements of infinite order in [A]g and the identity
of this group. Describe this subgroup.
3.5.11. Let F be a figure on the line, plane, or space. Prove that the self-
coincidences of F are either automorphisms with respect tor F or relations
Pc (see the text, above).
3.5.12. What is the order of the subgroup of all self-coincidences of each of
the following figures in the group of all isometries of the line:
1) a ray;
2) the unit interval;
3) the figure consisting of an infinite set of disjoint closed intervals of
equal length which are so situated that for each closed interval there
exist closed intervals lying to the left and right of it and the distance
between the ends of any two adjacent closed intervals is some fixed
constant?
3.5.13. Find the subgroup G of all self-coincidences of a line in the group of
all isometries of the plane. Prove that G is an infinite, nonabelian group.
3.5.14. Find the subgroup of all self-coincidences of each of the following
figures in the group of all isometries of the plane:
1) a rhombus;
2) a square;
3) an isosceles triangle.
3.5.15. Let the vertices of a regular n-gon (i.e., a regular polygon with n sides)
with center 0 be Al , A 2 , ••• , An' and let B l , B2 , ••• , Bn be the midpoints
of the sides (where Bj is the midpoint of AjAj+ 1 for i = 1,2, ... , n - 1, and
Bn is the midpoint of AnAl). Let F be a figure which is composed of all the-
triangles OAjBj, i = 1,2, ... , n. Prove that the set of all self-coincidences of
F is a cyclic subgroup of the group of all isometries of the plane. What is the
order of this subgroup?
3.5.16. Find the subgroup of self-coincidences of a regular n-gon in the
group of all isometries of the plane.
3.5.17. Suppose that a figure F consists of two equal squares having a
common vertex and so situated that the diagonals of the squares lie on the
line passing through the common vertex. Find the subgroup of all self-
coincidences of F in the group of all isometries of the plane.
3.5.18. Prove that every group of self-coincidences of a polyhedron with n
vertices F is isomorphic to a subgroup ofthe symmetric group Sn.
3.5.19. Prove that the group of self-coincidences of a regular n-angular
pyramid (n ~ 4) is isomorphic to the group of self-coincidences of a regular
n-gon.
3.5.20. Prove that the group G of all self-coincidences of a regular n-angular
pyramid (n > 4) possesses a unique commutative subgroup of order n.
Describe this subgroup (see the preceding problem).
3.5.21. Let G be the group in problem 3.5.20. For what values of n do any
two distinct reflections about a plane of symmetry of the pyramid form a
generating set for G?
3.5.22. An n-angular dihedron is a body consisting of an n-angular pyramid
and its mirror image in the plane of the base. What is the order of the group of
self-coincidences of an n-angular dihedron for n i= 4?
3.5.23. Prove that the set
Q= {e, (12), (34), (35), (45), (345), (354), (12)(34), (12)(35),
(12)(45), (12)(345), (12)(354)}
is a group which is isomorphic to the group of self-coincidences of a triangular
dihedron.
Groups of Isometries 73
3.5.24. Let P be a vertex of a regular tetrahedron T. Prove that the set of all
self-coincidences of Twhich leave P fixed is a group which is isomorphic to
83 ,
3.5.25.H. Describe the group G of self-coincidences of a regular tetrahedron
and prove that G is isomorphic to 8 4 ,
3.5.26. Let cp be any isomorphism of the group of self-coincidences of a
regular tetrahedron onto 8 4 (cf. the preceding problem). Which of the self-
coincidences correspond to elements in A4 under cp?
Remark. These self-coincidences of a tetrahedron form the so-called
rotation group of a regular tetrahedron.
3.5.27. Prove that the set of all self-coincidences of a cube which leave a given
vertex A fixed is a group. Describe this group.
3.5.28.H. What is the order of the group of all self-coincidences of a cube?
3.5.29.H. Prove that the set G of rotations of a cube about all axes of
symmetry is a subgrou p of the group of self-coincidences of a cube, and that
G is isomorphic to S4 (this group is called the rotation group of a cube).
3.5.30. Prove that the set of rotations of a cube about its diagonals and about
the lines connecting the midpoints of opposite edges is a subgroup of the
rotation group of a cube (see 3.5.28). What subgroup of S4 is this group iso-
morphic to?
3.5.31. An icosahedron is a regular polyhedron which is bounded by 20
triangles. Describe the group of all self-coincidences of an icosahedron which
leave a given vertex P fixed.
3.5.32.H. Prove that the order of the group of self-coincidences of an icosa-
hedron is 120.
3.5.33. Let F be a figure consisting of all points P with coordinates
( ~2 k + ~2'I Ii3 k _ Ira l)

2 2
in some rectangular coordinate system, where k and I are any integers.

1) Which of the self-coincidences of F belong to the group ofisometries
of finite order that do not leave any points of F fixed?
2) Prove that there exist groups of self-coincidences of F of orders 2, 3,
6, and 12, but not of order 5.
3.5.34. Let F be a figure consisting of all points in the plane with integral
coordinates in some rectangular coordinate system.
1) Find the group G of self-coincidences of F.
2) Describe all subgroups of order 4 in G.
Remark. Finite groups of self-coincidences of figures like those in
3.5.33 and 3.5.34 are called crystal groups or Fedorov groups. They play an
important role in crystallography.
6. Partial Transformations
Let X be a set; a partial transformation of X is a mapping a of a subset
M of X into X.
The set N = a(M) will be denoted by ra, and M, the domain of a, will be
denoted by da. By using this notation we can say that a is a mapping of da
onto ret.
For convenience we consider the empty transformation () to be a partial
transformation, where d() and r() are the empty set.
For a given partial transformation a, it is sufficient to give da and a
rule which associates an element ax E X with each x E da. The set ra will then
be completely determined.
The set of all partial transformations of a set X will be denoted by Px.
If da = X, then the partial transformation a becomes a usual transforma-
tion of X (cf. Chapter 3.1). Consequently, Tx (the semigroup of all trans-
formations of X) is contained in P x.
We define an operation of multiplication (composition) on the set P x in
the following way: if a, f3 E Px , then y = af3 is the transformation such that
dy consists of all x E df3 with f3x E da, and yx = a(f3x) for all x E dy.
If a, f3 E 'IX, then it is obvious that the multiplication defined here coin-
cides with the multiplication of transformations defined in Chapter 3.1.
Let a E Px ' Define the binary relation PI1 on X by (x, y) E PI1 if Y E da
and ay = x. Obviously pr 1 PI1 = ra and pr2PI1 = da. We will say that the
binary relation PI1 corresponds to the transformation a.
We will prove (see 3.6.15) that distinct binary relations correspond to
distinct partial transformations, and that PI1PP = Pl1.p (a, f3 E Px). Consequently,
multiplication of partial transformations can be considered as a particular
case of multiplication of binary relations.
One-to-one partial transformations, i.e., one-to-one mappings of one
subset of X onto another, playa very significant role.
If a is a one-to-one partial transformation of X, then its inverse a- 1
exists, and is also a one-to-one partial transformation (Chapter 1.2). Obviously
PI1- 1 = (PI1.)* (cf· Chapter 1.3).
If a is a partial transformation such that da = ra = M and ax = x for
every x E M, then a is called the partial identity on the set M, denoted by eM'
As with ordinary transformations, partial transformations can be written
as permutations by placing the elements of da in the upper row and writing
the image of each directly below it.
Suppose X is a set of real numbers. Each real function f(x) determines
a partial transformation (X on X, where d(X is the domain off(x) and (Xx = f(x)
for all x E da. The converse also holds: each partial transformation of X is a
real function.
Partial Transformations 75
It should be noted that usually in the theory of functions one only

considers the composition of two functions J(x) and g(x) when the range of
g(x) is contained in the domain of J(x). However, we will not impose this
condition.
In this section, except for problems 3.6.25 and 3.6.26, we will not
consider any other operations on functions than composition. By virtue of
this, J(J(x» will be denoted by J2(X).
3.6.l.T. Prove that multiplication of partial transformations is associative.

Remark. Thus Px is a semigroup under multiplication of partial trans-
formations.
3.6.2. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4,5,6,7,8,9, 1O}, cx 1 , cx 2 , /31' /32 E Px ;
( 2 3 8 10) (1 2 7 9 10) (1 3 5 7 9 10)

cx 1 = 1 4 1 5 CX 2 = 3 4 3 1 10 /31 = 2 1 4 2 5 3
1 2 4 5 6 8 9 10)
(
/32 = 5 3 9 1 7 5 2 7
Find:
1) CXLCX 1CX 2 ,CX 2 CX 1 ,/3i;
2) thetypesofcx1,/31,and/32inPx.
3.6.3. Let X be any set, and find the types of the following elements in
Px :
1)r:x 1 =(:) (X,YEX)
2) r:x 2 = (: ~) (X,YEX)
3.6.4. Let
X = {1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8}, ilEPx
cx( 1 3 4 5 6 7 8)
8472513
Find cx - 1, CXCX - 1, and cx - 1cx.
3.6.5. Let cx be a one-to-one partial transformation of a set X. Find cxcx- 1
and cx- 1 cx. When does cxcx- 1 = cx- 1 cx?
3.6.6. Given the functions
11 (x) = x,
In - 1
-x 12 (x) = +V X2- I, la (x) = sin x
h (x) = arcsin x, I~ (x) = + Vx~ _ T'~

where their domains consist of all points for which the corresponding formula
makes sense. Find:
1) r[Jl(x)], d[Jzf3(X)], r[Jzf3(x)];
2) Ji(X),JSJ4(X),JU4(X);
3) all powers of J2(X).
3.6.7. Which of the following real functions J;(x) are one-to-one partial
transformations? For those that are, find their inverses, and the products
JJj-l(X) and Jj-l.t;(X):
1) the functions given in the preceding problem;
2) the function
aX+b
16 (x) = cx+d
where a, b, e, d are fixed rational numbers such that ad - be =I- 0,
and d[f6(X)] is taken to be the set of all real numbers where the
denominator is different from zero.
3.6.8.H. Let J(z) be a complex polynomial which is not a constant, with
d[J(z)] the set of all complex numbers. Prove that r[f(z)] is also the set of all
complex numbers.
e
3.6.9. Let X be any set, rx E Px ' Determine when rx 2 = and rx 3 = e.
3.6.10. Let X be any set. Determine when d(rx l rx 2 ) = d(rx 2), where rx l , rx 2 E Px '
3.6.11. Prove that for any rx l , rx 2 E Px , the equality r(rxl rx2) = rrx l holds if
and only if for each y E rrxl' then! exists x E rrx2 such that rx l x = y.
3.6.12. Let X be any set. Determine when:
1) a partial transformation is an idempotent;
2) a one-to-one partial transformation is an idempotent.
3.6.13. Let X be any set. Given rx E Px , determine when f3 E Px exists such
that(l) rxf3 = ex, and (2) f3rx = ex·
3.6.14. Let X be any set, IJ. E Px , rx =I- e. Determine under what conditions
there exists f3 E Px , f3 =I- 8, such that (1) rxf3 = 8, and (2) f3ct = 8.
3.6.15. Let ct, f3 E Px , and let Pa' Pp be the binary relations corresponding to
IX, p. Prove that if IX =I- Pthen Pa =I- Pp, and that Pap = PaPp.
3.6.16. Using the notation of the preceding problem, prove that the set
of all binary relations Pa taken over all rx E Px is a semigroup under multipli-
cation of binary relations and that this semigroup is isomorphic to Px '
Partial Transformations 77
3.6.17. Given a binary relation P on a set X, determine when there exists a

partial transformation rx. E Px such that P = Pa'
3.6.18. Let Pa be the binary relation on a set X corresponding to rx. E Px '
Determine for which transformations rx. the relation Pa is (1) reflexive, (2)
symmetric, and (3) transitive.
3.6.19. Let M c X. Prove that:
1) the set R of all rx E Px for which rrx c M is a right ideal of Px ;
2) the set L of all [3 E Px for which d[3 c M is a left ideal of Px .
3.6.20. Prove that the set L c Px consisting of all rx such that drx =I- X is a
left, but not a right, ideal of Px .
3.6.21.T. Let X be any set. Prove that the set of all one-to-one partial trans-
formations of X is a semigroup.
3.6.22.H. LetX = {1, 2, ... , n},rx. = (12), [3 = (1,2, ... , n), y = e{2 ..... n). Prove
that the semigrou p of all one-to-one partial transformations of X is generated
by the permutations rx, [3, and y.
3.6.23. Let
I( x )-- 2x-3
x+!
be a real function Nhose domain is all real numbers except -1. Findj2(x)
and f3(X).
3.6.24.H. Let R be the set of all functions of the form
f( ) - ax+b
x - cx+d
as defined in 3.6.7. Does R form a group under mUltiplication of partial

transformations?
3.6.25. Let G be the set of all functions of the form
f(x)= ax+b
cX+d
where a, b, e, d are rational numbers such that ad - be =I- O. An operation is
introduced on G in the following manner:
if
then
I (x) og (x)_(aal+bcl)x+(abl+bdl)
-(ca1+c1d)x+(cb1+dd 1)
Prove that G is a group.

3.6.26. Let G be the group in the preceding problem. Show that G is iso-
morphic to the group Gin 3.2.13.
3.6.27. Let C" be the subset of Px consisting of the empty transformation and
all elements rx. E Px such that rrx. = x, where x is a fixed. element in X. Prove
that the sets C", x E X, are the only nonempty minimal right ideals of Px (i.e.,
ideals which do not properly contain any right ideals).
3.6.28.T.H. Let A be a semigroup of one-to-one partial transformations
which satisfy the conditions
1) the inverse of every transformation in A is also contained in A;
2) there exists a set M such that for each rx. E A, drx. = rrx. = M.
Prove that A is a group.
3.6.29.T.H. Prove that every group of one-to-one partial transformations
satisfies conditions (1) and (2) of the preceding problem.
3.6.30. Let B be a semigroup of one-to-one partial transformations of a set
X with the property that the inverse of every element in B also lies in B.
Prove that B is a regular semigroup in which every element has a unique
inverse (see 2.5.16).
Remark. The converse also holds: if each element in a semigroup S
has a unique inverse, then S is isomorphic to a semigroup T of one-to-one
partial transformations in which the inverse of each transformation in T is
also contained in T.
Chapter 4
GROUPS AND THEIR SUBGROUPS
I. Decomposition of a Group by a Subgroup

Let H be a subgroup of a group G, x E G. The set xH is called a right
coset of H in G, and Hx is called a left coset of H in G. If G is written as
the union of its mutually disjoint right cosets of H :
O=Xa. H U x~H U ... U x~HU ...

then such a partition is called the right decomposition of G by H. The set
{xa.' x p , ••• , x~, ... } is called the set of representatives of the right decomposi-
tion of G by H.
Left decomposition and its set ofrepresentatives is defined analogously.
One should keep in mind that sometimes what we have called right de-
composition is called left decomposition, and conversely.
As we will show below (see 4.1.16), the sets of eosets in the right de-
composition and in the left decomposition have the same cardinality. If
the number of such classes is finite, then this number is called the index
of H in G. When there is an infinite number of cosets we say that H has in-
finite index.
In the literatur.e, the index is often denoted by [G: H]. When there is an
infinite number of co sets, the index is sometimes defined as the cardinality of
the set of these cosets.
Let F and H be subgroups of G (in particular, F can be equal to G) and
x E G. The set FxH is called the double coset of the pair (F, H) in G [or some-
times the double modulo (F, H)].
If G is written as the pairwise disjoint union of double co sets of the pair
(F,H):
then such a partition is called the decomposition of G by the pair (F, H)

[or the decomposition modulo (F,H)]. The set {x~,xJl'''''x~, ... } in this
79
80 Groups and Their Subgroups
case is called the set of representatives of the decomposition of G by the

pair (F, H).
If G is commutative, the right and left decompositions obviously
coincide. In such a case the decomposition of G by the pair (F, H) coincides
with the decomposition of G by the subgroup FH (see 2.6.36).
4.1.1.H. Prove that if an element t is contained in a right coset xH of a sub-

group H in a group G, then tH = xH. An analogous result holds for left
cosets.
4.l.2.H. Let H be a subgroup of a group G (x, y E G). Prove that two right co-
sets xH and yH are either equal or disjoint. The same IS true for left co sets.
4.1.3. Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G, and x E G. Show that x is con-
tained in the right coset xH and the left coset Hx.
4.1.4.T.H. Prove that for every subgroup H of a group G, there always
exists both a right and a left decomposition of G by H.
4.1.5. Let there be given two right decompositions of a group G by a sub-
group H. Prove that they represent the same partition of the set of all elements
of G. The same result holds for left co sets.
4.1.6. Find the right decomposition of the symmetric group S3 by the sub-
group H = {e, (12)}.
4.1. 7. Find the left decomposition of the alternating group A4 by the sub-
group H = {e, (123), (132)}.
4.1.8. Find the right and left decompositions of the quaternion group K
(see 2.6.39) by the subgroup H = {l, -l}. Compare these decompositions,
and explain the result of the comparison.
4.1.9.H. Find the decompositions of a cyclic group of order 10 by each of its
subgroups.
4.1.10. Find the decomposition of the infinite cyclic group generated by x
by the subgroup generated by x 3 •
4.1.11. For any group G, what are the decompositions of G by the identity
suBgroup and by G itself'?
4.1.12. Let S be a set of representatives in the right decomposition of a
group G by a subgroup H. Define a mappingj of G into itself by j(z) = XES,
where zH = xH, for each z E G. Prove that this rule does indeed define a
single-valued function. Prove that j is a mapping of G onto S satisfying the
following properties: for every z E G and h E H,
1) f(f(z»=f(z)
2) Z-I f(z) E H
3) f(zh)=f(z)
Decomposition of a Group by a Subgroup 81
4.1.13. Let H be a subgroup of a group G and f a mapping of G into itself

possessing the following three properties: for every Z E G, h E H,
1) /(f(z»=/(z)
2) Z-l/(Z) E H
3) /(zh)=/(z)
Prove that f( G) is a set ofrepresentatives in the right decomposition of

GbyH.
4.1.14. Formulate conditions on a mapping of G onto a set of representatives
in the left decomposition of a group G by a subgroup H similar to 4.1.12,
and obtain results analogous to 4.1.12 and 4.1.13.
4.1.15. Let {xa,xp, ... ,x~, ... } be a set of representatives in the right
decomposition of a group G by a subgroup Hand {ha, hp,"" h~, ... } a set of
elements in H, each of which is associated with an element in the set ofrepre-
sentatives. Prove that {Xah" , xphp, . .. ,x~h~, . .. } is also a set of representatives
ofthe right decomposition of G by H, and that every set of representatives of
the right decomposition of G by H can be obtained from the original set
{x", xp,"" x~, ... } in such a way.
Formulate and prove a similar property for left decompositions.
4.1.16.H. Let {x"' xp,"" x;;, ... } be a set of representatives in the right
decomposition of a group G by a subgroup H. Prove that {x; 1, xp 1, ... ,
xi 1, . . . } is a set of representatives in the left decomposition of G by H.
Remark. This implies that the set of right cosets and the set ofleft cosets
in the right and left decompositions of G by H, respectively, have the same
cardinality. This is the basis for introducing the notion of index of H in G.
4.1.17. Let H and H' be subgroups of a group G, where H' c H c G, let S
be a set of representatives of the right decomposition of H by H'. Prove that
SS' is a set of representatives ofthe right decomposition of G by H'.
4.1.18. How many distinct sets of representatives are there in the right
decomposition of a group of order 12 by a subgroup of order 3?
4.1.19. Let K be a nonempty subset of the group G, x E G. Prove that the
three sets K, xK, and Kx have the same cardinality.
Remark. In particular, all right co sets and left cosets have the same car-
dinality as K itself (if K is finite all cosets have the same number of elements as
K).
4.1.20.T.H. Let G be a finite group of order n. Let H be a subgroup of order
h in which the index of H in Gis k. Prove that n = hk.
Remark. Hence we arrive at the important conclusion that in a finite

group the order of every subgroup, as well as its index, is a divisor of the order
of the group. *
4.1.21.T.H. Prove that the order of every element of a finite group is a factor
of the order of the group.
4.1.22. Prove that if a subset K of a group G is either a right or a left coset of
some subgroup H in G, then for all x, y, Z E K,
4.1.23.H. Let K be a nonempty subset of a group G such that
for all x, y, Z E K. Prove that there exists a unique subgroup H of G such that
K is a right coset of H in G, and a unique subg.oup H' of G such that K is a
left coset of H' in G.
4.1.24. Determine which of the sets below are cosets of the symmetric
group S5 by one of its subgroups:
1) K t ={(2 3 4), (1 2 3 4)}
2) K9= {(I 2), (1 2 3), (1 2 3 4)}
3) K3= {e, (1 2 3 4), (1 3) (2 4), (1 4 3 2)}
4) K,= {(I 2), (1 3), (1 4), (1 5)}
5) Kn= {(I 2), (1 5 2) (3 4)}
4.1.25. Is the set of all matrices whose determinant is equal to a given number
c ::f. 0 a coset (and if so, by what subgroup) of the group of all nonsingular
complex n x n matrices?
4.1.26.T.H. Let F and H be subgroups of a group G. Prove that there always
exists a decomposition of G by the pair (F, H).
4.1.27. Find the decomposition of the symmetric group S4 by the pair
(F,H)
F= {e, (1 2 3), (I 3 2)}, H= {e, (1 2)(3 4)}
4.1.28. Find the decomposition of the symmetric group S3 by the pair

(F, H), where F= H = {e, (1 2)}.
*This result is known as Lagrange's Theorem. [Trans.]

Conjugate Classes 83
4.1.29. Let N be a normal subgroup and H any subgroup of a group G.

Prove that the decomposition of G by the pair (N, F) coincides with the right
decomposition of G by F N (see 2.6.36).
4.1.30.T.H. Let HI and H 1 be two subgroups of a finite group G having
orders ml and m2, respectively. Prove that the set HIH2 consists ofm1m2/d
elements, where d is the order of the subgroup HI n H2 •
4.1.31. Prove that the alternating group A4 has no subgroup of order 6.
Remark. Compare with 4.1.20.
2. Conjugate Classes
Let G be a group, a, bEG. If there exists an element x E G such that
x-lax = b, then we say that b is a conjugate of a [obviously in this case a is
also a conjugate of b, since a = (X-1)-1b(x- 1)]. A set K of elements in G
such that any two elements in K are conjugates and no element in K is a
conjugate of any element outside of K, is called a conjugate class of elements of
G. Two subsets M 1 and M 1 of G are said to be conjugates if there
exists an element x E G such that X-I MIX = M 1 [and therefore also
(x-1r1M1(x- 1) = Ml]'
For a subset M of G, the set of all x E G which commute with M
xM=Mx
is called the normalizer of M. If M consists of a single element g, then the

normalizer of M is called the normalizer of g.
Since the relation of conjugacy is an equivalence relation on a group
(see 4.2.1), the set of elements which are conjugates of a given element turns
out to be a conjugate class. Therefore the set of all elements of a group can be
divided into disjoint conjugate classes.
Suppose a finite group of order n has m conjugate classes, and the number
of elements in each of these classes is kl , kl' ... , km • Then we have
It is particularly useful to consider those k j for which kj = 1. As we will see

below (see 4.2.18), the elements in the center are the only ones whose conju-
gate classes consist of the element itself. Thus the above equality can be
written
where c is the order of the center and kj > 1 (i = 1,2, ... , s). It will be useful
to take into account 4.2.10 when applying this equality.
4.2.l.T. Prove that the relation of conjugacy is an equivalence relation on a

group.
4.2.2. Let G be a group. Prove that if two elements x and yare conjugates in
G, then their orders are equal.
4.2.3. Prove that any two subsets M 1 and M 2 of a finite group which are
conjugates have the same number of elements.
4.2.4. Partition the elements in the symmetric group S 3 into conjugate
classes.
4.2.5. Partition the elements of the quaternion group (see 2.6.39) into con-
jugate classes.
4.2.6. Prove that the permutations
1 2 3 4 5 6)
( 1 2 3 4 5 6) (
x= 2 5 3 6 1 4 ' y= 5 3 4 2 1 6
are conjugates in the symmetric group S6, and find the number of Z E S6
such that
4.2.7.T. Let N be the normalizer of the subset M ofa group G. Prove that N
is a subgroup of G.
4.2.8. In the group of all real nonsingular 2 x 2 matrices, find the normalizers
of the following elements:
Y
(-1 0)
0 -1 •
4.2.9.T. Let N be the normalizer of the subset M of a group G. Let there be

given a left decomposition of G by N:
O=Nxv.U Nx~U ···U NX E U···
Prove that all of the sets
Xv.-1Mxa' xii-1Mx~, ... , xe-1Mx E' ...
are distinct, and that every set which is a conjugate of M is equal to one of the
x~ 1 Mx~ (¢ = r:i, {3, ... ).
4.2.10.T.H. Let G be a finite group of order n, and let M be a subset of G.
Prove that there are n/m subsets of G which are conjugates of M, where m is
the order of the normalizer of M.
Conjugate Classes 85
Remark. It follows immediately from 4.2.10 that in a finite group G

the number of elements in each conjugate class is a factor of the order of G.
4.2.11. Assume that a finite group G has order n, x E G has order m, and the
number of conjugates of x is k. Prove that k is a factor of the integer nlm.
4.2.12. Let k be the number of elements in some conjugate class of a finite
group G of order n. Let e be the order of the center of G. Prove that k is a
factor of the integer nle.
4.2.13. Find all finite groups which have exactly two conjugate classes.
4.2.14. Define an operation on the set of all pairs of integers (n, m) by the
formula
Prove that this set forms a group with respect to this operation. Find the
normalizer of each element x, and the number of conjugates of each x.
4.2.15. Let G be a group, and suppose that the normalizer of an element a
in G is a subgroup N. Prove that for any x E G, the normalizer·of x-lax is
x-1Nx.
4.2.16. Let G be a finite group, x E G, k the number of conjugates of x in G,
and k' the number of conjugates of xn in G. Prove that k' divides k.
4.2.17.1. Prove that a subgroup A of a group G is a normal subgroup if and
only if the only conjugate of A is A itself.
4.2.18.1. Prove that Z EGis contained in the center of G if and only if Z
itself is its only conjugate.
4.2.19. In the symmetnc group Sn' two permutations x and yare written as
disjoin t cycles:
Prove that x and yare conjugates in Sn if and only if they have the same
types,i.e.,p = qandk l = 11,k 2 = l2, ... ,k p = lp.
4.2.20. Partition the elements of the symmetric group S4 into conjugate
classes.
4.2.21. Partition the elements of the alternating group A4 into conjugate
classes in A 4 .
4.2.22. Determine which of the following matrices are conjugates in the

group of all nonsingular 2 x 2 matrices over the reals:
4.2.23. Let K 1 , K 2, K3 be three conjugate classes ofa group G. Prove that if

Kl n K2 K 3 i= 0, then Kl C K 2K 3 •
4.2.24.H. Let K 1 ,K2 ,K 3 be three conjugate classes of a finite group G.
Let Kl = K 2K 3, and kl' k2' and k3 be the number of elements in K 1 , K 2 ,
and K 3 , respectively. Prove that kl divides k2k3'
4.2.25.T. Let H be a subgroup of a group G, and x E G. Prove that X-I Hx
is also a subgroup of G.
4.2.26.H. Let H 1 and H 2 be two subgroups of a finite group G, having orders
m1 and ml , respectively. Prove that the set HI x Hl has m1m2 /d elements,
where d is the order of the subgroup X-I H 1X n H 2 (see 4.2.25).
4.2.27.T.H. Suppose there is given a decomposition of a finite group G
by a pair of subgroups (F, H) (cf. Chapter 4.1)
O=FXtHU Fx~HU .. · U FXmH
Let G, F, H, and Xi- 1 FXi nH have orders n, a, b, and di , i = 1, 2, ... , m,

respectively. Prove that
ab ab + ab
n=cr+cr "'+if
I m I
3. Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups

According to the definition given in Chapter 2.6, a subgroup N of a
group G is called a normal subgroup if for each x E N and a E G,
We will show (see 2.6.35) that a subgroup N of G is normal if and only if

xN = NxforallxEG.
Let M be a subset of a group G. The intersection of all normal subgroups
of G which contain M is a normal subgroup of G (see 2.6.37). This normal
subgroup N M contains M, and is contained in every normal subgroup of G
containing M. Therefore N M is called the minimal normal subgroup containing
M, or the normal subgroup generated by M.
One should keep in mind that the normal subgroup generated by M
contains the subgroup [M], but in general is distinct from it.
Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups 87
Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. Then the set of right cosets of

N in G is a group with respect to multiplication of cosets (see 4.3.12). We call
this group the factor group of G by N, and denote it by GIN.
By considering the set ofteft co sets of N in G, we obtain the same group
GIN (see 4.3.13).
Factor groups play a particularly important role in the theory of
groups because of their connection with homomorphisms of a group.
Namely, every factor group of G by a normal subgroup N is a homomorphic
image of G, and conversely if G' is a homomorphic image of G, then G' is
isomorphic to some factor group of G (see 4.3.26 and 4.3.28).
Let H be a subgroup of G. We denote by PH the binary relation on G
defined by (x, y) E PH if xH = yH.
4.3.1. Find all normal subgroups of the symmetric group S3'

4.3.2. Determine the normal subgroups generated by each of the following
subsets of S4:
M1 =[(12), (1324)]g> M2 = {e, (123), (132)}, Ma= {e}
4.3.3. Is the subset of all rotations of an n-angled dihedron (n -::f. 4) about its
axis (see 3.5.22) a normal subgroup ofthe group of all self-coincidences of the
dihedron.
4.3.4. Prove that the Klein group is a normal subgroup of the symmetric
group S4 (see 3.3.18).
4.3.5.H. Prove that the set N of all matrices whose determinant is equal to
one is a normal subgroup of the group G of all nonsingular n x n matrices
over the reals.
4.3.6. Prove that if G is a group and H is a subgroup of index 2 in G, then H
is a normal subgroup of G.
4.3.7. Prove that the alternating group An is a normal subgroup of the
symmetric group Sn.
4.3.8. Let G be the multiplicative set of all triples of integers with an operation
defined by
(k1> k2' ka)(/b I~, 13) = (kl +(- 1 )kJ 11> k2 +1 ka +Is)
2•
Prove that G is a group, and that the subgroup H = [(1,0,0)] is a normal

subgroup of G.
4.3.9. Prove that every subgroup of a commutative group is normal.
Remark. There exist noncommutative groups with such a property. For
example, the quaternion group (see 2.6.39).
4.3.10.T. Let H be a subgroup of a group G, Hx = xHx- 1 (x E G), and

N = n
xeG
Hx. Prove that:
1) N is a normal subgroup of G;
2) N is maximal in the set of normal subgroups of G which are contained
in H (if Nl is normal in G and Nl c H, then Nl eN).
4.3.11. Let N be a normal subgroup of G. Prove that for any pair of elements
X,YEG
(xN)(yN)=xyN
4.3. 12.T.H. Let N be a normal subgroup of G. Prove that the set GIN of
right cosets of N in G forms a group relative to multiplication of cosets. Find
the identity of GIN. Find the inverse of each element xN.
Remark. As was stated in the introduction to this section, GIN is called
the factor group of G by N.
4.3.13. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. Prove that the set of left
cosets of N in G is a group with respect to multiplication of cosets, and that
this group coincides with the factor group GIN.
4.3.14. Let Gbe a group andE the subgroup consisting of the identity element.
Determine GIG and GIE.
4.3.15. Prove that the factor group of the symmetric group S4 by the Klein
group is isomorphic to S 3 (see 3.3.18).
4.3.16. Letting G and N be the groups in 4.3.5, prove that GIN is isomorphic
to the multiplicative group of real numbers different from zero.
4.3. 17.H. Let G' be the group in 3.2.19, (4). Prove that the group N of parallel
translations of the plane is a normal subgroup of G', and that G'IN is iso-
morphic to the group of all rotations of the plane about a fixed point.
4.3.18.T. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G, let G have order m,
and N have order n. Prove that the order of GIN is min.
4.3.19. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Prove that the relation PH is left
compatible (cf. Chapter 2.4).
4.3.20. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Prove that PH is a congruence on G
if and only if H is a normal subgroup of G (see the preceding problem).
Remark. By using 2.4.14, we see that GIPH is a multiplicative set if and
only if H is a normal subgroup of G.
4.3.21. Let H be a normal subgroup of G. Prove that the factor set GlpH
is a group, and that this group is equal to the factor group GIH.
4.3.22. Let G and H be the groups in 4.3.8. Prove that GIH is isomorphic to
the additive group of Gaussian numbers, i.e., numbers of the form a + bi,
where a and b are rational numbers.
Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups 89
4.3.23. Let G and H be the groups in 3.2.16. Prove that GIH is isomorphic
to the factor group given in 4.3.16.
4.3.24. Let Gx and H be the groups in 3.4.29. Prove that GxlH is isomorphic
toH.
4.3.25.H. Prove that the symmetric group S3 is a homomorphic image ofthe
symmetric group S4'
4.3.26.T.H. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. Prove that GIN is a
homomorphic image of G.
4.3.27.T.H. Let f be a homomorphism of a group G onto a group G'. Prove
that:
1) the set N of all elements in G which are mapped onto the identity of
G' under f is a normal subgroup of G;
2) for a fixed element g' E G', the set of all elements in G which are
mapped onto g' by f is a right coset of N in G.
Remark. The normal subgroup N is called the kernel of f.
4.3.28.T.H. Prove that if a group G' is a homomorphic image of a group G,
then G' is isomorphic to some factor group of G.
Remark. Compare the results of 4.3.26 and 4.3.28 with those of 2.4.18-
2.4.20.
4.3.29. Let G be a noncommutative group, Z the center of G. Prove that GIZ
cannot be a cyclic group.
4.3.30. T. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G, and H any subgroup of
G. Let H be the subset of GIN consisting ofthose cosets which contain at least
one element of H. Prove that:
1) H is a subgroup of G/ N;
2) if N c H, then N is a normal subgroup of Hand H = H/N.
4.3.31.T. Assuming the notation and the two conditions from the preceding
problem, prove that if H is a normal subgroup of G, then H is a normal
subgroup of GIN.
4.3.32. Let G and N be the groups in 4.3.5. Let H 1 be the subgroup of G
consisting of all triangular matrices having zeros below the main diagonal,
and H 2 the subgroup of H 1 consisting of all matrices with determinant ± 1.
In the notation of 4.3.30, find H 1 and H2 .
4.3.33.T. Let H be a subgroup of the factor group GIN. Prove that:
1) the subset H of G, where H is the union of all co sets contained in H,
is a subgroup of G containing N;
2) if H is a normal subgroup of GIN, then H is a normal subgroup of
G.
4.3.34. Find all subgroups of the symmetric group S4 containing the Klein
group (see 3.3.18) by making use of 4.3.33 and 4.3.15. Which of these sub-
groups are normal in S4?
4.3.35. Let f be a homomorphism of a group G l onto another group Gz .

Prove that:
1) if Gz is not commutative, then neither is Gl ;
2) if Gz is infinite, then G l is too;
3) if f(a) has infinite order for some a E Gl , then a also has infinite
order.
4.3.36. Let G be a group. Let A be a set of isomorphisms of G onto itself
which forms a group under multiplication (composition) oftransformatidns.
Denote by H the set of all ordered pairs (x,J), where x E G and f EA. Define
an operatIOn on H by
(x 1 ,fl)(X z ,fz) = (XJl (xz),fJz)
Prove that H is a group. Show that the set G' of all pairs (x, i) (x E G), where
i is the identity mapping of G, is a normal subgroup of H, G' is isomorphic to
G, and HIG' is isomorphic to A.
4. Subgroups of Finite Groups

We say that a group G is a p-group ifthe order of every element in G is a
power of the prime number p.
If the order of a finite group G is divisible by pi, for some prime p and
some k > 0, but is not divisible by pH l, then every subgroup of G having
order pk (that such subgroups exist, see 4.4.6) is called a Sylow subgroup of
G relative to p, or simply a p-Sylow subgroup of G.
4.4.1.T.H. Prove that every group of order pn, where p is a prime number and
n > 0, has a nontrivial center (i.e., the order of the center is greater than 1).
4.4.2.H. Prove that for every prime number p there exists a unique (up to
isomorphism) noncyclic group of order pZ. In addition, show that this group
is commutative.
4.4.3.H. Prove that if the order of a group G is divisible by a prime number p,
then there exists an element g E G whose order is p.
4.4.4.T.H. Prove that every finite p-group has order pn for some n.
4.4.5.H. Prove that every abelian group of order pq is cyclic, where p and q
are distinct primes.
4.4.6.T.H. Let G be a finite group whose order is divisible by l, where p is a
prime. Prove that G contains a subgroup of order pk.
Remark. In particular, it follows that a finite group G contains a p-Sylow
subgroup for every prime p which divides the order of G.
4.4.7.H. Let P be a p-Sylow subgroup of a finite group G, and let N be the
normalizer of P. Prove that every element of N whose order is a power of p
is contained in P.
Subgroups of Finite Groups 91
4.4.8. Find all Sylow subgroups of the symmetric group S4'

4.4.9. Let G1 = [x] be a cyclic group of order ten and G2 = [yJ a cyclic
group of order four. Let G be the set consisting of the 40 ordered pairs (g 1, g2)
(g1 E G1, g2 E G2) with multiplication
Prove that G is a group. Find all Sylow subgroups of G.

4.4.10.T.H. Prove that in a finite group, any two p-Sylow subgroups are
conjugates.
4.4.1l.T.H. Let p be a prime number which divides the order of a finite
group G, and let s be the number of distinct p-Sylow subgroups.
Prove that s divides the order of G, and is of the form s = 1 + kp, for
some nonnegative integer k.
4.4.12.H. Prove that every noncyclic group of order six is isomorphic to the
symmetric group S3'
4.4.13. Suppose a group G has order pq, where p and q are distinct primes.
Prove that G has a normal subgroup N whose order is a prime number.
4.4. 14.H. Let G be a group of order pq, where p and q are primes, p < q.
Prove that if p does not divide q - 1, then G is cyclic.
4.4.15. Let P be a p-Sylow subgroup of a finite group G, N p the normalizer
of P, and H a subgroup of G such that N p c H. Prove that the normalizer of
H is equal to H.
4.4.16. Let G be a finite group, N a normal subgroup of G, and p a prime
number which divides the order of G but does not divide the index of N in
G (ef. Chapter 4.1). Prove that every p-Sylow subgroup of G is contained in N.
4.4.17. Prove that every group of order 50 has a proper normal subgroup.
4.4. 18.T.H. Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G. Let H have order p\
where p is prime. Prove that H is contained in some p-Sylow subgroup of G.
4.4. 19.H. Suppose that there exists a unique p-Sylow subgroup for every
prime p which divides the order of a finite group G. Prove that G has a non-
trivial center.
4.4.20.H. Let G be a finite p-group. Prove that for every integer m which
divides the order of G there exists a normal subgroup of G of order m.
Remark. Note, however, that there exist finite groups such that even
though a number m divides the order of the group, there is no subgroup of
order m (see 4.1.31).
5. Commutators and the Commutator Subgroup

To each pair of elements x, y in a group G we associate the element
X-I y-Ixy, which is called the commutator of x and y, denoted either by

k(x, y) or (x, y). We will use the latter notation. Thus
(x, y) = X-1y-1 xy
The notation [x, y] = x - I Y - IXY is also used in the literature.

The subgroup of G generated by all of its commutators is called the
commutator subgroup, or derived group.
4.5.1. Prove that
xy=yX(X,y)
for any elements x and y in a group G.

Remark. This equality explains the role of commutators. The commu-
tator acts as a ','correction" for the degree of noncommutativity of x and y,
i.e., x and y commute "up to their corresponding commutator." The equality
(x, y) = e denotes that x and y commute.
4.5.2. What are the commutators in an abelian group?
4.5.3. Prove that if all commutators in a group G are equal to e, then G is
abelian.
Remark. Compare the results of 4.5.2 and 4.5.3.
4.5.4. Let G be a group, and suppose that an element Z EGis a commutator
in G. Prove that for every x E G, x-1zx is also a commutator.
4.5.5. Prove that (x, y)-l = (y, x).
4.5.6. In the symmetric group Sn (n :::; 4), find the commutators
(XI> Xi), (XI> X3), (Xl! y)

(X2' Xl). (X4' Xl)' (y. Xl)
of the elements
x 1 =(12), xg=(1 23). x a =(1234), y=(13)(24)
4.5.7. Which elements in the quaternion group (see 2.6.39) are commutators?
4.5.8. In the group of 2 x 2 matrices over t~e integers with determinant
equal to ± 1, find the commutators (x, y), (y, z), and (z, x) of the elements
)1= (-1I -12) ,

Commutators and the Commutator Subgroup 93
4.5.9. Find the commutators (u, v), (v, w), and (w, u) in the group of nonsingu-
lar 3 x 3 matrices, where
100)
u= ( 020 I
1 1 1)
v= ( 0 1 1 I W= (
00
020
1)
00 3 o0 1 30 0
4.5.10. In the symmetric group Sn' n ~ 5, find the commutator (x, y) for the
3-cycles x = (u, c, b) and y = (a, b, v), where a, b, c, u, v are distinct numbers.
4.S.11.T. Prove that the commutator subgroup is a normal subgroup of a
group.
4.5.12.T. Prove that the factor group of a group by its commutator subgroup
is abelian.
4.5.13.T. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. Prove that GIN is
abelian if and only if N contains the commutator subgroup of G.
Remark. This shows that the commutator subgroup of G is the univer-
sally minimal element (under inclusion) in the set of all normal subgroups N
such that GIN is abelian.
4.S.14.H. Find the commutator subgroup of the symmetric group Sn.
4.5.15. Let {xcx' xp,' .. , x~, . .. } be a generating set of a group G, and let N
be a normal subgroup of G which contains all (x~, x,,). Prove that N contains
the commutator subgroup of G.
4.5.16. Suppose that the commutator subgroup of a group G is contained in
the center of G. Prove that for any x, y, Z E G
(xy, z) = (x, z) (y, z)
(x, YZ)=(x, y)(xI z)
(xn, y) = (x, yn) = (x, y)n
I
(xy)n = x"yn (y, X)2-n(n-Il
(x, (vi z» (v, (Z, x» (Z, (x, y» =e
4.5. 17.H. Prove that in every finite p-group G, the commutator subgroup of
G is different from G.
4.5.1S.H. Suppose the commutator subgroup of a finite group has order
two. Prove that the index of the commutator subgroup is even.
4.5. 19.H. Let there be given a sequence of groups such that each one is a
subgroup of the following one:
Prove that H = U Gn is a group, and that the commutator subgroup of H

n
is equal to the union of the commutator subgroups of the Gn •

4.5.20. Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. Prove that all commutators
of GIN are co sets of the form kN, where k is a commutator of G.
4.5.21. Find the commutator subgroup of the group of all rotations of the
plane about all possible points in the plane and all parallel translations of the
plane [see 3.2.19, (4)].
4.5.22.H. Find the commutator subgroup of the group of all nonsingular
2 x 2 matrices.
6. Solvable Groups
Let G be a group. A sequence of subgroups of G,
in which each K j is the commutator subgroup of K i - 1 , is called a derived

series, or commutator series.
If some term in the derived series is the identity subgroup, i.e., if Km = e
for some m, then the group G is called solvable. From Km = e, it obviously
follows that all successive terms are equal to the identity: e = Km = Km + 1 =
Km+2 = .... In such a case we say that the derived series "breaks off" at the
identity subgroup and is stabilized there.
It is obvious that for a finite, nonsolvable group, Kn = Kn+ 1 =1= e must
occur for some n. By the same token, all successive terms must be equal, i.e.,
Kn = Kn+l = Kn+2 = ... , and the derived series is stabilized at some
nonidentity subgroup.
For an infinite nonsolvable group, the derived series is either stabilized
at some nonidentity subgroup or is not stabilized at any subgroup.
There are several equivalent definitions of a solvable group. We will
obtain some of these in the problems below as necessary and sufficient
conditions for solvability in the sense that we have defined it above.
The concept of a solvable group is one of the most important notions
in group theory. Besides the role it plays in group theory, it is also important
in the theory of the solvability of algebraic equations by radicals, which is
based on the theory of finite groups.
4.6.1. Prove that every abelian group is solvable.

4.6.2. Prove that the quaternion group (see 2.6.39) is solvable.
4.6.3.H. Prove that every group of order pq, where p and q are primes
(possibly equal), is solvable.
Solvable Groups 95
4.6.4.T. Prove that in order for a group G to be solvable, it is necessary and

sufficient that it have a finite sequence of subgroups,
where each term Hk contains all commutators of the preceding subgroup

Hk - 1 •
Remark. In many cases this condition is more convenient to apply when
testing whether a given group is solvable.
4.6.S.T.H. Prove that the symmetric groups Sn are solvable for n = 1,2,3,4.
4.6.6.T.H. Prove that the symmetric groups Sn are not solvable for
n = 5,6,7, ....
4.6.7.T.H. Prove that every subgroup of a solvable group is solvable.
4.6.8. I.H. Prove that every factor group of a solvable group by a normal
subgroup is solvable.
4.6.9.T.H. Suppose a group G possesses a normal subgroup N such that
both Nand GIN are solvable. Prove that G is solvable.
4.6.10.T. A normal series of a group G is a finite sequence of subgroups
where each term is a proper normal subgroup of the preceding one.

Show that if a group has a normal series in which every factor group
Fk _ II Fk is abelian, then it is solvable .
.4.6.1l.T. Prove that every solvable group has a normal series (see 4.6.10)
in which each factor group Fk- dFk is abelian.
4.6. 12.T. A composition series of a group G is a normal series (see 4.6.10)
in which each term is a maximal (under inclusion) proper normal subgroup
of the preceding term.
In other words, this means that there does not exist a group F' in G
which is a normal subgroup of some Fi and such that
Suppose G has order n = PIP2'" Pm' where the Pi are primes (which
can be either distinct or equal). Prove that if G has a normal series consisting of
m + 1 terms, then this series is a composition series and G is solvable.
What type of groups are the factor groups FilFi+ I?
4.6. 13.T.H. Prove that a finite solvable group of order g = PIP2 ... Pm'
(where the Pi are distinct or equal prime numbers) has at least one composition
series, and that each such series consists of m + 1 terms.
4.6. 14.T.H. Prove that every finite p-group (i.e., a group of order pn, where
p is a prime) is solvable.
4.6. 15.H. For what values of n is the alternating group An solvable?
4.6.16. Define an operation on the set G = { ... , L2' L 1, zo, Zl' Z2""} by
z n+m' if n is even
znzm= {
zn-m. if n is odd
Prove that G is a group with respect to this operation. Is G solvable?
4.6.17. Define an operation on the set of infinite sequences of integers by
(at> a'.b aa, •..• am •• .)(b" bg, ba, ••• , bm " .)=
= (al+b 1, (-I)/lla2+b2' (-I)l'l+/l2a a+ba, .. •
... , ( _I)bl+b2+bs+ ... +bn-lan +bn' ...)
Prove that G is a group with respect to this operation. Is G solvable?

4.6. 18.H. Prove that every group of order 275 is solvable.
4.6. 19.H. Prove that every group of order 100 is solvable.
4.6.20.H. Prove that the group G in problem 3.2.19, part 4 is solvable.
7. Nilpotent Groups
The following two systems of subgroups of a group olay a role similar to
that played by the commutator series considered in the preceding section.
The upper central series of a group G is the sequence of subgroups
Zo=ec Z1 cZsc ... c Zn C Zn'~l C ...
in which Zn+ 1 (n = 0,1,2, ... ) is the set of elements x E G such that xZn
commutes with all elements in the factor group GjZn (Zn is a normal subgroup
ofGforalln;see4.7.1).Ifforsomen,Zn = Zn+l,thenevidentlyZn = Zn+l =
Zn+2 = ... , and we say that the series is stabilized at Zn. If the upper central
series is stabilized at G, we say that it reaches G. Of course, it is possible for
this series to be stabilized at some Zn different from G. Finally, it is possible
that for some infinite groups Zn =1= Zn+ 1 for every n, i.e., the series is not
stabilized at any Zn.
A group G is nilpotent if its upper central series reaches G (finite nil-
potent groups were also called special groups in some ofthe earlier literature).
Nilpotent Groups 97
If Zn is the first term in the upper central series which is equal to G, then n
is called the nilpotency class for G.
The lower central series of a group G is the sequence of subgroups
in which Hn+ I (n = 0, 1,2, ... ) is the subgroup of G generated by all the

commutators X-I y-I xy, where x E Hn , y E G.
The imp<;?rtance and some of the properties of these series, and various
relations between them, will be elucidated in the exercises below.
4.7.1.T. Prove that each term in the upper central series of a group G is a
normal subgroup of G.
4.7.2. Prove that every abelian group is nilpotent. Determine the nil-
potency class for each.
4.7.3. Determine which of the following groups are nilpotent, and find their
nil potency class:
1) the symmetric groups Sn (n = 1,2,3, ... );
2) the quaternion group (see 2.6.39);
3) the group in 2.6.38;
4) the group G = [(1 2 3 4); (l 2 3); (2 5); (5 6)J;
5) the group G = [(1 2 3 4)(5 6 7 8); (1 5 3 7)(2 8 4 2); (9 10 11)].
4.7.4.H. Let G be a nilpotent group whose order is the product of k prime
numbers (either equal or distinct). Prove that the nilpotency class for G
does not exceed k - 1.
4.7.S.T. Prove that every nilpotent group is solvable.
4.7.6. Let G be the quaternion group (see 2.6.39), and let qJ be the isomor-
phism of G onto itself defined by
_(1 -1 i - i j - j k -k\
10- 1 - l j - j - l i k - k )
The set A = {e, qJ, qJ2, qJ3} (where qJ0 = e is the identity mapping) forms a
group.
Construct the group H from G and A as shown in 4.3.36, and find the
lower and upper central series of H.
4.7.7. Prove that the term Zn in the upper central series of a group G contains
all commutators x-Iy-I xy, where x EZ n + 1 ; yE G.
4.7.8.T.H. Prove that if the upper central series of a group G reaches G at the
nth step, i.e., Zn = G, then the lower central series reaches the identity at the
nth step, i.e., H n = e.
4.7.9.T.H. Prove that if the lower central series of a group G reaches the
identity at the nth step, Hn = e, then the upper central series reaches G at the
nth step, Zn = G.
4.7.10.T.H. Prove that the upper and lower central series of a nilpotent
group have the same length.
Remark. Exercises 4.7.8, 4.7.9, and 4.7.10 together imply that it is
possible to define a nilpotent group and its nil potency class by starting with
the lower central series.
4.7.11. Let the commutator subgroup of a noncommutative group G lie
in the center of G. Prove that G is nilpotent. Determine its nilpotency class.
4.7. 12.T. Prove that every subgroup of a nilpotent group is nilpotent.
4.7. 13.T. Prove that a factor group of a nilpotent group by any of its normal
subgroups is nilpotent.
4.7. 14.T.H. Prove that every finite p-group is nilpotent.
4.7.15.H. Determine which of the following groups are nilpotent, and find
their nil potency class:
1) 0 1 = [(1 2 3), (4 5), (1 2)J
2) O2 =[(1 8 3 6)(2 7 4 5),
(9 15 11 13) (10 14 12 16),
(1 6 3 8)(2 8 4 7)(9 12 11 10)(13 16 15 14)]
3) 0 3 =[(1 2 3 4)(5 6 7 9), (1 5 3 7)(2 9 4 6),
(8 10 11), (1 2 3 4), (1 3 2)1
4) 0,=[(1 2 3 4 567 8)(9 10 12 13 141615 II),
(1 1l)(2 15)(3 16)(4 14)(5 13)(6 12)(7 10)(8 9)1
4.7.16.H. Let Gi be a Pi-grouP (i = 1,2, ... , n), where all of the primes
PI' P2' ... ,Pn are distinct. Let H be the set of all sequences (x 1, X2 , ... , xn),
where Xi E Gi (i = 1,2, ... , n). Define an operation on H by
(XI' X2, ... , Xn) (vb Y2, ... , Yn) = (X0'b X2)''.I' ... , XnYn)
Prove that H is a nilpotent group, and that its nil potency class is equal to the
largest of the nilpotency classes of the Gi •
Remark. We have proved that every finite nilpotent group is isomorphic
to a group of this form.
4.7.17. Let Gi be nilpotent groups with nilpotency classes k i (i = 1,2,3, ... ).
Let H be the set of all sequences (Xl' X 2 , X 3 , •• •), where Xi E Gi , and define
an operation on H by
(XI> X2' Xa, ...) (vb Y'.I' Ys, ..•) = (X1Yh XV''!' XaYa, ••.)
Determine when H is a nilpotent group, and find its nil potency class in this
case.
Automorphisms of Groups 99
4.7.18. Prove that every finite nilpotent group G has a sequence of normal
subgroups
such that every factor group N k - dNk (k = 1, ... , n) is cyclic.

4.7.19. Prove that in a finite group G the set of all normal subgroups of G
which are nilpotent groups has a universally maximal (under inclusion)
element, i.e., a nilpotent normal subgroup which contains all other nilpotent
normal subgroups.
4.7.20. For the group Gin 4.7.17, determine when the set of normal sub-
groups of G which are nilpotent has a universally maximal (under inclusion)
element.
4.7.21.H. Let PI' P2, and P3 be distinct prime numbers, and let G be a nil-
potent group of order PIP2P3' Prove that G is abelian.
8. Automorphisms of Groups
An automorphism of a group G is an isomorphism of G onto itself.
It is obvious that the concept of an automorphism ofa group G coincides
with the concept of an automorphism ofthe set G with respect to the operation
on the group (cf. Chapter 3.4). Thus automorphisms of G are transformations
on the set of elements of G. As we did with transformations, we will sometimes
define automorphisms by means of permutations.
Let G be a group, x E G. We will denote by tx the transformation on G
defined by
(aE G)
We will prove that tx is an automorphism of G for every x E G (see 4.8.12);

such an automorphism is called an inner automorphism.
A subgroup of G is said to be characteristic if it is mapped onto itself by
every automorphism of G.
4.8.1. Let G be the additive group of integers. Which of the following trans
formations of G are automorphisms:
1) (lIm = m + 1
2) (l2m = 2m
3) (l3m = -m(mEG)
4.8.2. Let G be the multiplicative group of complex numbers different from

zero. Which of the following transformations are automorphisms of G :
1) ct,Z = z(z is the conjugate of z);
2) ct 2 [J(cos q> + i sin q»J = r2(cos q> + i sin q»;
3) ct 3 [f(cos q> + i sin q»J = r[cos(q> + n/2) + i sin(q> + n/2)]?
4.8.3. Let q> be an automorphism of a group G. Prove that:
1) q>(a) has the same order as a for every a e G;
2) q>(e) = e(eistheidentityofG);
3) q>(a-')::;: [q>(a)r' (aeG);
4) if M = {xa, x(J' ... } is a generating set of G, then M' = {q>(x a),
q>(x(J)' ... } is also a generating set of G ;
5) every conjugacy class is mapped onto a conjugacy class by q>.
4.8.4. Let K be the quaternion group (see 2.6.39). Which of the following
permutations are automorphisms of K :
1) (X 1 = ( - 1, i) ;
2) (X2 = (i, -l)(j, - j)(k, -k);
3) (X3 = (i,j,k)(-i, - j, -k);
4) (X4 = (i, - j, k, - i, j, - k);
5) (X5 = (i, - i)(j, - j)?
4.8.5. Find the group of automorphisms of the group [(12)(34)(56), (34)J.
Remark. Note that the group of automorphisms of a commutative
group need not be commutative.
4.8.6. Find the group of automorphisms of the infinite cyclic group.
4.8.7. Let G be a cyclic group of order n. Prove that the transformation ct
defined by ct(x) = Xk (x E G) is an automo~phism of G if and only if k and n
are relatively prime.
4.8.8. Prove that the transformations described in the preceding problem
exhaust all automorphisms of a finite cyclic group.
4.8.9. Let G be a group. Prove that the transformation of G which maps each
element onto its inverse is an automorphism of G if and only if G is commu-
tative.
4.8.10.H. Prove that the group of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group of
order greater than two is a commutative group of even order.
4.8.1l.H. Describe the groups of automorphisms of the cyclic groups of
orders 12 and 14.
4.8.12.T. Let G be a group, x E G. Prove that the transformation tx defined
by tx(a) = xax -, (a E G) is an automorphism of G.
4.8. 13.T. Prove that the set of inner automorphisms of a group G is a normal
subgroup of the group of all automorphisms of G.
Automorphisms of Groups 101
4.8.14. Describe the innerautomorphisms t UI ' tU2 whereu l = (12),u 2 = (132),

of the symmetric group S3'
4.8.15. Describe the inner automorphisms t _ I , t _ i' t j of the quaternion
group (see 2.6.39).
4.8.16. Determine for which groups G the group of inner automorphisms of
G consists of the identity only.
4.8.17. What is the order of the group of inner automorphisms of the group
G = [(1234)(56), (13)J?
4.8. 18.T. Let Z be the center of a group G. Prove that the group of inner
automorphisms of G is isomorphic to G/Z.
4.8.19. Prove that the group of inner automorphisms of the symmetric
group Sn (n ~ 3) is isomorphic to Sn.
4.8.20.H. Prove that every automorphism of the symmetric group Sn
(n ~ 3, n =I 6) maps a transposition onto a transposition.
4.8.21.H. Prove that every automorphism of Sn (n ~ 3, n =I 6) maps the
set of distinct transpositions of the form WI)' (2), ... , Ws) into a set of trans-
pOSitions of the form (kl d, (kI 2 ), •.. , (kl s )'
4.8.22.H. Prove that every automorphism of S4 is inner. What is the o~der
of the group of automorphisms of S4?
Remark. The first assertion of this exercise is valid for every symmetric
group Sn (n =I 6), However, S6 has an outer automorphism.
4.8.23. Let G be the additive group of Gaussian integers (see 4.3.22). Describe
all automorphisms of G.
4.8.24. Prove that the group of automorphisms of the group G in 4.8.23
is isomorphic to the group of 2 x 2 matrices over the integers with deter-
minants ± 1.
4.8.25. Let G' be a characteristic subgroup of a group G, and let r:x be an auto-
morphism of G. Denote by Ii the following transformation of G': if g' E G',
then a(g') = IXg'. Prove that a is an automorphism of G'.
Remark. We say that Ii is induced by IX.
4.8.26. Prove that the alternating group A4 and the Klein group (see
3.3.18) are characteristic subgroups of the symmetric group S4'
4.8.27. Find the automorphisms of the Klein group (see 3.3.18) which
are induced by the following automorphisms of S4:
Remark. Note that distinct automorphisms of a group can induce the

same automorphism of a characteristic subgroup.
4.8.28.H. Prove that distinct automorphisms of the symmetric group S4

induce distinct automorphisms of the alternating subgroup A 4 • What is the
order of the group of automorphisms of A4?
4.8.29. Prove that every characteristic subgroup of a group G is normal.
4.8.30. Let G be any group. Prove that the following subgroups of G are
characteristic :
1) G itself;
2) e (the identity subgroup);
3) the center of G ;
4) the commutator subgroup of G.
Remark. Compare this exercise with 3.4.14.
4.8.31.H. Let G be a noncommutative group. Prove that the group of auto-
morphisms of G is not cyclic.
9. Transitive Groups of Transformations

A group G of transformations of a set X is called transitive if for any
x, y E X, there exists a E G such that ax = y. If G is not transitive, it is said to
be intransitive.
We will use the following notation in this section: for x E X, Gx is the
subset of all transformations in G which leave x fixed.
A group G of transformations of X is said to be imprimitive if (1) it is
transitive, and (2) there exists a proper partition of X into classes M i , M i , ... ,
of which at least one M k has more than one element, such that for every
a E G and every class Mk the set a(Md is also one of these classes.
The sets M i , Mi , . .. are called imprimitive systems. We will say that these
sets form an imprimitive series.
If G is a transitive group for which no such partition of X exists, then we
call G a primitive group.
We shall also consider in this section doubly transitive groups, which
form a particular case of the so-called multiply transitive groups. A group G
of transformations of a set X is said to be doubly transitive if for any two
ordered pairs (a, b), (c, d), a, b, c, dE X, a =1= b, c =1= d, there exists a E G such
that aa = c, ab = d. Obviously every doubly transitive group is transitive.
4.9.1. Let G be a group of transformations of a set X, and assume that there

exists a E X such that for every bE X, there exists a E G mapping a onto b.
Prove that G is a transitive group of transformations.
Remark. The converse is obvious. If G is a transitive group of trans-
formations, then each element a has the desired property.
4.9.2. Prove that the symmetric group of any degree and alternating groups
of degree greater than 2 are transitive.
Transitive Groups of Transformations 103
4.9.3. Let G be an intransitive group of transformations of a set X. Prove

that there exists a proper partition of X into classes M i , M j , ••• such that if
x E Mi and a E G, then ax E Mi and if Xl' X2 E M i , then there exists f3 E G
such that f3x I = X2'
Remark. The sets M i , M j , ••• are called intransitive systems.
4.9.4. Which ofthe following groups are transitive:
01 = [(123)(456), (1346)], O~ = [(1234)(56), (123)]

0 3 =[(1234)(56), (123)(567)]
where G I and G2 are groups of permutations on six elements, and G 3 is a

group of permutations on seven elements? Find the intransitive systems of the
intransitive groups.
Remark. It is easy to see that G2 is isomorphic to symmetric group S4'
Consequently the property of transitivity of a group is not always preserved
under isomorphisms.
4.9.5.T. Let G be a transitive group of transformations of a set X, x E X.
Prove that:
1) Gx is a subgroup of G;
2) if ax = y (a E G), then aG x consists of all transformations in G which
map x onto y.
4.9.6.H. Let G be a transitive group of transformations of a finite set X of

cardinality n. Prove that the index of Gx (x E X) in G is n.
Remark. Hence the order of a transitive group of transformations of a
finite set consisting of n elements is divisible by n.
4.9.7. Let G be a transitive group of transformations of a set X. Prove that:
1) Gx and Gy (x, Y E X) are conjugate subgroups in G;
2) if G' is a subgroup of G which is a conjugate of Gx , then there exists
y E X such that G' = Gy •
4.9.8.H. Let G be a transitive group of transformations of degree n. Prove

that if IX i= e is contained in the center of G, then IX is a regular permutation
(see 3.3.24) which does not have any fixed points.
4.9.9. Prove that a transitive group of permutations of degree n contains at
least n - 1 permutations, each of which does not have any fixed points.
4.9.10. Let G be a transitive group of order 1 of permutations of degree
n, n i= I. Assume that each permutation in G different from the identity either
does not have any fixed points or has exactly two fixed points. Prove that if
m is the number of permutations in G which do not have any fixed points,
then m satisfies the inequality 11 < m < il.
4.9.11. Let G be an imprimitive group, and M i , M j , • •• an imprimitive series.

Prove that all the sets Mb M j , ••• have the same cardinality.
4.9.12. Prove that the symmetric group of any degree and the alternating
groups of degree greater than 2 are primitive.
4.9.13. Prove that a transitive group of permutations of prime degree is
primitive.
4.9.14. Prove that the group [(abed), (ae)], where {a, b, e, d} is a permutation
ofthe numbers 1,2,3,4, is imprimitive, and find all ofits imprimitive systems.
4.9.15. Find all primitive and imprimitive subgroups of the symmetric
group S4'
4.9.16. Prove that the group G 1 in 4.9.4 is imprimitive, and that it has a
unique imprimitive series.
4.9.17. When is the group G = [(12 ... n)] primitive?
4.9.18. Determine which of the following groups are transitive, and which
are primitive:
1) the group of all isometries of the plane (ef. Chapter 3.5);
2) the group of all parallel translations of the plane;
3) the group of all rotations of the plane about one point.
4.9.19. Let p be an equivalence relation on a set X with the property that
for each x E X, there exist y, Z EX, Y # x such that (x, y) E p, (x, i} ¢ p.
Let G be a transitive group of transformations of X. Prove that if each ele-
ment in G is an endomorphism of X with respect to p, then G is imprimitive
(ef. Chapter 3.4).
4.9.20.T.H. Prove that if some Gx is not a maximal subgroup of a transitive
group G (i.e., there exists a subgroup G' of G such that Gx c G' c G, G' # Gx ,
G' # G) then G is imprimitive.
4.9.21.H. Prove that if a proper transitive subgroup G of the symmetric
group Sn contains a transposition, then it is imprimitive.
4.9.22.T.H. Prove that if G is a transitive group of permutations of prime
degree p and if G contains a transposition, then G is equal to the symmetric
group Sp.
4.9.23. Let G be an imprimitive group and M an imprimitive system.
Prove that the set of all transformations r:x E G having the property r:x(M) = M
is a subgroup of G.
4.9.24. Let G be an imprimitive group and H the set of all transformations in
G which map each imprimitive system of an imprimitive series into itself.
Prove that:
1) H is a normal subgroup of G ;
2) H is an intransitive group.
Transitive Groups of Transformations lOS
4.9.25. Let G be an imprimitive group which has a finite imprimitive series

M l' M 2, ... , M n. Let q> be the mapping of G into the symmetric group Sn
defined in the following way: if a E G and a(M 1) = Mil' a(M 2) = M i2 , ... ,
a(Mn) = Min' then
1 2 ... n)
q>(a) = (. . .
'1 12 ... In
Prove that q> is a homomorphism of G into Sn. Find the set of elements of G
which are mapped onto the identity by q> (see the preceding exercise).
4.9.26.H. Prove that every normal subgroup N =1= e of a primitive group of
transformations G is transitive.
4.9.27.H. Prove that the groups described in 4.9.24 exhaust the set of all
intransitive normal subgroups of an imprimitive group.
4.9.28. Let G be an intransitive group of transformations of a set X and
let Mi be an intransitive system (see 4.9.3). For every a E G denote by ai
the transformation of Mi defined by aix = ax. Prove that the set Gi of all
transformations ai is a transitive group of transformations of Mi.
4.9.29. Assume the conditions and notation of the preceding problem. Let
r be the Cartesian product of the groups Gi , Gj , ••• which correspond to all
intransitive systems of G. Prove that:
1) r is a group with respect to the following operation:
(ai' aj' .. ·)({3i' {3j' ... ) = (a i{3i, aj{3j, ... )
2) G is isomorphic to some subgroup of r.
Remark. Thus every intransitive group is, up to isomorphism, a subgroup
of the Cartesian product of transitive groups. The group G is called a sub-
direct product of the groups Gi , Gj , ••••
4.9.30. Let G be a group of transformations of a set X, x, Y E X, x =1= y.
Prove that if for every pair u, v EX, U =1= v, there exists a E G such that ax = u,
ay = v, then G is doubly transitive.
4.9.31. Which of the following groups are doubly transitive:
1) the symmetric group Sn;
2) the group G 1 in 4.9.4;
3) the group of all isometries of the plane (see 4.8.18)?
4.9.32. Determine for what values of n the alternating group An is doubly
transitive.
4.9.33. Determine the number of doubly transitive groups of transformations
,.,c degree foUf.
4.9.34.H. Prove that the order of a doubly transitive group of transforma-
tions of degree n is divisible by n(n - 1).
Chapter 5
DEFINING SETS OF RELATIONS
1. Defining Sets of Relations on Semigroups

Let S be a semigroup and K a subset of S. We will consider words in S
over K (cf Chapter 2.5).
If u = X l X2'" Xn and v = YlYz .•• Ym are words in S over K, then by
uv we mean the word Xl' .. XnYI .•• Ym'
For K, a subset of a semigroup S, and X l X2 ... X n , a word over K, the
element in S which is the product of the elements Xl' X 2 , ... ,X n is called the
value of the given word in S (cf Chapter 2.5).
If S = [KJs, then each element in S is the value of some word over K.
Moreover, it is possible for an element in S to be the value of several words
over K. If X I X2 •.• Xn and Y IY2 ••. Ym are two words which have the same value
in S, then the equality
holds in S.
Every such equality is a relation on the semigroup S with respect to the
set K. In other words, a relation is a pair of words having the same value in S.
We will say that the words X l X 2 .•. Xn and YIY2'" Ym form a relation,
and write this either as X 1X 2 ··· Xn = Y1Y2'" Ym or Y1Y2'" Ym = X 1 X 2 ··· X n ·
We will not write "with respect to K" ifit is clear from the context over
what set the word is being considered.
Let S = [KJ" and assume that the generating set K has the property
that each word over K has a unique value in S; then K is called a free generat-
in!? set of the semigroup S. A semigroup is called a free semigroup over K, or
simply a free semigroup, if it has a proper generating set K.
Let S = [KJ" and let F be a set ofrelations on S with respect to K. If
WI = W2 is a relation in F, and VI' V2 are any words over K, then the following
relations obviously hold in S:
107
108 Defining Sets of Relations
Every relation in such a form, and also every relation of the form w = w,
where w is a word over K, is called a direct consequence (or immediate corol-
lary) of F. A relation U I = U2 is said to be a consequence of F if there exists a
finite sequence of relations with respect to K: U I = VI' VI = V2' • .• , Vn = U2,
in which each relation is a direct consequence of F.
It is obvious that if the words U I and U2 form a relation which is a con-
sequence of some set of relations in S, then U I and U2 will have the same value
in S. The converse does not always hold, i.e., two words VI and V2 can have
the same value in S although the relation VI = v2 need not be a consequence
of the given system of relations.
A set of relations F on a semigroup S with respect to a generating set K
is called a defining set of relations of the semigroup S with respect to K, or a
defining set of relations, if every relation on S with respect to K is a con-
sequence of F.
A defining relation is any relation in a defining set of relations. The
significance ofthe concept of a defining set of relations lies in the fact that the
defining set of relations determines the semigroup up to isomorphism (see
5.1.19).
In the problems we will encounter symbols of the form uo, which will be
omitted when they appear in a word. For example XO y 5 will be written y5.
5.1.1. Let S = [u, v, wJs be a semigroup of transformations, where
u=(l 2), v = (n, n - 1, ... , 1), W=(l 2 3 ... n)

1 1 3 ... n
Determine which of the following pairs of words over {u, V, w} form relations
on S:
tl = WIl, t~ = vn-~uv~wvn-211V~, ts = wvn-1uvw
t, = VllVn-1WVUvn-1w, t~ = v n- 1uvwVn- 111VW, t6 = (Vll)n~l
5.1.2. Let a, b, and c be distinct elements in a semigroup S, and assume that

the relations
aH= as, a'lb = all, a7eb Hasbll = aSe, be as = eba\l
aile = ea s, aSea = aSe, ve = ev, va'!. = b
hold in the semigroup [a, b, cJs. Determine which of these relations is a con-
sequence of the others.
5.1.3. Let S be the semigroup in the preceding problem. Prove that the
following relations hold in S:
Defining Sets of Relations on Semigroups 109
5.1.4. Let S = [KJs and let F be a set of relations in S with respect to K.

Prove that:
1) the relation U = U is a consequence of F;
2) if U = v is a consequence of F then v = U is also;
3) if U = v and v = ware consequences of F, then so is u = w;
4) if U = v is a consequence of F, and WI' W z are any words in 5 over
K, then the relations WIU = Wlv, UW z = VW z , and WIUW Z = WIVW Z
are consequences of F;
5) if U I = VI and U z = V z are consequences of F, then so is u, U z = VI vz .
5.1.5.H. Let 5 = [a, h, c, dJs be the semigroup in 3.1.36. Show that the follow-
mg relations hold in A :
ab=ba, ac=ca, ad=da, bd=db, a3 =a, ad=d, c3=c

= =
a2 c~, bd d2, b'c3a~d7 b3a~d8cd b'cd 18 Cd =
=
ba3cb2abda 9 ba3cb~ad2a~, c8b5aSc6a2b' ab 9 =
5.1.6.H. Does the following set of relations
ab=ba, ad=da, bd = db, ad=d
bd=d2, ac=ca, a3=a, c3 =c
form a defining set of relations for the semigroup 5 in the preceding problem?
5.1.7. Let 5' = [a, b, dJs be a subsemigroup of the semigroup 5 in 5.1.5.
Prove that the set
ab=ba. ad=da, bd=db

ad=d, bd=dg, agb=b, a3=a
is a defining set of relations for 5'.

5.1.8. Suppose the following relations hold in the semigroup 5 = [XI' xz]':
x:=xf, x~=x~, X~X2=X'.IX~=Xg

X~Xl =xlxi=XI' (XIXi)3 Xl =XI
Prove that 5 is finite.

5.1.9. Assume that a semigroup 5 has a finite generating set K, and that for
some natural number n, every sequence of 2n + 1 elements x I, X z , ... ,
X Zn + IE K satisfies the relation
Prove that S is a finite semigroup and that S has a zero.

5.l.l0.T. Let X be any set, and ex the set of all finite sequences of elements
in X. Define a multiplication on ex by: if a = (X l ,X2""'Xn), b = (Yl'
Y2, . .. , Ym), then ab = (Xl' ... , X n, Yl, ... , Ym)· Prove that:
1) ex is a free semigroup;
2) ex has a unique free generating set;
3) if S is an arbitrary free semigroup, then there exists a set X such that S
is isomorphic to ex.
Remark. Thus every free semigroup has a unique free generating set.
5.1. 11.T. Prove that every semigroup is the homomorphic image of a free
semigroup.
5.1.12. Let S = [x]s be a finite cyclic semigroup. Prove that there exists a
defining set of relations F on S with respect to the generating set {x} such that
F consists of exactly one relation.
5.1.13. Let N be the multiplicative semigroup of natural numbers. Let P
be the irreducible generating set consisting of all primes and the number one
(see 2.5.3). Prove that the set of all relations in the form pq = qp, pi = p
(p, q E P) forms a defining set of relations on N with respect to P.
5.1.l4.T. Prove that in each semigroup there exists a defining set of relations
with respect to any generating set. .
5.1.15. Assume that the set
for k = 1,2, ... , 10, and I = 1,2, ... , 10, is a defining set of relations for the
semigroup S = [Xl' X2"'" XlOJs' Prove that S is a finite commutative semi-
group having neither an identity nor a zero. How many elements are in S?
5.1.16. Suppose that the semigroup S = [u, v]s has the following set of
defining relations with respect to {u, v} :
u2 = ll, Vi = V, llVll = ll, VUV = V
1) Construct the Cayley table for S.

2) Is S regular (cf. Chapter 2.5)?
5.1.17. Let S = [KJs and let F be a set of relations on S. Let cp be a mapping
of the set K into a semigroup T. Replace each element in every relation on S
by its image under cpo Prove that ifthis substitution yields a relation on T for
every relation in F, then it also yields a relation on T for every consequence
of F.
5.1.lS.T.H. Prove that if the set F in the preceding problem is a defining set
of relations for S, then the mapping cp can be extended to a homomorphism of
S into T (cf. Chapter 2.2).
Defining Sets of Relations on Semigroups 111
5. 1. 19.T.H. Let F l' F 2 be defining sets of relations for the semigroups

S 1, S 2 with respect to the generating sets K 1, X 2, respectively. Assume that
there exists a one-to-one mapping qJ of K 1 onto K 2 such that if in every
relation in F 1 each element in K 1 is replaced by its image under qJ, then a
relation in F 2 is obtained. Prove that if, in addition, every relation in F 2 can
be obtained in such a manner, then Sl and S2 are isomorphic.
5.1.20.H. Let S be a semigroup with a generating set K and a defining set of
relations of the form
U'Vu=vuv (u, vE K)
Is S commutative?
5.1.21. Given the semigroup S = [a, b, c]s, and a defining set of relations F
for S,
ab=ba, ac=ca, bc=c
prove that:
1) every element in S can be written uniquely in the form akcmbft , where
k = 0, 1 ; m and n are nonnegative integers, and k, m, and n do not all
equal zero;
2) S has no identity.
5.1.22. Let S be the semigroup defined in the preceding problem. Find:
1) all idempotents in S (cf Chapter 2.2);
2} all elements in S which commute with acmb ft (where m and n are
fixed natural integers);
3) the types of all cyclic subsemigroups of S (see 2.5.10).
5.1.23. Let there be given a semigroup S' = [a, b, c], and let F' be a defining
set of relations for S' consisting of all relations in the set F in 5.1.21 and the
relation c 5 = a.
1) Prove that S' is a homomorphic image of the semigroup S defined in
5.1.21.
2) Find the type of each element in S' (see 2.5.10).
3) Determine which elements generate cyclic subgroups of the semi-
group S'.
5.1.24.H. Let S be a free semigroup. Prove that:
1) S does not have an identity;
2) S is both left and right cancellative (cf Chapter 2.2);
3} each element in S has a finite number of distinct left or right divisors.
5.1.25. Prove that a free semigroup has a unique irreducible generating
set.
5.1.26. Let S = [a, b]., and let the set
aba=a, bab=b, (ba)2=ba
be a defining set of relations for S. Prove that:

1) ba is the identity of S;
2) the only elements which ..:ommute with a are powers of a and the
identity ba;
3) the only elements which commute with b are powers of b and the
identity ba;
4) for every XES, x =f. a, x =f. b, there exists an element y =f. ba which
commutes with x and is not a power of x.
5.1.27.". Let S be the semigroup in the preceding problem. Find:
1) all regular elements in S (cf Chapter 2.5);
2) the inverse of each regular element;
3) all automorphisms of S.
5.1.28. Prove that the semigroup [0(, PIs in 3.1.13 is isomorphic to the
semigroup S defined in 5.1.26.
2. Defining Sets of Relations on Groups

Let G be a group and let K be a generating set of G in the sense of group
theory, i.e., G = [K]g. If K' is the set of all elements in G which are inverses of
elements in K, then G = [K U K']s (cf Chapter 2.6).
By considering the group G as a semigroup with K U K' U e as its
set of generators, where e is the identity oIG, we can apply all the terms
introduced in the preceding section to G (the concepts of word and relation
over the generating set K U K' U e, a consequence of a set of relations, a
defining set of relations, etc.).
However, we employ a different terminology in group theory. A word in
a group G over the set K U K' U e is called a word over K, and a relation on G
with respect to K U K' U e is called a relation on G with respect to K. In
what follows we will adhere to the "group" terminology, adding the phrase
"in the sense of group theory" where possible ambiguity might arise; we
will do the same for generating sets (cf Chapter 2.6).
Let G = [K}g, and let F be a set of relations on G with respect to K in the
sense of group -theory. A relation u = v is called a consequence of F in the
sense of group theory if it is a consequence (cf Chapter 5.1) of the set con-
sisting of all relations in F and all relations of the form
ke= ek=k, kk- 1 =k- 1k =e (kEKU KUe)

Defming Sets of Relations on Groups 113
Hence we consider as consequences of a set of relations F on a group G the

natural group relations given above in addition to the relations appearing
in F.
One should note the following simple, yet important, property. If
X 1X 2 .•. Xn = Y1Yz .•. Ym is a relation in a group, then the relation X 1X 2 •••
XnY';; 1 ••• Yi 1 = e is a consequence of it. Conversely, the first relation is a
consequence of the second (see 5.2.4). As a result, relations on a group are
usually given in the form u = e, where u is a word. Also note that each of the
relations Z 1Z 2 .•. Zn = e and z;; 1... Z21 Z 11 = e is a consequence of the other
(see 5.2.4).
We will consider the empty set of relations as a set of relatiohs on a
group. If a relation u = v is a consequence of the empty set of relations in the
sense of group theory, then it is a consequence (see Chapter 5.1) of the natural
group relations given above.
If every relation on a group G with respect to a generating set K is a
consequence of a set of relations F in the sense of group theory, then F is called
a defining set of relations of G with respect to K.
The description of a group by a generating set and a defining set of
relations determines the group up to isomorphism (see 5.2.7).
Clearly the theory of relations in the sense of group theory is a particular
case of the theory of relations in the sense of semigroups. As has been already
noted, a different terminology is employed in group theory, partly because of
simplicity of notation, and partly due to tradition.
5.2.1. Let a = (12), b = (12345). Prove that the following relations hold in
the group [a,b] = Ss:
5.2.2. Assume that the following relations hold in the group G = [u, v] :
Show that the following equalities are valid in G:
(Vll)4 = e, llV-illV g = V- 2llV 211,

v-Iuv = V 311V-1UV-Ill, (llVllV- I )3 = e
Remark. In particular, the following equalities hold in the group [a, b]
in 5.2.1,
(ba)i = e, ab- 2ab 2 = b-2ab 2a,
b-Iab = b3ab- l ab- l a, (abab- I)3 =e
The validity of these last equalities can be calculated directly in [a, b], but
after verifying 5.2.2, such a check is not necessary.
5.2.3. Let x and y be elements in a finite group G connected by the relation
yx = xy\ where k is an integer different from o. Prove that every element in
the group [x, y] can be written in the form xmyn (where m and n are integers).
5.2.4.H. Let G be any group. Prove that:
1) if the relation X 1 X 2 ••• xn = Y1Y2 ••• Ym is valid in G, then so is
X 1X 2 ••• xny,;;-1 ••• Yl 1 = e, where each of these is a consequence of
the other in the sense of group theory;
2) ifthe relation Z1Z2 ••• Zn = e holds in G, then sodoeszn- 1 .•. z;1z11
e, and each relation is a consequence of the other in the sense of
group theory.
5.2.5. Let G = [a, b], and
Prove that:
1) the elementsa 2 , b- 1 a 2 b,ba 2 b- 1 are pairwise commutative, and form a
conjugate class;
2) the subgroup [a 2 , b] is a normal subgroup of G.
5.2.6. Let G = [a 1 , a2 , •.• ,an - 1 ], and suppose the relations
(k, j=l, ..., n-l; Ik-jl>l)

(I = 1, 2, ... , n - 2)
hold. Prove that:

1) the following equalities hold in G:
ailai+lai=ai+laiaT~l' aib=bai~1> a1b2 =b2an_l
where b = a 1 a2 ... an-I' and aj is arbitrary;

2) bn is in the center of G.
5.2.7.T.H. Let there be given the groups
0 1 = [Kdg = [K 1 UK; Ueds
O'J= [K~]g= [K2 UK~ Ue~]s
and defining sets of relations F l' F 2 of Gl' G2 with respect to the generating
sets K 1, K 2 , respectively, in the sense of group theory. Prove that if there
exists a one-to-one mapping qJ of the set Kl U K'1 U e1 onto K2 U K'z U e2
satisfying
Defining Sets of Relations on Groups 115
and the set F I is in a one-to-one correspondence with F 2, then G I is isomor-

phic to G2 .
5.2.S.T.H. Let there be given a group G = [Kg] = [K U K' U el, and a
defining set of relations F of G with respect to K. Let ({J be a mapping of the
set K U K' U e into a group G', where each relation in F and each relation
of the form ke = ek = k, kk- I = k-Ik = e (kEK U K' U e) is mapped
onto a relation on G'. Prove that if G' = [({J(K)]g, then G' is isomorphic to a
factor group of G.
5.2.9. Let a = (1234), b = (132) be elements in the symmetric group S4'
Prove that:
1) S4 = [a,b];
2) the relations a4 = b3 = (ab)2 = e hold in S4.
5.2.10. Let G be the group in 5.2.5, and let c = a 2 ba- l • Show that the follow-
ing equalities hold in G:
c2 = e, a- 1b-1a- 1 = b, b- 1c = eb, be = cb-t, ae = eb-1a

=
a-Ie = b- 1a2, a- 1b = bca2, a2b = ca, ab- 1 ca 2
5.2.11. Assume the conditions and notation from the preceding problem.
Show that every element in G can be written in the form calba2aa3, where
o ~ !Xi ~ i, i = 1,2,3.
5.2.12. Assume the conditions and notation of 5.2.10. Suppose that the
equalities
holdinGonlyiflX1 = fJI,1X2 = fJ2,andlX3 = fJ3·Provethatthesetofrelations
a' = b = (ab)~ = e
3
is a defining set of relations on G.

5.2. 13.H. Prove that the set of relations
a'=b 3 =(ab)2=e
is a defining set of relations for the symmetric group S4 with respect to the
generating set {a, b}, where a = (1234), b = (132).
Remark. Problems 5.2.11 and 5.2.12 should be borne in mind for those
problems which verify that a given set of relations forms a defining set of
relations.
5.2.14. Let K be the quaternion group. Prove that:

1) K = [i,j];
2) all of the following relations in the set F below are valid in K:
F = W= I, j'= I, i'J=P, iji=j}
5.2.15. Prove that the set of relations F in the preceding problem is a defining
set of relations for the quaternion group K.
5.2.16. Let G1 = [a, b, c] c S6' where a = (12), b = (34), c = (56). Prove
that the set of relation
a'l=b'l=c'l=e, ab=ba, ac=ca, bc=cb
is a defining set ofrelations for G1 with respect to the generating set {a, b, c}.
5.2.17. Let G2 = [a, b] c S6' where a = (1234), b = (56). Prove that the
set of relations
a'=b'J=e, ab=ba
is a defining set of relations for G with respect to the generating set {a, b} .
.
5.2.18. Suppose the following relations hold in the group G = [a, b]:
a'l = b'J = (ab)' = e
Prove that:
1) the order of G is less than or equal to eight;
2) (ab)2 lies in the center of G.
5.2.19. Let G = [(1234), (13)] and a = (12)(34), b = (13). Prove that G =
[a, b], and the set of relations a2 = b2 = (ab)4 =' e is a defining set of relations
for G.
5.2.20. Let G be the group in 4.6.16. Prove that G = [Zl' Z2]' and that the
set of relations zi = Zo, ZlZ2 = Z;lZl (where Zo is the identity of G) is a
defining set for G.
5.2.21.H. Let [a] and [b] be infinite cyclic groups,
G = {(aa,bP):aa E [a],bPE [b]}

Define an operation on G by:
Prove that:
1) G is a group;
2) if e = (a, bO), d = (ao, b), then G = [e, d], and the set consisting of
the relation de = er 1 is a defining set for G.
Free Groups 117
5.2.22.H. Let [a] and [b] be cyclic groups of orders m and n, respectively,
and let r be any natural number. Let
G~n = {(a", bP): a" E [a], bP E [b J}
and define an operation on G by
where
Prove that
1) G~fi is a group if and only if r'" == 1 (mod n);
2) if G~n is a group, then G~n = [c, d], where c = (a, bO) and d = (aO, b);
3) the set of relations
where e is the identity of G~n, is a defining set of relations for G~n.

5.2.23.H. Let p and q be primes, p < q. Prove that the groups G~q and Gfq
in the preceding problem are isomorphic for any rand s which satisfy the
conditions
,p =1 (mod q), sP =1 (mod q).

3. Free Groups
A generating set K of a group G is called a free generating set if all of its
elements are different from the identity and the empty set of relations with
respect to K is a defining set of relations for G in the sense of group theory.
As was noted in Chapter 5.2, this means that every relation in G with respect
to K is a consequence of the natural group relations: ke = ek = k, kk- 1 =
k- lk = e, where k E K, k = e, or k is the inverse of an element in K.
A group is said to be free if it has a free generating set. It will be proved
in 5.6.31 that if a free group G has a free generating set with n elements, then
every other generating set of G also has n elements.
The number of elements in a free generating set of a free group G is
called the rank of G. If a free generating set is infinite we say that the free
group is of infinite rank.
In problems 5.3.1-5.3.6 we will illustrate a method for constructing
free groups. This will enable us to exhibit the existence of free groups of
any given rank.
118 Defming Sets of Relations
The importance of free groups stems from the fact that every group is
isomorphic to a factor group of a free group (see 5.3.13). In addition, the
concept of a free group is sometimes used in the definition of a defining set
of relations on a group (see 5.3.15 and 5.3.16).
One should keep the following remarks in mind when considering "free
semigroups" (introduced in Chapter 5.1). A free semigroup can never be a
group. Of course a free group is a semigroup, but it is not a free semigroup
(see 5.3.21).
5.3.1. Let FK be a free semigroup with free generating set K. Let rp be a one-
to-one mapping of K onto itself, with rp(k) #- k, rp2(k) = k for all k e K.
Define the binary relation p on F K to consist of the pairs
(1'1111 krp (k) WI), (1'1121 w,krp (k», (1'1111'11" wlkrp (k) wtl, (1'11., 1'111)
(kcp (k) 1'1111 1'111), (w,krp (k), 1'11,), (wlkcp (k) 1'11" W1Wtl
where k e K, wi> W2 eFK. Prove that:

1) p is reflexive and symmetric;
2) the transitive closure pi of p is a congruence on F K.
Remark. From 2.4.18, 2.4.14, and 2.4.8 it follows that FK = FK/ p' is a
semigroup.
5.3.2. Assuming the conditions and notation of the preceding problem,
show that for kl' k2 E K, kl # k2' we have (kl' k 2) ¢ p'.
5.3.3. Assuming the conditions and notation of 5.3.1, prove that the semi-
group FK = F K/ pi is a group. Which class is the identity? Which class IS the
inverse element of the class containing k e K?
5.3.4.H. Prove that the group FK in 5.3.3 is a free group.
5.3.5. Prove that if two sets K and L have the same cardinality then FK is
isomorphic to FL (see 5.3.3).
5.3.6. Prove that for every free group G, there exists a set K such that Gis
isomorphic to the group FK defined in 5.3.3.
Remark. Hence groups of the form FK exhaust all free groups up to
isomorphism.
5.3.7. Let F be the free group with free generating set {a, b}. Prove that the
normal subgroup of F generated by {a 2, b2, (ab)2} (cf. Chapter 4~3) consists
of all words a"lbiJ1 a"2b iJ2 ... a"kb iJk for which OC 1 + OC2 + ... + OC k and Pl +
P2 + ... + Pk are even.
5.3.S.H. Let F be the free group with {a, b} its free set of generators. Find
the index of the following subgroups of F:
Free Groups 119
2) H..=[a];
3) Ha= [a', b', a-1b'a, b-1a'b, (ab)!I]
Which of these subgroups are normal?
5.3.9. What kind of free groups are commutative?
5.3.10. Let F be a free group of rank greater than one. Prove that:
1) every element in F different from the identity has infinite order;
2) the center of F is the identity subgroup.
5.3.11. Let K be a free generating set for a group F. Prove that every mapping
of K into F can be extended to an endomorphism of F (cf Chapters 1.2
and 3.4).
5.3. 12.H. Prove that every free group of rank greater than one has an
infinite number offree generating sets.
5.3. 13.T.H. Let G = [K] be a group. Prove that G is a homomorphic image
of a free group which has a free generating set of the same cardinality as K.
5.3.14. Let F be a free group with K a free generating set of F, cp a homomor-
phism of F onto a group G, and K the set of generators of G consisting of all
cp(x) (x E K). Let H be the normal subgroup of F consisting of all elements
which are mapped onto the identity by cpo Prove that:
1) if
then the relation
holds in G with respect to K;

2) if
where
then
Remark. If
then we will call the relation
the relation corresponding to u in F.

5.3.15. Assume the conditions and notation of 5.3.14. In addition, let M
be a set of generators of H (cf Chapter 4.3). Prove that the set of all relations
on G corresponding to elements in M is a defining set of relations of G with
respect to K.
5.3.16. Assume the conditions and notation of 5.3.14. Let D be the defining
set of relations of G with respect to K consisting of relations of the form
u = e. Prove that the set of all elements in F which correspond to a relation
in D generates H (cf Chapter 4.3).
Remark. The set of relations on G corresponding to elements in M (see
5.3.15) is sometimes called the defining set of relations of G.
5.3.17.H. Let F be a free group of rank n, and let H be the subgroup of F
generated by the squares of all elements in F. Prove that H is a normal
subgroup of F, and find the order of F/H.
5.3.18. Let H be the normal subgroup in the preceding problem. Prove that if
{x l ' ... ,xn } is a free generating set of F, then H, as a normal subgroup, is
generated by
(cf Chapter 4.3)
(cf Chapter 4.3).

5.3.19.H. Let {x, y} be a free generating set of a group F, and H a completely
characteristic subgroup of F containing x 2yxy-l. Prove that if H =f. F,
then the index of H in F is 9.
5.3.20. Let {Xl' ... ' xn} be a free generating set of a group F. Prove that
each of the following mappings of the set {x 1 , ••. ,xn } onto itself can be
extended to an automorphism of F :
1) rpjj (Xj) = Xj' rplj (Xj) = Xi' rpij (Xk) = Xk' k i= i, j

2) o/t(Xj)=xit, o/dXj) = Xj' i"=l=j
3) 9ij (Xi) = XiXj (1"=1= j), 9ij (x k) = x k, k "=I=}
where i,j = 1,2, ... , n (cf Chapter l.2).

Remark. It is weII-known that these automorphisms generate the group
of automorphisms of the free group F.
5.3.21. Prove that a free group is not a free semigroup.
Groups Defined by Sets of Relations 121
5.3.22. Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for a group F to be

free is for F to have a generating set K with the property that every mapping
of K into any group G can be extended to a homomorphism of F into G.
4. Groups Defined by Sets of Relations
Let K be an arbitrary set. A word over K is a finite sequence of elements

in K written on a line with no symbols separating them.
The concept of a word over a set was considered earlier (cf Chapter 2.5
and in the earlier sections of Chapter 5), but only for the case where the given
set was a subset of a semigroup.
For a given set K select an arbitrary, but fixed, set K' which has the same
cardinality as K, and such that K n K' = 0. Let IjJ be a one-to-one mapping
of K onto K', and let e be any element such that e rt K UK'. Consider a
binary relation p on the set of all words over K U K' U e. The question arises
whether there exists a group G with the following properties: K is a generating
set of G, e is the identity, ljJ(k) is the inverse of k for all k E K, and the set of all
relations U 1 = U2, where (Ul' u2 ) E p, is a defining set for G in the sense of
group theory.
We shall show that such a group G always exists (see 5.4.1). Moreover,
from 5.2.7, G is unique up to isomorphism.
One should keep in mind that it is possible for various elements in K
to be equal in this group. In particular, the group can consist of the identity
alone.
On the other hand, if G is a group and K is a generating set of G, then
there always exists a defining set of relations on G with respect to K in the
sense of group theory; for example, the set of all relations on G with respect
to K.
If K is a generating set and F is a defining set of relations on a group G
with respect to K, then we say that G is defined by the generating set K and the
set of relations F.
It is natural to ask certain questions concerning the group G which is
defined by a generating set K and a defining set of relations F. The most
important of these is: how can one determine if two given words in G have
the same value with respect to K? If G is concrete, i.e., if its elements (and
how they are multiplied) are known, then no such question arises. In fact,
we can always determine whether the values of two words in G are equal by
computing them directly.
If a method (algorithm) can be devised for testing whether the values of
any two words are equal in G then we say that the word problem is solvable
in G. The great amount of difficulty which often occurs when determining the
solvability of the word problem is well-known. In fact, there are some
classes of groups for which the word problem is not, in general, solvable, i.e.,
no such algorithm as stated above exists for all pairs of words.
The second most important question concerns when two groups defined
by generating sets and sets of relations are isomorphic.
Finally, we raise the questions: if G is defined by a generating set and a
set of relations, is it finite? Is it commutative? Does it reduce to the trivial
group?
5.4.1.T.H. Let K be any set, and K' a set with the same cardinality as K,
with K n K' = 0. Let e be any element such that e ¢ K UK', and let t/I
be a one-to-one mapping of K onto K'. Prove that for every binary relation
p on the set of all words over K U K' U e, there exists a group G such that
G = [K]g, e is the identity of G, t/I(k) = k- 1 for every k E K, and the set of all
relations U 1 = U 2 , where (u 1 , u2 ) E p, is a defining set of relations on G with
respect to K.
5.4.2.T. Assume that the group G1 is defined by a generating set K and a
set of relations F 1 ; and that the group G2 is defined by the same generating
set K and a set of relations F 2. Prove that if F 1 C F 2, then:
1) G2 is a homomorphic image of G 1 ;
2) if every relation in F 2 is a consequence of the set of relations F l'
then G2 is isomorphic to G1 •
5.4.3.H. Which of the following groups are commutative:
1) Gl' defined by the generating set {Xl' X2, X3, ... } and the set of
relations
2) G2, defined by the generating set {x, y} and the relation xy2 = y 2x;
3) G3 , defined by the generating set {X 1 ,X 2 ,X 3 , ... } and the set of
relations
x~=x~, x~=x:, ... , x~=x~, ...
5.4.4.H. Prove that all three groups in the preceding problem are infinite.
5.4.5.H. Determine the order of the group defined by the generating set
{x, y} and the set of relations
5.4.6.H. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {x, y} and the rela-
tion xy = yxs, where s is any integer different from zero. What is the order
of the subgroup [y]?
Groups Defined by Sets of Relations 123
5.4.7.H. Assume that a group G is defined by the generating set {x, y} and
the relation x 2 = y2. Which of the following elements are equal in G:
III = (xy)3, U2= yxyxy2, Ila = X3y 3, U, = xy2x a
lIG = x~y-I x 3yx, 116 = x- Iyx 6
5.4.8.H. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {x, y} and the set
of relations
Which of the following elements are equal in G:

'VI = x-Iy-Ixy, 'V~ = x', 'Va =y', 'V, = Xy-I xy-I xy-l
'Vn = x2y2, 'V6 = (xy)3, 'V, = X3y 3, 'V s = x- 1
yx 6

5.4.9. Let G = [K], where K is a finite set, and let the set of relations
(x, y E K)
be a defining set for G. Prove that G is a finite group, and find its order.
5.4.10.". Let a group G be defined by the generating set {x, y} and the
relations xy = y-1 x, x 2 = y2.
1) Prove that every element in G can be written in the form xiyi, where
i = 0, 1 and j is any integer.
2) Determine when two elements xi,yl' and xiIyh (i1' i2 = 0, 1; j1 ,j2
arbitrary) are equal, and when one is the inverse of the other.
5.4.n. Prove that the group G = [a, b] with the defining set of relations
is a cyclic group of order 3.

5.4.12. Let a group G be defined by a generating set K and a set of relations
F, and lety = x~ 'X~2 ... x~rn, where y E G,x 1 , x 2 , •.. , Xm E K. Prove that K' =
K U {y} is a generating set of G, and that the set consisting of all relations
in F and the relation y = X~'X~2 ... x~rn is a defining set of relations of G with
respect to K'.
5.4.13.T. Let a group G be defined by a generating set K and a set of rela-
tions F, which contains the relation y = X~'X22 ... x~rn (y, Xl, ... , Xm E K;
lXI' ••• ,Ct m integers). Let F' be the set of relations obtained by substituting
the word X~'X~2 ... x~rn in place of y in all relations in F. Prove that the set
124 Defming Sets of Relations
K' = K"'- {y} generates G. Further, show that P' is a defining set of relations
of G with respect to K'.
5.4.14.". How many elements of finite order and how many of infinite order
lie in the group G defined by the generating set {x, y} and the relation
(xy)k = e (k natural number)?
5.4.15.". Find all elements of finite order in the group defined by the
generating set {XI' X 2 , .•. , xn} and the relation
5.4.16.". Let G I = [x, YI,. Y3] have as a defining set of relations
X-I)'IXY2 = X-I)'2XYa = X-I)'axYI = e,

xa=Yi=Y~=Y5=e, YIY~=Y2YI> YIY2Ya=e
...
Prove that G I is isomorphic to the group G2 defined by the generating set
{a, b l , b2 } and the set of relations
-b2 =e' (b 1b2)2-e

{O':!-b 2 2
• - 1- - ,
5.4.17. Suppose that a group G is defined by a generating set K and the

relation
where Xl' X 2 , ... , Xm are distinct elements in K. Prove that G is a free group.
5.4.18.". Let G = [a, b], and assume that the set of relations a2 = b2 =
(ab)4 = e is a defining set of relations on G. Find:
1) the number of generating sets of G consisting of two elements;
2) the center of G ;
3) the group of automorphisms of G.
5.4.19. Let G be a noncyclic commutative group of order eight. Show that
either G has a generating set with two elements a, b which satisfy the relations
a4 = b 2 = e, or G has a generating set with three elements a, b, c which
satisfy a2 = b2 = c2 = e.
5.4.20.". Determine the number of nonisomorphic commutative groups of
order eight.
5.4.21. Let G be a noncommutative group of order eight. Prove that:
1) G contains no elements of order eight;
2) G contains an element of order four;
3) if b ¢ [a], where a is an element of order four, then b-lab = a3 ;
4) if bE [a], where a is an element of order four and b2 #- e, then b2 = a2 •
Free Products of Groups 125
5.4.22.". Let G be a noncommutative group of order eight. Prove that G is

isomorphic to either the quaternion group or the group [(1234), (13)].
5.4.23.". How many nonisomorphic groups of order eight are there?
5.4.24.". Let p and q be primes, p < q, and let G be a noncyclic group of
order pq. Prove that:
1) G has a unique subgroup N of order q, and that N is a normal sub-
group ofG;
2) G has q subgroups of order p.
5.4.25.". Let G be the group defined in the preceding problem. Prove that
there exist elements a, bEG satisfying
where r ~ 1 (mod q), rP == 1 (mod q), such that G = [a, b].

5.4.26.H. Prove that every noncydic group of order pq, where p and q are
distinct primes with p < q, is isomorphic to some group Gfq as defined ip
problem 5.2.22.
5.4.27.". Let p and q be distinct primes. Show that there exist at most two
nonisomorphic groups of order pq. Describe their structure.
5.4.28.H. How many nonisomorphic groups of order 14 are there? How
many of order 15?
5.4.29.". Determine the number a(n) of nonisomorphic groups of order
n for n ~ 10.
5. Free Products of Groups
A group G is called the free product of its subgroups G~, r:t. E A, (where
the cardinality of A is greater than one) if:
1) G~ i= e for all r:t. E A;
2) G~ n Gp = eforallr:t.,pEA,r:t. i= P;
3) G' = U G~ is a generating set of G;
~EA
4) the set consisting of all relations on G~, for all

r:t. E A, is a defining set
of relations on G with respect to G'.
The representation of G by a free product of subgroups Ga , r:t. E A, is
called a decomposition of G into a free product, and is denoted by
G=II*G~, or G=Ga.*G~* ... *G~* ...
EEr
Another way of defining the free product of subgroups is given in 5.5.10 and
5.5.11. This equivalent statement is often taken as the definition of free
product.
5.5.1. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {a 1 ,a2,a 3 ,a4 } and
the set of relations at = e, a~ = e; aj = e, al 2 = e. Can G be decomposed
into a free product?
5.5.2. What kind of free groups are decomposable into a free product?
5.5.3. Let G be the free product of its subgroups A and B, each of which is a
free group. Prove that G is a free group.
5.5.4. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {al> a2, a3 } and the
set of relations ai = az , aj = e. Let G; (i = 1, ... ,4) be subgroups of G such
that G l = [ai' a2], G2 = [a 2], G3 = [az, a3], G4 = [a 3]. Can G be decom-
posed into a free product of any of the Gi ?
5.5.5. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {ai' a2, a3} and the
relation at = e. Prove that G is the free product of a cyclic group of order 3
and two infinite cyclic groups.
5.5.6. Can an abelian group be decomposed into a free product of its
subgroups?
5.5.7. Let a group G be the free product of the subgroup A = [ai' a2 , a3 ]
having the defining set of relations a l ail = a~, af = a~ and the subgroup
B = [b 1,b 2 J subject to the relation bi = blb~. Prove that M= {al,a 2,a3,
b t ,b 2 } is a generating set ofG, and thesetatai1 = aLai = aLbi = btbps
a defining set of relations of G with respect to M.
5.5.S. Is the free product of two finite subgroups necessarily finite?
5.5.9. Let G = n* Ga ,
~EA
where every a E U Ga , a "# e, has infinite order.
~EA
Does G have any elements of finite order?

5.S.l0.T. Suppose that there are subgroups Ga "# e (cx E A) of a group G
satisfying the following condition: every g E G (g "# e) can be uniquely
written in the form
(i = 1, 2, ... , n)
where CX; =1= CXi+ l' Prove that G = n* Ga.

aEA
5.5.H.T. Prove that if G = n* Gil' then every g E G (g =1= e) can be uniquely

aEA
written in the form
aj EGa.I (i = 1, 2, ... , n)
where CX; =1= CXj+ 1.

5.5.12. Let G = n* G~, and in every subgroup
~EA
G~ select a subgroup G~ =1= e.
Prove that the subgroup G' c G which is generated by all of the subgroups
G~ is the free product of its subgroups G~ (cx E A).
The Direct Product of Groups 127
5.5. 13.T. Let G = G 1 * G2 , and let N be the normal subgroup generated by

G2 (cf Chapter 4.3). Prove that G1 is isomorphic to GIN.
5.5.14. Let A, B, C be subgroups of a group G, and let G = A * B, G =
A * C. Does it follow that B is isomorphic to C?
5.5.15. Let G be the free product of two cyclic subgroups of orders 5 and 7.
Is G a periodic group?
5.5.16. Let a group G be the free product of a finite number of subgroups,
each of \Yhich has a finite generating set. Prove that G also has a finite
generating set.
5.5.17. A group G is called complete if for every a E G and every natural
number n, the equation x" = a can be solved in G. Under what conditions is
a group which is decomposed into a free product of complete subgroups
complete?
5.5. IS. What is the center of a free product of groups?
5.5.19. Let G = A * B, a E A, a i: e, b E B, b i: e. Can ab lie in A?
5.5.20.H. Let G be the set of all partial transformations on the set of complex
numbers K defined by
A( ) _ az+b
Z - cz+d (z E J()
(a, b, c, d are rational numbers with ad - be = 1). Prove that G is a group
under the operation defined in 3.6.25, and that it can be decomposed into
the free product of a cyclic group of order 2 and a cyclic group of order 3.
5.5.21. .Suppose that G = G 1 * G2 , and that G'l and G~ are proper sub-
groups of G', where G'l is isomorphic to G 1 , G~ is isomorphic to G2 , and
G' = [G'l' G~]. Is G' a homomorphic image of G?
5.5.22. Let G = G 1 * G2 * G3 • Prove that
5.5.23. Let G be a free noncyclic group. Show that there exist an infinite
number of decompositions of G into free products of its subgroups.
5.5.24.T.H. Letthere be given a family of groups G,,(IX E A), G" i: e, where the
index set A has more than one element. Prove that there exists a group G
having subgroups G" (IX E A) which are isomorphic to the G" (IX E A), such
that G is the free product of the G" (IX E A).
6. The Direct Product of Groups

We say that a group G is a direct product of its subgroups Ga (IX E A)
if:
1) Ga. n
Gp foralla,/3EA,a =1= /3;
2) G' = U Ga. is a generating set of G;
aeA
3) forallaEG"bEG p ,(a,/3EA,oc -::f /3)
ab = ba
and the set consisting of these relations and all relations on the Ga '
is a defining set of relations on G with respect to G'.

Two other equivalent definitions of the direct product which are
frequently used are given below (see 5.6.13, 5.6.14, and 5.6.30).
A representation of G as a direct product of subgroups Ga is called a
decomposition of G into the direct product. We will denote this by
a= II 0e. or 0=0", X a~ x ... X Oe X ...

eEr
A subgroup A of G is called a direct factor of G if there exists a subgroup
B of G such that G = A x B. A group is called decomposable if it admits a
proper subgroup which is a direct factor of it.
Two decompositions of a given group G into direct products are said
to be isomorphic if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the
factors of these decompositions such that corresponding factors are iso-
morphic groups.
Let a group G be a direct product of its subgroups Ga. (oc E A), and
suppose that some of these G,(oc E A', A' c A) are decomposed into direct
products of their subgroups G, = n Ga.~' Then G is the direct product of
'lEA IX
all the subgroups Ga.~ (oc E A', I'f E Aa) and the G, (oc E A "'-A') (see 5.6.3). Such a
decomposition is called an extension of the decomposition G = n G,.
'EA
5.6.1. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {ai' az , a 3 , a4} and the
set of relations ai = ai 3 = a~ = al = e, aia j = api (i, j == 1,2, 3,4). De-
compose G into a direct product of cyclic subgroups.
5.6.2. Let G = A x B, where A has the generating set l ai' az} and defining
relation ai = az, and B = [b I, b z , b3 J has the defining relation bi = b2 b 3 •
Prove that M = {a l ,az,b l ,b z ,b 3 }isageneratingsetofGandthat{ai = az ,
bi = bzb3 , aZb3 = b3 aZ' alb z = b2 a l , bzaz = azb z , alb l = blal, a l b3 =
b3 a l , aZb l = b l az } is a defining set of relations on G with respect to M.
5.6.3.T. Let G be a direct product of its subgroups Ga. (oc E A), and let some
of its subgroups Ga. (oc E A', A' c A) be decomposed into direct products
Ga. = n Ga.~' Prove that G is a direct product of all the G>~ (oc E A', I'f E Aa.)
"eA oc
and Ga. (a E A "'-A').
5.6.4. Prove that it is impossible for a group G to be decomposed both into a
direct product of cyclic subgroups and into a free product of cyclic subgroups.
The Direct Product of Groups 129
Remark. We have thus shown that a group cannot be decomposed into

both a direct product and a free product of any of its proper subgroups.
5.6.5.H. Determine which of the following groups are decomposable into
a direct product of subgroups:
1) a finite group of prime order;
2) an infinite cyclic group;
3) the quaternion group;
4) a group of order 51;
5) the additive group of rational numbers.
5.6.6. Prove that the multiplicative group of all real numbers different from
zero is decomposable into a direct product of the multiplicative group of
positive numbers and a cyclic group of order 2.
5.6.7. Let G 1 and G2 be finite subgroups of a group G, where the orders of
G 1 and G z are relatively prime and each element in G 1 commutes with every
element in Gz . Prove that[G 1 , GzJ = G 1 x Gz .
5.6.8. Let A be the subgroup of the symmetric group S8 generated by the
permutations a = (1234)(5678) and b = (1537)(2846). Is A decomposable
into a direct product?
5.6.9. Let H be the subgroup of S4 generated by a = (12)(34), b = (13)(24),
and c = (14)(23). Show that H can be decomposed into a direct product.
How many such nonisomorphic decompositions of H exist?
5.6.10. Prove that
1) the direct product of abelian groups is abelian;
2) 'the direct product of complete groups is complete;
3) the direct product of periodic groups is periodic.
5.6.11. Prove that the factor group of a free group by its commutator
subgroup is either an infinite cyclic group or a direct product of infinite
cyclic groups.
5.6.12. Prove that a group G of order pq, where p and q are distinct primes,
is decomposable into a direct product if and only if G is commutative.
5.6. 13.T. Let G = n G
7 • Prove that every g E G (g i= e) can be written
2EA
uniquely, up to the order of the factors, in the form
(i=I, 2, ... , n) (*)
where lY. i i= lY. i + l'
5.6.14.T. Let G~ (11. E A) be a collection of subgroups of a group G, where the

elements in any two subgroups G~ and GiJ (11. i= (J) commute, and suppose
that every element g E G (g =1= e) can be written uniquely, up to the order of

the factors, in the form
(i=l, 2, .,,' n)
where rxi =1= rx i+ 1 for all i = 1,2, ... , n - 2, n - 1. Prove that G can be
decomposed into a direct product of its subgroups G~ (rx E A).
Remark. The element g~ E G~ in the decomposition (*) of g (see 5.6.13)
is called the component of g in the direct factor G~ relative to the given de-
composition. If in the stated decomposition there are no factors belonging
to G~, then the component of g in Ga is considered to be the identity. If
G = G1 X G2 X .. , x Gn • then every gE G can be written uniquely in the
formg = gl '" gi'" gn' whereg i is the component of gin Gi . Thisdecomposi-
tion is a special case of the one given above (*). where (*) contains additional
factors equal to the identity.
5.6.15. Let D be the additive group of all complex numbers. Is it possible for
D to have two direct decompositions
D=AXB, D=AXC
such that for some element dE D, the component of d in A relative to the
first decomposition is different from the component of d in A relative to the
second decomposition?
5.6.16. Suppose that a group G is decomposed into a direct product of finite
subgroups G1. G2 • ••• , Gn , of orders m1 , m2 , ••. , mn • Prove that G is a finite
group. What is the order of G?
n G~; fix f3 E A, and let gp be the component of g E G
5.6.17. Let g E G = (lEA
in Gp • Prove that the mapping <p:g -. gp is a homomorphism of G onto G/1
Remark. This shows that the component of a product is equal to the
product of the components.
5.6.18. Let G be a group having exactly one normal subgroup different
from G and the identity. Show that G is indecomposable.
5.6.19. Prove that the center of the direct product is equal to the direct
product of the centers of the factors.
5.6.20. Prove that the commutator subgroup of the direct product is equal
to the direct product of the commutator subgroups of the factors.
5.6.21.T. Prove that if A is a direct factor of a group G, then every normal
subgroup A' of A is a normal subgroup of G.
5.6.22. Let the group G be decomposed into the direct products
O=AXB, O=AXC
Prove that Band C are isomorphic.
The Direct Product of GroupS 131
5.6.23. Let G = A x B. Let F be a subgroup of G containing the direct factor

A. Show that F = A x (F n B).
5.6.24. Let G be the multiplicative group of all n x n matrices over the
real numbers with positive determinants. Denote by N I the set of all matrices
in G with determinant 1, and by N 2 the set of matrices of the form AEn ,
where A is a positive number and En is the n x n identity matrix. Show that
G = NI X N 2 •
5.6.25.T. Prove that if every descending chain of normal subgroups of a
group G is finite, then G cannot be decomposed into the direct product of an
infinite number of subgroups.
5.6.26.T.H. Suppose that every decreasing chain of normal subgroups of a
group G is finite. Show that every decomposition of G can be extended to a
decomposition in which each factor cannot be decomposed into the direct
product of subgroups.
5.6.27. Let G be a group which is decomposed into the direct product of
subgroups G = G I X G2 X ... , such that the order of each G; is a prime.
Under what condition will G have a unique decomposition into indecom-
posable factors?
5.6.28.T.H. Suppose that every increasing chain of direct factors of a
group G is finite. Show that every decreasing chain of direct factors must also
be finite.
5.6.29.T.H. Let the set G be the Cartesian product (cf. Chapter 1.1) of the
groups G1, . . . , Gn. Define an operation on G in the following manner. If
then gl· g2 = (alb l ,·· ., a;b;, ... , anb n), where a;b; is the product in
G; (i = 1, ... , n). Prove that G is a group relative to this operation, and that G
can be decomposed into a direct product of subgroups G; which are iso-
morphic to G;.
5.6.30. Let G be the direct product of n infinite cyclic groups. Let H be the
subgroup of all elements x 2 (x E G). Prove ~hat G/H is a group of order 2n ,
and can be written as the direct product of n cyclic groups of order 2.
5.6.31.T.H. Let G be a free group with a free generating set consisting of n
elements. Prove that every free generating set of G also contains n elements.
Remark. This proves the uniqueness of the rank of a free group for the
finite case. The uniqueness ofthe rank in the general case follows immediately.
5.6.32.". Let G be the Cartesian product of the finite groups G t , G2 , ... ,

Gi , .... Define an operation on G by:
if
then
where aibi is the product in Gi . Prove that G is a group under this operation.
Can G be decomposed into the direct product of subgroups Gi (i = 1,2, ... )
which are isomorphic to Gi ?
5.6.33.T. Prove that a group G can be decomposed into t~ direct product
of its subgroups Ga , a E A, if and only if the following three conditions are
satisfied:
1) Ga is a normal subgroup of G for every a E A;
2) G = [U Ga ];
aEA
3) the intersection of each Gp (f3 E A) with the subgroup generated by
the remaining G. (a =I- f3) is the identity.
Chapter 6
ABELIAN GROUPS
1. Elementary Properties of Abelian Groups

The present chapter is devoted to commutative (abelian) groups. For
the remainder of this chapter we will only consider abelian groups, where this
property will sometimes not be stated explicitly.
When an abelian group G is defined by a generating set M and a set of
relations F, we will tacitly assume that the relation xy = yx (x, y EM) is
included in F.
Additive notation is often used when dealing with abelian groups.
Thus one writes x + y instead of x . y, nx instead of x n , and denotes the
identity of the group by O. However, we shall retain our usual multiplicative
notation throughout this chapter.
An abelian group G is called periodic (or torsion) if the order of each of
its elements is finite (cf Chapter 2.6), and torsion free (or aperiodic) if each of
its elements (except the identity) has infinite order. If G contains elements,
different from the identity, of finite order and elements of infinite order, it is
said to be mixed.
If, for some prime p, every element of a periodic group G has order a
power of p, i.e., G is a p-group (cf. Chapter 4), then G is called a primary
group with respect to p, or a p-primary group.
The set F of all elements of finite order in an abelian group G forms a
subgroup, which is called the maximal periodic subgroup of G, or the periodic
part of G (see 6.1.1). The set of all elements of a periodic group G whose
orders are powers of some prime p forms a subgroup of G and is called the
primary component with respect to p, or the p-component of G (see 6.1.7).
A finite set of elements g l ' gz, ... , gk in a group G will be called linearly
dependent if there exist integers n 1 , nz , ... , nk, not all equal to zero, for which
A set of elements that does not have this property is called linearly inde-
pendent. In the additive notation, the property of linear dependence takes
133
134 Abelian Groups
the form nigi + n2g2 + ... + nkgk = 0, and consequently coincides with
the usual definition of linear dependence.
An infinite set of elements of a group G is called linearly independent
if all of its finite subsets are linearly independent. Otherwise the set is called
linearly dependent. We say that an element g EGis linearly dependent on the
set E c G if there exist a number m and elements g l ' g2' ... , gk E E such that
gm E [gi' ... ,gk]'
If a group G has a finite maximal linearly independent set, then every
maximal linearly independent set contains the same number of elements
(see 6.1.21). In this case the number of elements in a maximal linearly
independent set is called the rank of G. If G does not have a maximal linearly
independent set consisting of a finite number of elements, then we say that
G has infinite rank. A periodic group is considered to have rank zero.
6.1.1.T. Prove that the periodic part of a group G is a completely characteris-

tic subgroup of G.
6.1.2. Find the periodic part of the multiplicative group of all complex
numbers different from zero.
6.1.3. Let T be the periodic part of a group G, and H a subgroup of G.
Prove that H nTis the periodic part of H.
6.1.4. Prove that the additive group of complex numbers is the direct
product of two additive groups which are isomorphic to the additive group
of real numbers.
6.1.5. Prove that every set of elements of a group G which contains an element
of finite order is linearly dependent.
6.1.6. Prove that a set of elements Vi' V 2 , ••• , V k of a group G is linearly
dependent if and only if one of the Vi is linearly dependent on the others.
6.1.7. Prove that every primary component of a group G is a completely
characteristic subgroup of G.
6.1.8. Let T be the p-primary component of a group G and let H be a sub-
group ofG. Prove that H n Tis the p-primary component of the group H.
6.1.9.T.H. Prove that every periodic group can be decomposed into the
direct product of primary subgroups relative to distinct primes.
6.1.10.T. Prove that every periodic group can be decomposed in only one
way into the direct product of primary subgroups relative to distinct primes.
6.1.11. Prove that the additive group of all rational numbers is a torsion-free
group and, further, that it can be represented as a union of an ascending chain
of cyclic subgroups.
6.1.12. Is the group of rational numbers under addition isomorphic to the
group of positive rational numbers under multiplication?
Elementary Properties of Abelian Groups 135
6.1.13. Let Hand K be subgroups of G and H c K, where the index of H

in K is finite. Prove that the index of the subgroup [H, a] in the group [K, a]
is finite and divides the index of H in K (a E G).
6.1.14. Let Gbeap-primarygroupand kanaturalnumbersuch that(k, p) = 1.
Is the equation Xk = a always solvable in G (a E G)? How many solutions are
there?
6.1.15. Prove that the set of all nth powers of elements in a group G is a
completely characteristic subgroup of G.
6.1.16. Find all abelian groups which do not have any proper homomorphisms,
i.e., homomorphisms which are not isomorphisms and do not map onto the
identity element.
6.1.17. Let G be a group which is decomposed into the direct product of
cyclic groups. Does there exist an element a E G, a =1= e, for which the equation
xn = a is solvable for any natural number n?
6.1.18. Prove that the direct product of a family of p-primary groups is a
p-primary group.
6.1.19. Let G be a group which is the direct product of cyclic groups of
orders 5 and 3 and four infinite cyclic groups. Determine:
1) the periodic part of G;
2) the number of periodic subgroups of G;
3) the factor group of G by the periodic part;
4) the homomorphic image of G under a homomorphism ~ whose
kernel is a cyclic subgroup of order 5.
6.1.20. Prove that every finitely generated abelian group G which is not
periodic has a finite maximal linearly independent set.
6.1.21. Let A and B be two finite maximal linearly independent subsets of a
group G. Show that A and B contain the same number of elements.
6.1.22. Let G be an abelian group and T its periodic part. Prove that the
rank of G is equal to the rank of G/T.
6.1.23. Prove that the rank of an abelian group G is invariant under iso-
morphism (i.e., the rank of any group isomorphic to G is equal to the rank of
G).
6.1.24.T. Let G be decomposed into a direct product of a finite number of
cyclic groups. Prove that the number of infinite cyclic factors does not
depend on the choice of the decomposition of G.
6.1.25. Let G be a p-primary abelian group. Prove that the set of all elements
of G whose orders are less than or equal to p is a characteristic subgroup.
Remark. The indicated subgroup is called the lowest layer of G.
6.1.26. Suppose that a p-primary abelian group G is decomposed into a
direct product of cyclic groups. For any natural number n, denote by A(n)
136 Abelian Groups
the product of all direct factors whose orders are pn (if such do not exist, then
set A(n) = e). Let B(n) denote the direct product of the lowest layers A\n),
A\n+ 1), .•• of the groups A(n), A(n+ 1), .... Prove that:
1) A ~n) is isomorphic to B(n)/ B(n + 1) ;
2) B(n) contains only those elements a in the lowest layer for which the
equation x pn - 1 = a is solvable;
3) the subgroups A\n) and B(n) do not depend on the particular de-
composition of G into a direct product.
6.1.27.T.H. Let G be a primary group which is decomposed into a direct
product of cyclic groups. Prove that any two decompositions of G into a
direct product of cyclic groups are isomorphic.
6.1.28.T.H. Let G be a finite or countable group which is decomposed into a
direct product of cyclic groups. Prove that any two decompositions of G
whose factors are cyclic groups which are either infinite or are finite and
primary are isomorphic.
Remark. The assumption of countability can, in fact, be eliminated.
2. Finite Abelian Groups

Let G be a finite abelian group. We shall show that G can be decomposed
into the direct product of cyclic primary subgroups, and that any two such
decompositions are isomorphic (see 6.2.7 and 6.2.9). Let G be decomposed
into the direct product of primary cyclic groups relative to the primes
PI' P2' ... ,Pk' Assume further that the number of primary factors cor-
responding to Pi(i = 1, ... , k) is Ii' and that the factors have orders
where lXil ~ lXi2 ~ ••• ~ lX ili . The numbers piin i (i = 1,2, ... , k; ni = 1,
2, ... , lJ are called the invariants of G. These invariants determine the group
G up to isomorphism. Finite groups having distinct invariants are not iso-
morphic (see 6.2.8. and 6.2.9). The set of all invariants of a finite group G
will sometimes be written in the form of a table, where each row consists of
the invariants corresponding to a prime written in decreasing order. In
certain cases we will insert p? = 1 into a row. For example, if a finite group is
decomposed into the direct product of four cyclic groups of orders 22 ,2 2 ,
2 5 ,2 6 and three cyclic groups of orders 3, 33 , 34 , then the invariants can
be written in the form of the following table:
28, 2~, 22, 22
34, 3 3, 3, 3°
One should keep in mind the fact that in the set of invariants the same
number may occur several times, i.e., the set of invariants represent a system
rather than a set (see Chapter 1.1).
Finite Abelian Groups 137
6.2.1. Let H be a subgroup of a finite abelian group G, let the index of H in

G be k, and let H' be a subgroup of G of order pi, where p is a prime such that
(k, p) = 1. Prove that H' c H.
6.2.2. Find all primary components of abelian groups of orders (1) 21, (2)
30, (3) 462, and (4) 101.
6.2.3. For a group of order 35, determine:
1) the number of subgroups;
2) the number of proper subgroups;
3) the number of proper characteristic subgroups;
4) the number of proper completely characteristic subgroups.
6.2.4. Decompose a group of order 30,030 into the direct product of cyclic
groups.
6.2.5. Let G be a finite p-primary abelian group and let a be an element of
maximal order pk. Denote by H the maximal subgroup of G for which
H n [aJ = e. Suppose x ~ [H, aJ, but x PE [H, aJ. Prove that xPa pm E H for
some m.
6.2.6.H. Let G be a finite abelian p-primary group. Let a E G be a maximal
element of order pk. Prove that the subgroup [aJ is a direct factor of G.
6.2.7.T.H. Prove that every finite abelian group can be decomposed into a
direct product of primary cyclic groups.
6.2.S.T. Prove that two finite groups having the same set of invariants are
isomorphic.
6.2.9.T.H. Prove that two finite groups having different sets of invariants
are not isomorphic.
6.2.10. Find the invariants of the following finite groups which are defined
by the indicated generating sets and sets of relations:
1) {aJ, a2}, aI=e, a~=e

2) {ai' a~}, ai=a), a~=e
3) {aJ, a2, aa}, Qj=e, Q)Q2=e, ai=e
'\
4) {ai' a2, aa, a.}, aj=e, a~=e, ai=e, a)a 2= aaa.

5) {ai' a2, aa}, a1=e, a22 =e, aa=e
6.2.11. Let p be a prime number. What conditions must be imposed on a

finite group G so that the only proper homomorphic images (see 6.1.16) of G
are p-primary groups?
6.2. 12.T. Let G be a finite abelian p-primary group with invariants pkt,
l2, ... , pk s. Prove that if a subgroup H of G has invariants plJ, pI2, .. . pis, then
k i ~ li(i = 1•... ,s).
138 Abelian Groups
6.2.13.T.". Let G be a finite abelian group with invariants

PIall , ... , palTn
I
Pail
i ' ...,
paim
i
P"kl
k ' ... ,
p"km
k
and let H be a subgroup of G with invariants

P ~lI
1 ' ...,
p~lm
1
P~kl
k ' ... ,
p~km
k
Prove that f3ij ::::; rt. ij for all i = 1, ... ,k; j = 1, ... , m.
6.2.14. Let G be a finite abelian group such that every proper subgroup is
characteristic. What are the invariants of G?
6.2.15. Let G be a finite abelian group such that every proper subgroup is
completely characteristic. What are the invariants of G?
6.2.16. Find all finite abelian groups which have the property that the only
proper homomorphic images (see 6.1.16) are cyclic groups.
6.2.17. What type of finite groups do not have proper endomorph isms, i.e.,
endomorphisms which are neither automorphisms nor the identity homo-
morphism?
6.2.18. Can a finite group G contain an element g #- e for which the equation
xn = g is solvable for every n?
6.2.19. A primary group G is given by its invariants p4, p3, p2. How many
elements in G have order p?
6.2.20. A finite group G is given by its invariants 23 , 2; 52, 5, 5. Determine:
1) the order of G;
2) if G has subgroups of orders 31, 25,10,40,27,120;
3) the invariants of a subgroup of order 20.
6.2.21. A finite group G is given by its invariants
53 ,5 2,5; 7; 3
and a group G' by its invariants
Does there exist a nonidentical homomorphism of G into G'?

6.2.22. A finite group G is given by its invariants 3 ; 7. How many nonidentical
automorphisms does G have?
Finitely Generated Abelian Groups 139
6.2.23. Prove that if a subset S of a finite abelian group G contains all of the
elements of maximal order in G, then [S] = G.
3. Finitely Generated Abelian Groups
Every finitely generated abelian group can be decomposed into the

direct product of primary cyclic groups, both finite and infinite, where the
number of infinite cyclic factors is finite and is equal to the rank of the group
(see 6.3.4 and 6.3.19). A finitely generated group G has a finite periodic part,
and is completely determined by the set of invariants of the periodic part
and its rank (see 6.3.5 and 6.3.6). The set of invariants of the periodic part
and the rank constitute a complete system of invariants of a finitely generated
group, in the sense that they determine the group up to isomorphism.
6.3.1.T.H. Prove that a finitely generated (abelian) group G cannot have an

infinite number of distinct subgroups Hi (i = 1,2, ... ) such that
6.3.2.". Let A = [a l , ... ,an] be an abelian group, and n l , nl , ... , nk be any

integers whose greatest common divisor is 1. Denote by b I the product
a~' . a~2 ... a;:k. Show that there exist elements bl , ... , bk such that A =
[b l , bl , · · · , bkJ.
6.3.3. Prove that the periodic part of a finitely generated abelian group is a
finite group.
6.3.4.T.H. Prove that every finitely generated abelian group G can be repre-
sented by a direct product of a finite number of cyclic primary groups which
are either finite or infinite.
6.3.S.T. Prove that if two finitely generated abelian groups have the same
rank and the same set of invariants of the periodic part, then they are iso-
morphic.
6.3.6.T. Prove that if two finitely generated abelian groups have either
different ranks or different sets of invariants of their periodic parts, then they
are nonisomorphic.
Remark. Compare the results of these last three problems.
6.3.7.T.H. Let a finitely generated abelian group G have rank r l and set of
invariants
140 Abelian Groups
and let H be a subgroup of G having rank r 2 and set of invariants
P~ll
1 ' ...,
p~lm
1
6
P'kkm
'j
P'kkl ' , .. ,
Prove that r 1 ~ r 2 and rt.ij ~ Pij for all i = 1, ... , k; j = 1, ... , m.

6.3.8.H. Let the following groups be defined by the indicated generating
sets and sets of relations, Find the rank and set of invariants of each:
1) A = [aJ, a.!I, ai=e;

2) A = [al> a'll, af=a'l;
3) =
A [aJ> a~, aal. ar=e, al=a:i
4) =
A [a" a~l, a:a~=e. a~a2=e
5) =
A [aJ, a2, aal, a~a~aa=e. ata2a~ =e
6) A = [aJ, a2• a~l, afa~a~=e. a~a~~a~= e
7) A = [al' a.!, aal. a:a~=e
8) A = [a,. a2, aal. a;aia~=e, ara;3a~= e
9) A = [a" a2. aal. araiai2 = e, afa;2ai3 = e
Remark. From this problem we see that two groups can be isomorphic
even though they have different generating sets and defining sets of relations.
6.3.9. Let a group G be defined by its generators a l , a 2 , a3 and the relation
a~o = e. Find:
1) the rank of G;
2) the periodic part of G ;
3) the factor group of G modulo the periodic part;
4) the number of periodic subgroups of G ;
5) all primary components of the periodic part.
6.3.10. Let G be a finitely generated group with rank 1 and set of invariants
52 ,5; 3. Determine whether there exists:
1) a homomorphism of G onto a cyclic group of order 25;
2) a homomorphism of G onto a finite group G' which is defined by the
invariants 3, 5;
3) a homomorphism of G onto a torsion-free group G' which is a direct
product of three infinite cyclic groups;
4) a nonidentical homomorphism of G into a finite group G' which is
given by the invariants 23 , 2, 2; 72 , 7, 7°; 11, 11, II.
6.3.11. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {a l , a2 , a3 } and the
relation al = a~. Does G have any elements,a =1= e of finite order?
Infinite Abelian Groups 141
6.3.12. Let a group G be defined by a generating set {a 1 ,a 2 ,a 3 } and the

relations ai = e, a~ = e. Find the invariants ofthe subgroup generated by the
elements a~ and a 1 •
6.3.13. Suppose that a finitely generated group G has rank 2 and set of
invariants 2 3,7. Prove that there exist elements ai' az , a3 , a4 E G such that
G = [ai, a2, a3, a4J and the set of relations a{ = e, a~ = e is a defining set
with respect to the generating set {ai' az , a3 , a4}.
6.3.14. For a finitely generated group G with rank 3 and set of invariants
52 ,5 2 ; 73 , determine:
1) the number of periodic characteristic subgroups different from the
identity;
2) the number of completely characteristic, periodic subgroups different
from the identity;
3) whether there exist completely characteristic subgroups of G which
are torsion-free.
6.3.15. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {ai' a2} and the re-
lation ai = e. Determine the number of automorphisms of G.
6.3.16. A group is defined by the generating set {ai' az } and the relations
aia~ = e, aia 2 3 = e. What is the order of the subgroup generated by the
element aia z?
6.3.17. Let a finitely generated group G have rank 5 and set of invariants
3z, 3; 53, 5. Determine whether there exists:
1) a proper subgroup of G which is isomorphic to G;
2) an endomorphism of G onto itself which is not an automorphism.
6.3.18. Prove that the set of all nonisomorphic finitely generated abelian
groups is countable.
4. Infinite Abelian Groups

An abelian group G is said to be divisible if for every a E G and every
natural number n, the equation x" = a has at least one solution in G. * The
class of divisible groups has been completely described. The importance of
this class of groups stems from the fact that every abelian grou p is isomorphic
to a subgroup of a divisible group (see 6.4.25).
Let C be a subgroup of G. If for every C E C the solvability of xn = c
in G implies the solvability of x" = C in C, then C is called a pure (or serving)
subgroup.
Let G be a p-primary group. An element a EGis said to have height
k if x Pk = a is solvable in G but x Pk + 1 = a is not solvable in G. If x pk = a is
solvable in G for every number k, then we say that a has infinite height in G.
*Thus a divisible group is a complete abelian group (see 5.5.17). [Trans.]
142 Abelian Groups
Let a E G be an element of infinite order, and let PI' P2' ... , Pn' ... be the
increasing sequence of all primes. Define the symbol (ill' 1X2' ... ,lXn , ••• ) by
setting IXn = 0 if the equation x Pn = a does not have a solution in G, IXn = kif
the equation xP~ = a can be solved in G but xP~ + 1 cannot, and IXn = ro if
all of the equations xpi, = a are solvable in G (i = 1,2, ... ). The symbol
(ill' .•. ,lXn , ••• ) is called the characteristic of a.
Two characteristics IX = (IX I ,···, IXn ,.··) and P = (PI'···' Pn' ... ) are
said to be equivalent if IXn = Pn for all n and both IXn and Pn are different from
ro for all but a finite number of n. The class of all characteristics can be par-
titioned into disjoint classes having equivalent characteristics (see 6.4.29).
These classes are called types. If il' and pi are types, we define 1X' ~ pi if there
exist characteristics IX of type IX' and Pof type P' such that IXn ~ Pn for all n,
where ro is considered as being greater than any number.
6.4.1. Prove that if in a nonperiodic group G the set of all elements of infinite
order together with the identity forms a subgroup, then G is torsion-free.
6.4.2. T. Prove that the factor group of an abelian group by the periodic part
is torsion-free.
6.4.3. Suppose a group G contains elements of orders kl' k2' ... kn' where the
k i (i = 1, ... , n) are relatively prime numbers. Prove that G contains an
element of order kl k2 ... k n.
6.4.4.T.H. Prove that if a group G has finite rank, then so does every·sub-
group A and factor group GjA. Moreover, show that the sum of the ranks of
A and Gj A is equal to the rank of G.
6.4.5. Prove that the rank of the direct product of a finite number of groups,
each of which has finite rank, is equal to the sum of the ranks of the factors.
6.4.6. Let P be a prime and G' be the additive group of all rational numbers
whose denominators are powers of p. Denote by Gil the subgroup of G'
consisting of all integers. Prove that G = G'jG" is an infinite periodic group.
Remark. The group G is called a group of type poo.
6.4.7. Prove that a group of type poo can be defined by a set of generators
{a l , a2 , ... , an' ... } and a defining set of relations a~ = e, a~ + 1 = an (n = 1,
2, ...).
6.4.8. Does a group of type poo have any infinite proper subgroups?
6.4.9. Is it possible for a group G of type poo to be mapped by a proper homo-
morphism (see 6.1.16) onto a group which is not isomorphic to G?
6.4.10. Can a mixed group G have the property that every nonidentical
homomorphic image of G is isomorphic to G?
6.4.11. Which of the following groups are divisible: (1) a group of type poo ;
(2) the additive group of rational numbers; (3) the multiplicative group of
complex numbers different from zero; (4) the multiplicative group of all roots
of all powers in (1); (5) a direct product of cyclic groups?
Inrmite Abelian Groups 143
6.4.12. Prove that iffor every prime p the set of pth powers of all elements in a
group G coincides with G, then G is divisible.
6.4.13. Let G be a p-primary group. Provethat if every element of order p in G
has infinite height, then G is divisible.
6.4.14. Can a divisible group be mapped by a homomorphism onto a
finite group of order greater than I?
6.4.IS. Prove that in a torsion-free group G, every equation of the form
xn = a (a E G) can have at most one solution.
6.4.16. Which of the following subgroups of G will always be pure subgroups
ofG:
1) the group G itself;
2) the periodic part of G ;
3) a direct factor of G?
6.4.17.T. Let G be a p-primary group and C a subgroup of G. Prove that C
is a pure subgroup of G if and only if every element in C has the same height
in C as it does in G.
6.4.18. Prove that a divisible group D is a pure subgroup of any group G
which contains D as a subgroup.
6.4.19. Let D be a divisible group, and C i= e a pure subgroup of D. Show
that C cannot be finite.
6.4.20.H. Prove that the intersection of any class of pure subgroups of a
torsion-free group is pure.
6.4.2I.T.H. Let C be the intersection of all pure subgroups of a torsion-free
group G which contain the set MeG. Prove that C consists of all elements
which are linearly dependent on elements in M.
6.4.22. Prove that a subgroup C of a torsion-free group G is pure if and only
if GIC is torsion-free.
6.4.23. Prove that every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to a subgroup
of a divisible group.
6.4.24.T. Prove that every group is isomorphic to a factor-group of a direct
product of infinite cyclic gf0'lpS.
6.4.2S.T.H. Prove that every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of a divisible
group.
6.4.26.H. Prove that every torsion-free group of rank 1 is isomorphic to a
subgroup of the group of all rational numbers under addition.
6.4.27. Let m be an arbitrary integer, m i= O. Find the characteristic of m
in the following groups:
1) rational numbers under addition;
2) integers under addition;
3) rational numbers with denominator 2 under addition.
144 Abelian Groups
6.4.28. Prove that the relation on the set of characteristics which was
defined in the introduction to this section satisfies the definition of an equiva-
lence as given in Chapter 1.3.
6.4.29. Prove that the relation::;; introduced on the set of types is an order-
ing.
6.4.30. Prove that all elements different from the identity in a torsion-free
group of rank 1 have equivalent characteristics.
Remark. The class to which all elements of a torsion-free group G of
rank 1 belong is called the type of G.
6.4.31.T. Let G t and G2 be torsion-free groups of rank 1. Prove that in
order for G t to be isomorphic to a subgroup ofG 2 it is necessary and sufficient
for the type of G t to be less than or equal to the type of G2 •
6.4.32.T. Let G t and G2 be torsion-free groups of nink 1. Prove that in
order for G t and G2 to be isomorphic it is necessary and sufficient that they
have the same type.
Chapter 7
GROUP REPRESENTATIONS
1. Representations of a General Type

Let vH be a class of mUltiplicative sets (cf Chapter 2.3), and let A be any
multiplicative set. A homomorphism a of A into some set belonging to vH
is called a representation of A in the class vH. The set a(A) is called the image
of the representation. If J/1 consists of one mUltiplicative set M, we say that
IX is a representation of A in M instead of saying "a representation of A in the
class consisting of the one set M." If a is an isomorphism, the representation is
said to be faithful. A representation in a class of semigroups of transformations
is called a representation by transformations (or by permutations).
Let a l be a representation of a multiplicative set M by transformations
of a set X I ' and let a 2 be a representation of M by transformations of X 2'
We say that a l is similar to a 2 if there exists a one-to-one mappingf of X 1 onto
X 2 such that for all a E M, x E Xl'
f(a1(a)· x) = rJ..2(a)· f(x)
Thus two similar representations a l and a 2 differ only by the nature of the
elements in the sets X 1 and X 2 .
We associate with every element a in a multiplicative set M the trans-
formation )'a of M defined by
(x E M)
(where the multiplication takes place in M). We call Aa the left iranslation of
M corresponding to a.
A set of representations R = {a} of a multiplicative set A in a class jt
is called a complete system of representations if for every pair x, YEA, x =1= y,
there exists rJ.. E R such that a(x) -=F a(y).
7.1.1. Let a multiplicative set Z = {Zl' Z2' Z3} be defined by its Cayley
table I ZI Z2 Z3
Zt ZI Z2 Zt
Z2 Z3 21 23
Z3 Z3 Z3 ZI
145
146 Group Representations
Describe all representations of Z in the class Jt of multiplicative sets con-

sisting of the single set U = {u I , U2} :
7.1.2. Let N be the multiplicative semigroup of natural numbers and let cp

be a mapping of N into the semigroup of all transformations of the set
X = {a, b, c,} for which
a b C)
~(1)= (
b c a
Is cp a representation of N by transformations?
7.1.3. Let a semigroup S be defined by the generating set {ai, a2 } (in the
sense of semigroups) and the defining set of relations a l a2 = a2al, ai = a~.
Consider the mapping cp of the generating set of S into the semigroup of all
transformations of the set X = {XI' X 2 , x 3 , x 4 }:
X~ Xa Xi) X~ Xa Xi)
?~J= (
Xl
X~ XI Xa Xi
, ,~)=
(Xl
XI X~ X, Xa
Can cp be extended to a representation of S by transformations of X? (See

Chapter 1.2.).
7.1.4.T. Let a l and a 2 be representations of a multiplicative set M. Prove
that if a l is similar to a2' then a2 is similar to a l .
7.1.5. Let a l and a 2 be similar representations of a multiplicative set M.
Prove that if one of them is faithful, then so is the other.
7.1.6. Let X I and X 2 be two sets with the same cardinality. Let a l be a
representation of a multiplicative set M by transformations of X I ' Prove
that there exists a representation a 2 of M by transformations of X 2 which is
similar to a I .
7.1.7. Let a l and a 2 be similar representations of a multiplicative set .M.
Prove that the images of these representations are isomorphic.
7.1.8. Define an operation on the set M = {al,a2,a3,a4,aS} by aia j = as
(i, j = 1, 2, 3,4, 5). Find all representations of M by transformations of the
set {1, 2}. Determine which ones are similar. Are any ofthese representations
faithful?
7.1.9. Associate with every element a in a multiplicative set M the left
translation Aa of M. Prove that if this mapping of Minto TM (the set of all
transformations of M) is a representation of M by transformations, then the
multiplication in M is associative, i.e., M is a semigroup.
Representations of a General Type 147
7.1.10. Associate with every element a in a semigroup M the left translation

Aa. Prove that such a mapping of Minto TM (see 7.1.9) is a representation of
M by transformations.
Remark. Compare this result with 7.1.9. Such a representation of a
semigroup will subsequently be called a representation by left translations.
7.1.11. Find the representations by left translations of the following semi-
groups:
1) a cyclic semigroup of type (3, 5);
2) the semigroup 51 defined by the generating set {a l ,a 2 } and the
defining set of relations
3) the semigroup S2 = {ai' a2 , a3 } given by the Cayley table
Iat as as
al at at al
as al a2 a2
as al as as
Which of the above representations by left translations are faithful?

7.1.12. Let S be a semigroup with an identity. Prove that the representation
of S by left translations is faithful.
7.1. 13.T. Assume that the representation ofa semigroup S by left translations
is faithful. Let ai, a2 E S. Prove that if alx = a2x for all XES, then a l = a2 .
7. 1. 14.T. Assume that a semigroup 5 does not contain elements a l #- a2
such that alx = a 2 x for all XES. Prove that the representation of S by left
translations is faithful.
Remark. Problems 7.1.13 and 7.1.14 yield a necessary and sufficient
condition for the representation of a semigroup by left translations to be
faithful.
7.1.15. Define an operation on a set M by xy = x for all x, y E M. Describe
the representation of M by left translations.
7.1.16. Define an operation on a set M by xy = y for all x, y E M. Describe
the representation of M by left translations.
7.1.17. Let uti be a class of semigroups, each of which consists of one-to-one
transformations. Let 5 be a semigroup with identity having a faithful repre-
sentation in utI. Prove that 5 is left cancellative and has no idem po tents
different from the identity.
7.1.IS.T.". Prove that every semigroup 5 has a faithful representation by
transformations.
Remark. Thus, up to isomorphism, the class of all semigroups is ex-

hausted by semigroups of transformations.
7.1. 19.T. Assume that for every element a in a semigroup S there exists
Za E S such that aZa = Za' Let a be a faithful representation of S by trans-
formations. Prove that every transformation a(a) E a(S) has a fixed point.
7.1.20.T.H. Let S be a semigroup such that for every faithful representation a
of S by transformations, every transformation in the image of a has a fixed
point. Prove that for every a E S there exists Za E S such that aZa = Za'
Remark. From problems 7.1.19 and 7.1.20 we obtain a necessary and
sufficient condition for a semigroup S to have the property that for every
faithful representation of S by transformations, every transformation has a
fixed point.
7.1.21. Let Q be the multiplicative semigroup of rational numbers. Does Q
have a complete system of representations in the class ./11 of all groups?
7.1.22. Does there exist a complete system of representations of a cyclic
semigroup of type (5, 7) in the class of all regular commutative semigroups?
7.1.23. Describe all cyclic semigroups which have a complete system of
representations in the class of all groups.
7.1.24. Let C = {a, 1} be the multiplicative semigroup under ordinary
multiplication. Describe all finite cyclic semigroups which have a complete
system of representations in C.
7.1.25. Find all semigroups which have a complete system of representations
in the class of all commutative semigroups.
7.1.26. Let Jill' vH2 , and vH3 be the classes of all left, right, and two-sided
cancellative semigroups, respectively. Find all semigroups which have a
complete system of representations in (1) Jill, (2) vH2 , and (3) .,It3 .
7.1.27. Let vH be the class of all regular commutative semigroups. Prove
that every periodic semigroup S having a complete system of representations
in .,II is regular.
7.1.28.H. Let all elements in a commutative semi group S be idempotent.*
Prove that S has a complete system of representations in the semi group C
in problem 7.1.24.
7.1.29.H. Find all semigroups which have a complete system of representa-
tions in the class of all semilattices.
2. Representations of Groups by Transformations

In this section we will apply to groups the concepts and terminology
introduced in the preceding section for arbitrary multiplicative sets. The
*A semigroup S having the property x 2 = x for all XES is called a band. A commutative band
is called a semi/attiee. [Trans.]
Representations of Groups by Transformations 149
only representations of groups which we shall consider are representations

by invertible transformations. We shall simply call them representations by
transformations.
A representation rY. of a group G is said to be transitive if the image cx( G)
is a transitive group.
The importance of transitive representations lies in the fact that every
representation of a group can be written by means of transitive representa-
tions of this group (see 4.9.29 and 7.2.32).
Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G, and X the set of right cosets of H
in G. For each g E G we define the transformation A: of X by;': (xH) = gxH.
The mapping rY.H of the group G into the semigroup of transformations
Tx defined by
is a representation of G by transformations (see 7.2.1 and 7.2.2). We call CX H

the representation of G by H. The importance of this type of representation
lies in the fact that every transitive representation of a group G is similar to a
representation of G by one of its subgroups (see 7.2.22).
We also consider representations of groups by left translations (see
7.1.10). Such representations are always faithful (see 7.2.7). Thus every group
is isomorphic to some group of transformations. In other words, up to iso-
morphism, the class of all groups is exhausted by the class of all groups of
transformations.
7.2.1. Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G, and X the set of right cosets of

H in G. Prove that the transformation ;.~ on X defined by A:(xH) = gxH is
invertible.
7.2.2.T.H. Let G, H, and X be as in 7.2.1. Prove thatcx H is a representation of
G by transformations on X.
7.2.3. Prove that the image of the representation of the quaternion group by
the subgroup H = {I, - I} is a direct product of two cyclic groups of order
two.
7.2.4. Let G be the group in problem 5.4.18, H = {e, (ab)2}. Find the images
of a and b under the representation rY. H • Is this representation faithful?
Remark. Since G = [a, b], knowing the images of a and b under any
representation enables one to easily find the representation itself.
7.2.5. Prove that the image of a representation of a group G by left transla-
tions consists of invertible transformations.
7.2.6. Find the representations by left translations of the following groups:
1) the quaternion group;
2) the group in problem 5.4.18;
3) a noncyclic group of order 6;
4) a cyclic group of order 4.
7.2.7.T. Prove that the representation of any group G by left translations is

always faithful.
7.2.8. Prove that every group G contains a subgroup H such that rtH is a
representation by left translations. What is this subgroup?
7.2.9. Let G be the multiplicative group of matrices of the form
where a and b are rational numbers, a =f. O. Let H be the subgroup of G

consisting of matrices of the form
Prove that:
1) the representation rJ. H of G by H is similar to the representation rt of
G by transformations of the set of nonzero rational numbers defined
by
where AaX = ax for all rationals X;

2) the representation r:J. H is not faithful.
7.2.10.H. Let G be the group in problem 5.2.21. Prove that:
1) G has a transitive representation by transformations of degree n for
any positive integer n;
2) the group G has at least two similar representations by transforma-
tions of degree 9.
7.2.ll.T. Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G. Prove that the image of the
representation of G by H is a transitive group of transformations.
7.2.12. Let G be the group in problem 5.4.18, HI = {e,a}, H2 = {e,bab}.
Prove that the representations of G by the subgroups H I and H 2 are similar.
7.2. 13.H. Let HI and H 2 be conjugate subgroups of a group G. Prove that
the representations of G by HI and H 2 are similar.
7.2.14.H. Suppose that the representations of a group G by its subgroups
HI and H 2 are similar. Prove that H I and H 2 are conjugate subgroups of G.
condition for two representations of a group G by two subgroups HI and H 2
to be similar.
7.2.15. Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G, and:J.H the representation of G
by H. Prove that the set K of all elements in G which are mapped onto the
Representations of Groups by Transformations 151
identity by rx H is contained in H and forms a normal subgroup of G. Further,

show that K is the maximal normal subgroup of G contained in H.
7.2. 16.T. Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G. Prove that if H contains a
normal subgroup N ¥ e of G, then rJ. H is not faithful.
7.2.17.T.". Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G. Prove that if H contains
no normal subgroups of G other than the identity, then et. H is faithful.
condition for a representation of a group by one of its subgroups to be
faithful.
7.2.18. Let H = [(1234), (24)] be a subgroup of the symmetric group S4. Is
the representation rx H of S4 by H faithful?
7.2.19.T. Let rx be a representation of a group G by transformations on a set
X, a EX. Denote by H the set of elements g E G such that a is a fixed point of
rx(g). Prove that H is a subgroup of G.
7.2.20.T. Assume the same conditions and notation as in 7.2.19. Let CJ:(x)(a) =
b for some x E G. Prove that rx(y)(a) = b for all y E xH, but et.(z)(a) ¥ b for
all z¢ xH.
Remark. Compare the results of these last two problems with 4.9.5.
7.2.21.T.". Assume the same conditions and notation as in 7.2.19, and let
rx( G) be a transitive group. Define a mapping g on X by g(y) = xH if rx(x)a = y
(y E X). Prove that g is a one-to-one mapping of X onto the set of right co sets
ofG by H.
7.2.22.T.". Assume the same conditions and notation as in 7.2.19, and
let rx( G) be a transitive group. Prove that rx is similar to the representation of
GbyH.
7.2.23.". Let G be the group defined in 5.4.18. Prove that G has faithful
transitive representations of degree four which are similar.
7.2.24. Prove that the group in the preceding problem has three similar
faithful transitive representations by transformations. Find these rep-
resentations.
7.2.25.T. Prove that any two faithful transitive representations of an
abelian group are similar.
7.2.26. Determine whether the quaternion group possesses faithful transitive
representations by transformations of degree less than 8.
7.2.27.H. Consider HI = [(1234)] and H 2 = [(12), (34)J as subgroups of the
symmetric group S4. Find the images of(12) and (1234) under the representa-
tions <PHl and <PH,·
7.2.28.H. Prove that the representations <Pili and <Pll, in the preceding
problem are similar faithful representations of S4.
7.2.29.H. Prove that the symmetric group S4 has only two similar faithful
transitive representations of degree 6.
7.2.30. Let G be a noncyclic group of order 14 (see 5.4.27). Prove that G
does not have any faithful transitive representations of degree less than 7.
7.2.31.H. Prove that any two transitive representations of degree 7 of the
group G in the preceding problem are similar.
7.2.32. Let IX be a representation of a group G by transformations on a set X
such that IX(G) = G' is intransitive. Let Mi be an intransitive system of G',
and denote by Pi the mapping of G into the group of transformations of Mi
defined by Pi(g) = lXi if lX(g) = IX, where lXi is the transformation defined in
4.9.28. Prove that Pi is a transitive representation of G.
7.2.33.H. Let G be a group, Pg the transformation of G defined by pix) =
xg (x E G). Denote by f the mapping of G into the semigroup of all transfor-
mations of the set G defined by f(g) = Pg • For what kind of groups is this
ma-l'ping a representation of G by transformations?
3. Representations of Groups by Matrices

A knowledge of matrix theory is necessary for understanding this
section. All matrices considered in this section will be taken over the field of
complex numbers.
A representation of a group G in the class of all groups of nonsingular
n x n (n = 1,2, ... ) matrices is called a matrix representation of G. If, for a
specific value of n, all matrices in the image of the representation have degree
n, then we say that the representation is of degree n.
Two matrix representations Tl and T2 of degree n of a group G are said
to be equivalent if there exists a nonsingular n x n matrix A such that
for all x E G.
Let 1i(i = 1, ... , k) be matrix representations of degrees mj of a group G.
The mapping T which associates to every element x E G the matrix T(x) in
block form of order n = m1 + ... + mk with diagonal matrices Tl(X), T2(x),
... , T,.(x) is called a matrix representation of G of degree n = m1 + m2 +
... + mk (see 7.3.13). Further, Tis called the direct sum of the representations
T1 ,T2 ,···,T,.·
A matrix representation T of G which is equivalent to a direct sum of
representations of G of degrees less than the degree of T is said to be com-
pletely reducible. Sometimes completely reducible representations are
called decomposable.
Let T be a matrix representation of G of degree n. Let P be a nonsingular
Representations of Groups by Matrices 153
matrix such that the matrix S(x) = PT(x)P- 1 has the form
s (x) = ( Tl (x) 0 )
A (x) T2 (x)
where T1(x) and Tz(x) are matrices of degrees m1 and mz (mJ + mz = n),
A(x) is an mz x m, rectangular matrix, and 0 is the m J x m2 zero matrix.
Then T is called a reducible representation of G; otherwise T is called ir-
reducible.
It is obvious that every completely reducible (decomposable) representa-
tion is reducible. In general the converse does not hold (see 7.3.16). However,
every reducible representation of a finite group is completely reducible (see
7.3.20).
7.3.1. Let G be an arbitrary group. Prove that the mapping
(x E G)
where En is the n x n identity matrix, is a matrix representation of G of

degree n. Further, prove that the identity of G corresponds to En under every
matrix representation of G of degree n.
Remark. To is called the identity matrix representation of G of degree n.
7.3.2. Let Sn be the symmetric group of degree n, S E Sn,
Let T be the mapping of Sn into the group of nonsingular n x n matrices

defined by T(s) = (a i ), where aliI = aZi2 = ... = a nin = 1 and all other
aij = O. Prove that T is a matrix representation of Sn.
7.3.3. Let G be a group of rotations about the Oz-axis in three-dimensional

space R 3 . Let x E G be the rotation through the angle !xx" Prove that the
mapping
- sin !Xx 0\
cos !Xx O! xEG

o 1
is a matrix representation of G.
7.3.4. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {aI' a2} and the defining
set of relations: ai = e, a~ = e, a2al = aia 2 . Prove that G = {e, aI' ai,
az, alaz, aia z}. Define a mapping T by
T(e)=(~ ~ ~l
o0 1/
0 0 1\
T(aD= ( 10 0)
o1 OJ
Is T a representation of G?
7.3.5. Let G be a group of rotations about a fixed axis in three-dimensional
space R J , and for every g E G let qJg be the angle of rotation. Is the mapping
T(g)=('fg 0)
o f£lg
a matrix representation of G of degree 3?

7.3.6. Let a group G be defined by the generating set {aI' az} and the defining
set of relations ai = e, a~ = e. Define a mapping T of the generating set
{QI' Qz} into the group G' of nonsingular 2 x 2 matrices by
Can T be extended to a matrix representation T' of G of degree 2?

7.3.7. Let C be the multiplicative group of nonzero complex numbers.
Prove that C has a faithful representation of degree 2 by matrices over the
real numbers.
7.3.8.H. Prove that every finite group of order n has a nonidentity matrix
representation of degree n.
7.3.9. Let G be a group, T a matrix representation of G of degree n, and A
any nonsingular n x n matrix. Prove that the mapping TA defined by TA{x) =
A T(x)A - I (x E G) is a matrix representation of G.
Representations of Groups by Matrices 155
7.3.10. Does the symmetric group Sn have any nonidentity matrix rep-
resentations of degree n which are different from the representation given
in 7.3.2?
7.3.11. Let G be a group of rotations about the Ox-axis of the three-dimen-
sional vector space R 3 . For every g E G, let q>g be the angle of rotation. Prove
that the mapping T defined by
COS 'it +2 sin 'it - 5sin 'Pg 3 cos 'fg + 16sin'fg~3\

T' (g) = ( sin ~g -2sjn~g+coS'Pg 7Sin'fg~ 2COSCPg+2)
o o
is a matrix representation of G of degree 3.

7.3.12. Prove that all matrix representations of a group G which are equiva-
lent to a given representation T are equivalent.
7.3. 13.T. Let T; (i = 1, ... , k) be matrix representations of degrees mj of a
group G. Let Tbe the mapping ofG into the group of nons in gular matrices of
order n = m J + ... + mk defined in the following manner: for every x E G,
let T(x) be the matrix with diagonal blocks TJ (x), ... , T,,(x) (see the introduc-
tion to this section). Prove that T is a matrix representation of G of degree n.
7.3.14.T. Let T J and T~ be two equivalent matrix representations of degree
m of a group G, and let T{ and T~ be two equivalent matrix representations
of degree k of G. Let TJ denote the direct sum of T J and T{, and T2 the direct
sum of T~ and T~ . Prove that TJ and T2 are eq uivalent matrix representations
of G of degree m + k.
7.3.15. Let G = [a] be an infinite cyclic group. Consider the mapping
(n=O, + I, ...)
Is T a completely reducible representation?

7.3.16. Let T be an irreducible matrix representation of degree n of a group
G, and let X be a nonzero column with n entries. Prove that the set of all
linear combinations of columns of the form T(x)X exhausts the entire
space of columns with n entries.
7.3.17.T.H. Let T be an irreducible matrix representation of degree n of a
group G, and let A be an n x n matrix which commutes with all the matrices
T(x), x E G. Prove that A is a scalar matrix, i.e., A = rxEn for some number rx
(En is the identity matrix of order n).
7.3.1S.T.H. Prove that every reducible matrix representation of degree n
of a finite group G is completely reducible.
7.3.19.T.H. Let G be a finite group. Prove that every reducible matrix

representation of G is a direct sum of irreducible representations of G.
7.3.20.H. Let G be a finite group, T an irreducible matrix representation of
degree n of G, and A any n x n matrix. Denote by X the matrix T(x) L
A T(x - I). Prove that X = (1.E II for some number (1., where Ell is theE~ x n
identity matrix.
7.3.21.T.H. Prove that every matrix representation of degree n ~ 2 of an
abelian group G is reducible.
4. Groups of Homomorphisms of Abelian Groups

Let A and B be abelian groups. We consider the set R(A, B) of all
representations of the group A in the class consisting of the group B, and
introduce an operation on R(A, B) by setting (1.1(1.2 = (1.3«(1.1,(1.2,(1.3 E R(A, B»
if (1.1(X)· (1.2(X) = (1.3(X) for all x E A (see 7.4.1). Then R(A, B) forms an abelian
group under this operation (see 7.4.2).
The group R(A, B) will be called the group of homomorphisms orthe group
of representations of A into B. The operation indicated above on the set
R(A, B) can also be considered for arbitrary groups, but in this case the
operation may not be defined on all of R(A, B).
If A = B, then R(A, A) is the set of endomorphisms of the group A.
The set R(A, A) forms a group under the operation indicated above, called the
group of endomorphisms of A. Thus there are two distinct operations on the
set R(A, A): the operation introduced above, and composition (cf. Chapter
3.4). In this section, the only operation which we shall consider on R(A, A) is
the one introduced above, and we shall denote it by a dot.
7.4.1. Let (1. I and (1. 2 be homomorphisms of an abelian group A into an abelian
group B. Prove that the mapping IX] defined by (1.3(1X) = (1.1«(1.)' (1.2«(1.) «(1. E A)
is a homomorphism of A into B.
7.4.2. Prove that the set R(A, B) of all homomorphisms of an abelian group A
into an abelian group B forms a group relative to the operation defined above
on R(A, B).
7.4.3. Find R(A, B), where A and B are infinite cyclic groups.
7.4.4. Let A be an infinite cyclic group. Prove that R(A, B) is isomorphic to
B for any abelian group B.
7.4.5. Let A be a periodic abelian group, and let B be a torsion-free abelian
group. Find R(A, B).
7.4.6. Let A and B be primary cyclic groups of orders p~' and p~2, respectively.
Prove that:
1) if PI = P2' then R(A, B) is a cyclic group of order p;nin(k,;k 2 );
2) if PI =1= P2' then R(A, B) is the identity group.
Groups of Homomorphisms of Abelian Groups 157
7.4.7. Let A be a cyclic primary group of order pn, B any abelian group.
Determine R(A, B).
7.4.8. Find the group of endomorphisms of an abelian group G of order pq,
where p and q are distinct primes.
7.4.9. Prove that the group of endomorphisms of the additive group of
rational numbers R is isomorphic to R.
7.4.10.T. Prove that if A is the direct product of abelian groups Ai (i = 1,
... , n), then R(A, B) is isomorphic to the direct product of the groups R(Ai' B)
(i = 1, ... , n) for any abelian group B.
7.4.11.H. Let an abelian group A be defined by the generating set {a 1, a2, a3}
and the defining set of relations af = e, a~ = e. Let B be an infinite cyclic
group. Find R(A, B).
7.4.12.H. Let A be a finitely generated abelian group of rank r, and let B be
an infinite cyclic group. Find R(A, B).
7.4. 13.H. Let A be a finite abelian group with invariants 32 ,3,2 and let B
be a cyclic group of order 2. Find R(A, B).
7.4.14.H. Let A be a finite abelian group with invariants
and let B be a cyclic group of order 25. Find R(A, B).

7.4.1S.H. Let A be the direct product of a cyclic group of order 7 and an
infinite cyclic group. Let B be a cyclic group of order 49. Find R(A, B).
7.4.16.H. Let A be a finite abelian group with invariants 32 , 3, 3, 3; 55 ; 73 , 7,
7,7, and let B be a mixed abelian group whose periodic part is a cyclic group
of order 5. Find R(A, B).
7.4.17.T. Let B be the direct product of the abelian groups Bi (i = 1, ... , n).
Prove that for any abelian group A, R(A, B) is isomorphic to the direct pro-
duct of the groups R(A, BJ (i = 1, ... , n).
7.4.18.H. Find R(A, B) for the following pairs of finite abelian groups A
and B which are given by their respective invariants.
1) A is a cyclic group of order 5, B has invariants 32 , 3; 5; 73 , 7;

2) A has invariants 2 3 , 2, 2; Y, 3; 5, 5, 5; B has invariants 52, 5; Y, 32 ;
7 3 ,7;
3) A has in varian ts 53, 52, 5 ; 33 , 32 , 3 ; 2 ; B has in varian ts 2 ; 73 , 72 , 7 ; 11.
7.4.19.". Find R(A, B) for the following pairs of abelian groups A and B
which are defined by the indicated generating sets and defining relations:
1) A = [ai' a2, a31, ai = e, ala2 = a2al

alaa = aaa., a'jaa = aaai
B=[b., bi]' b:=e, btbi=b'}.b l
2) A=[a., ail], a:a~=e, a:a:=e, alai=a'jat
B = [b., b2 ], b~ = e, bl b2 - b'lb!
3) A=[a.. a'll, aia~7=e, ata~=e, ala'l=a'ial
B = [b., b2], bl 7 = e, br = e; btbi= b'lb l
7.4.20.H. Find the groups of endomorphisms of the following abelian

groups:
1) a finite group with invariants 23 , 22, 2; 33 , 3; 52, 5; 72, 7;
2) a finite group with invariants 3, 3, 3 ; 52, 5, 5; 7, 7;
3) a finitely generated group of rank 2 with invariants 5, 5, 5; 73 , 7;
4) a group which is a direct product of seven infinite cyclic groups.
7.4.21.H. Prove that if A and B are finite abelian groups, then R(A, B) is a
finite group.
7.4.22.H. Prove that the group of endomorphisms of a finitely generated
abelian group A is finitely generated.
7.4.23.H. Let A be a finite abelian group, B a finitely generated abelian
group. Prove that R(A, B) is a finite group.
7.4.24.H. Let A be a finitely generated abelian group, B a finite abelian
group. Prove that R(A, B) is a finite group.
7.4.25. Let A be an abelian group in which all elements have finite order
less than or equal to k. Prove that for any abelian group B all elements in
R(A, B) also have finite order less than or equal to k.
7.4.26. Let A be a periodic abelian group.
1) Is it possible for the group of endomorphisms of A to be a periodic
group in which the orders of the elements are unbounded?
2) Is R(A, A) a divisible group?
7.4.27. Prove that if the group of endomorphisms of an abelian group A
is divisible, then so is A.
7.4.28.H. When is the group of endomorph isms of a finitely generated
abelian group (1) a finite cyclic group, and (2) an infinite cyclic group?
7.4.29. Let A be a p-primary abelian group and let B be any abelian group.
Does there always exist a nonidentity element in R(A, B) (i.e., different from
lXo) for which the equation IXpk = lXo is solvable for every positive integer k?
7.4.30. Let B be a torsion-free abelian group. Prove that R(A, B) is also

torsion-free for any abelian group B.
Characters of Groups 159
7.4.31. Let B be a divisible torsion-free group. Prove that R(A, B) is a divisible

torsion-free group for any abelian group A.
7.4.32. Is it possible for the group of endomorphisms of a divisible group to
be a periodic abelian group?
7.4.33. Let A be a divisible group. Prove that R(A, B) is a torsion-free group
for any abelian group B.
7.4.34.". Let A be a finitely generated abelian group. Determine when
R(A, A) is isomorphic to A.
5. Characters of Groups
Let T be a matrix representation of degree n of a group G. By the
character of T we mean the mapping X of G into the set of complex numbers
defined by
/I
X (a) = ~ au
i=l
where the aii are the diagonal entries of the matrix T(a).1t follows from 7.3.1
that every irreducible representation of an abelian group is a homomorphism
into the multiplicative group C of complex numbers different from zero.
Thus the character of every irreducible representation of an abelian group
is a homomorphism into C.
The set of all homomorphisms of an abelian group G into the multi-
plicative group of complex numbers modulo I forms a group relative to the
operation defined in the preceding section. This group is called the group
of characters of the abelian group G.
7.5.1. Find the characters of the representations ofthe groups stated in 7.3.3,
7.3.4, and 7.3.15.
7.5.2. Let T be the representation of Sn indicated in 7.3.2, and let X be the
character of this representation. Prove that X(s) = k for all s E Sn' where k
is the number of elements which are left fixed by the transformation s.
7.5.3. Prove that two characters X1 and X2 of equivalent matrix representa-
tions T j and T2 of a group G are equal.
7.5.4. Let the matrix representation T of a group G be the direct sum of the
representations Tj , T2 , .•• , Tm and let X be the character of T and Xi the
character of Ii, i = 1, ... , m. Prove that
m
X(a) = L: Xi(a)
i=l
for each a E G.
160 Group Represen tations
7.5.5. Is it possible for a nontrivial group G to have the property that the
character X of each nonfaithful matrix representation T of degree n be of the
form x(a) = n for each a E G?
7.5.6. Let x and y be conjugate elements in a group G, T a matrix representa-
tion of G, and X the character of T. Prove that X(x) = X(y)·
7.5.7.H. Find all irreducible representations of the cyclic group [a] of
order n.
7.S.S.H. Let G be a finite abelian group. Prove that the characters of all
irreducible representations of G are mappings whose images consist of roots
of 1.
7.5.9. Find the group of characters for each of the following abelian groups
which are defined by the indicated generating sets and defining relations.
1) A= [a], h
a pk = e, were . .
p IS a pnme
2) A= [ah a21, a:=e, a~=e, a,a2=a2a,
3) A=[a., a21, a: = a2' a~ = e, a,a2 = a2a,
7.S.IO.T.H. Prove that the group of characters of a finite abelian group G is

isomorphic to G.
7.5.11. Determine the group of characters of an infinite cyclic group.
7.5.12. Let G be the direct product of r infinite cyclic groups. Find the group
of characters of G.
7.5.13. Prove that every character of a subgroup H of a finite abelian
group G can be extended to a character on all of G.
7.5.14.H. Let Gbeafiniteabeliangroup,a" a2 E G,a, "# a2. Show that there
exists a character X of G which separates a, and a2 , i.e., x(a,) "# x(a2).
Remark. It follows from this problem that the set of all characters of a
finite abelian group forms a complete system of representations (cf Chapter
7.1) in the class consisting of the multiplicative group of complex numbers
modulo 1. This result also holds for infinite abelian groups.
Chapter 8
TOPOLOGICAL AND ORDERED GROUPS
1. Metric Spaces
Let M be a set and let p be a mapping of the Cartesian product M x M
into the set of nonnegative real numbers [in other words, to every pair
(x, y) of elements in M associate a real number p(x, y) ? 0]. This mapping is
called a metric, or a distance function (d is often used instead of p) if it satisfies
the following three conditions:
1) p(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;
2) p(x, y) = p(y, x) for all x, y EM;
3) p(x, y) :::; p(x, z) + p(z, y) for all x, y, Z E M.
The set M together with the metric p defined on M is called a metric space
relative to p. The elements of a metric space are called points, and the number
p(x, y) is called the distance between the points x and y.
A sequence {x n } of points in a metric space is said to converge to a
point XoE M if lim p(x n, xo) = O. In this case we write Xn ---+ Xo or lim Xn =
n~x
Xo , and say that the limit of the Xn is Xo. For A c M, the point a EM is
called a limit point of A if there exists a sequence {an} of distinct points in A
which converges to a.
A sequence {xn} of points in a metric space M is called fundamental if
lim P (x m• xn) =0
n, m.....,.oo
A metric space M is called complete if every fundamental sequence in M

converges to a point in M.
A metric space M is called separable if it contains a countable subset
A c M such that for every x E M there exists a sequence an E A whose
limit is x. A subset E of M is said to be compact if every sequence {xn} of
points in E has a convergent subsequence {xnJ. The space M is called com-
pact if it is a compact subset of itself.
A subset E of M is said to be bounded if there exists a nonnegative
number k such that p(x, y) :::; k for all x, YE E. If M itself is a bounded set,
then p is called a bounded metric.
161
162 Topological and Ordered Groups
Let PI and P2 be two metrics on a set M such that the convergence of the
sequence {xn} to Xo relative to PI implies the convergence of {xn} to Xo
relative to P2, and vice versa. We then say that PI and P2 are equivalent
metrics.
As examples of metric spaces we consider the n-dimensional vector
spaces R n (n = 1,2, ... ), i.e., the Cartesian product of n copies of the real
numbers R in which addition and scalar multiplication are defined by
1) (aI' a2 , an) + (b b2 , ... , bn) =
= (a +b
... , l,
l l, a2 +b 2, . . . , an+bn)
2) A (aI' ... , an) = (Aa l , ... ,Aa~) (ai, bi, A E R)
and the metric P is defined by
where x = (Xl' ... , Xn), Y = (YI' ... , Yn) [see 8.1.1, (3)].
8.1.1.H. For each of the following sets Mi define a mapping Pi from Mi x Mi

into the set of nonnegative real numbers. Determine which of these are
metric spaces.
1) MI any set
O,if x=y;
{
Pl(X, y)= 1, if x=j::.y
2) M 2 the set of real numbers
p~(x, y)=!x-y!
3) M 3 an n-dimensional vector space,
where X = (xI, .. ·,xn),Y = (YI, ... ,Yn);

4) M4 = [a] a cyclic group of order n
5) M 5 the group of 2 x 2 nonsingular matrices
where Dx and Dy are the determinants of X and y, respectively;

Metric Spaces 163
6) M" the symmetric group Sn
ps(x, y)=lx(I)-y(1)1
7) M 7 the symmetric group Sn
p, (x, y) = max I x (k) - Y (k) I (x, y E Sn)

kE{I.2 ••••• n}
8.1.2. Let e[a.bl denote the set of all continuous functions on the interval
[a, b].
1) Prove that the mapping
p(f, g)= max If(x)-g(x)1

xE lao bJ
is a metric.
2) Is the following mapping PI a metric:
b
pdf, g)= ~ If(x) - g(x) I dx
a
8.1.3. Let X be a metric space with metric p. Determine which of the follow-
ing mappings are metrics :
1) CPl (x, y)=pg(x, y)

I
2) cpg (x, y) = p (x, y) I +
3) CPa (x, y)= eP(x. y) - 1
4) cp,(x, y)= V p(x, y)
8.1.4. Let S be the set of all sequences of real numbers. For

x = (X I ,X 2 , ... ,xk , ... )ES,
set
Prove that S is a metric space relative to p.

8.1.5. Let p be a metric on a space X and let k be a positive number. Prove
that the mapping p defined by
p(x, y) = min{p(x, y), k} (X,YEX)
is a metric.
8.1.6. Let p be a metric on a space X. Determine for what real numbers a

and b the mapping oc defined by
oc(x, y) = a . p(x, y) + b (x, yE X)
is a metric.
8.1.7. Let p I and pz be metrics on a set X. Determine which of the following
mappings are metrics :
1) ~1 (x, Y) = PI (x, y) +P~ (x, y)
2) ~2 (x, y) = eP dx. yl + eP2 (x. yl
3) .T. (x y) = PI (x, y)
'f3, P2 (x, y)
+ 11
+
8.1.8. Let u, x, y, z be arbitrary points in a metric space with metric p;
prove that
IP(x, y) - P(z, ll) I ~ P(x, z) +P(y, ll).
8.1.9. Let X be a metric space with metric p, and let Xn• Yn E X (n = 1.2•... ).
Prove that if Xn converges to Xo E X and Yn converges to Yo E X. then p(x n• Yn)
converges to p(xo. Yo).
8.1.10. Suppose that in a metric space X the sequence Xn converges to Xo
and xo.
Show that Xo = xo.
8.1.11. Define a metric p on Cla,b) (see 8.1.2) by
p(!, g) = maxII(x) - g(x)1 x E [a, b]
Let In E Cla,b) be a sequence which converges to I in the sense of the metric
on 'Cla,b)' Does In converge uniformly to I? Assume now that a sequence
In E Cla,b) converges uniformly to IE Cla,b]; does In converge to I in the
sense of the metric p?
8.1.12. Prove that every convergent sequence in a metric space is funda·
mental.
8.1.13. Prove that the set of real numbers is a complete metric space with
respect to the metric p(x, y) = Ix - YI.
8.1.14. Which of the following sets are complete metric spaces:
1) the set of rational numbers with metric
PI (x, y)=lx-YI
2) the set of sequences of real numbers x = (Xl"'" X n , •• •), where Xn

converges to zero as n -+ 00, with metric
pj)(X, y)=maxlx,,-y,,1
"
Metric Spaces 165
3) the set of all bounded continuous real functions with metric
PaU, g)=sup!/(x)-g(x)!
x
4) the set of all continuous functions defined on the interval [a, b], with
the metric P from S.1.2, (1)?
8.1.15. Consider the set R of real numbers as a metric space with the metric
P2 from 8.1.1, (2). Prove that R is separable.
8.1.16.H. Let C[a,b] be the metric space of continuous functions on [a, b]
with the metric P from 8.1.2, (1). Prove that C[a.b] is separable.
8.1.17.H. Let M T denote the set of all real bounded functions defined on an
infinite set T. Can a metric be introduced on M T for which it is a nonseparable
metric space
8.1.1S. Which of the following sets are compact metric spaces:
1) the set of real numbers relative to the metric
p(x, y)=jx-yj
2) the n-dimensional vector space Rn relative to the metric
p(x, Y)=V(xl--.Yd~+ ... +(xn-yn)~
where X = (xl,· .. ,xn),Y = (YI, ... ,Yn);,

3) the space of all continuous functions on the interval [a, b] with the
metric p from 8.1.2, (1)7
8.1.19. Prove that every closed interval is a compact set in the metric space
of real numbers (see 8.1.13).
8.1.20.H. Prove that every metric is equivalent to a bounded metric.
8.1.21.T. Prove that every compact subset of a metric space is bounded.
8.1.22.T. Prove that every compact metric space is complete.
8.1.23.T. Let M and N be metric spaces and let R = M x N be the Cartesian
product of M and N. Define a mapping Pion R x R by
where XI' X2 E M, Yl' Yz E N. Prove that R is a metric space relative to PI'

Remark. We call the space R th~ product of M and N.
8.1.24. Prove that the product of two compact metric spaces is compact.
8.1.25. Prove that the product of two complete metric spaces is complete.
8.1.26. Prove that the product of two separable metric spaces is separable.
8.1.27. Let M be a metric space with metric P and let M' be a subset of M.
Define a mapping p' of the set M' x M' into the set of nonnegative real
numbers by
p' (x', y') = p (x', y') (x', y' EM')
Prove that M' is a metric space relative to p'.

Remark. The space M' is called a subspace of M.
8.1.28. Prove that every subspace of a separable metric space is separable.
8.1.29. Prove that every subspace of a compact metric space is compact.
8.1.30. Let R be the metric space of real numbers with the metric defined in
8.1.13. Show that R contains a compact subspace.
Remark. Compare this result with problem 8.1.18, (1).
8.1.31. Let Z be the set of nonnegative integers, and define a mapping p on
the set Z x Z by
p(i,)) = !
0 if i =)
1 if i and) are even, i -#)
2 if either i or) is odd, i -# )

Prove that p is a metric on Z, and that p is equivalent to the metric in problem
8.1.1, (1).
8.1.32. Let G = [a] be an infinite cyclic group. Define a mapping p of
G x G into the set of nonnegative real numbers by
(I, k = 0; -t- 1; -t- 2; ...)
Prove that p is a metric, and that it is equivalent to the metric in problem

8.1.1, (I).
2. Groups of Continuous Transformations of a Metric Space
Let M be an arbitrary metric space. A transformation f of M is called

continuous iffor every point Xo E M and every sequence {xn} which converges
to x o , the sequence {f(xn )} converges to f(x o}. An invertible transformation
f of M is called bicontinuous if both f and its inverse f - 1 are continuous.
The set of all invertible bicontinuous transformations of M forms a
group under composition of transformations (see 8.2.6). A group G of
invertible transformations of M in which every fE G is continuous is called a
group of continuous transformations of M.
Let G be a group of continuous transformations of M,f, g E G. If
sup p if (x), g (x»

xEM
Groups of Continuous Transformations of a Metric Space 167
exists, then it is natural to associate this number with the pair (j; g). Denote
p* if, g) = sup p if (x), g (x»

xEM
Then P* will be a metric on G if sup p(f(x), g(x» exists for every pair of
XEM
elements j; g E G (see 8.2.17). We call p* the natural metric on the group of

continuous transformations of M.
There exist metric spaces such that it is impossible to introduce the
natural metric on the group of continuous transformations of these spaces
(see 8.2.22). However on every metric space M with metric p there exists a
bounded metric Po which is equivalent to p. One can, of course, introduce the
natural metric on the group of continuous transformations of M relative to
Po (see 8.2.23).
An invertible transformation f of a metric space M with metric p is
called an isometry of M if
p(j(x), !(y)=p(x, y)
The three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 is a metric space relative to

the metric defined in 8.1.1, (3). Consequently we can speak of the isometries
of R3. The concept of an isometry of R 3 qua metric space coincides with the
concept of an isometry of R3 when considered as in Chapter 3.5 (see 8.2.10).
Thus the concept of an isometry of a metric space is a generalization of the
concept of an isometry of the line, plane, or three-dimensional space. Con-
sequently this section, which is devoted to isometries, is a continuation of
Chapter 3.5.
8.2.1. Let M be a metric space and fix Xo E M. Prove that the transforma-
tion f of M defined by f(x) = Xo for all x E M is continuous.
8.2.2. Let M be a metric space with the metric
0 if x = y
p(x, y) = { 1 'f [see 8.1.1, (l)]
IXof.y
Prove that every transformation of M is continuous, and every invertible
transformation is bicontinuous.
8.2.3. Which of the following functions are continuous transformations of
the space of real numbers [see 8.1.1, (2)]:
1) f,(x) = x 2 + 5;
2) f2(X) = 1/(x 3 + 2);
I if x is rational
{
3) f3(X) = 0 if x is irrational
4) f4(X) = ax + b, where a and b are fixed real numbers;

{ I if Ixl > 2
5) fs(x) = 0 if Ixl ~2
8.2.4. Let R be the metric space of real numbers with the metric defined in
8.1.1, (2). Determine what real functions defined on all of R are continuous.
Which functions are bicontinuous?
8.2.S.T. Prove that the product of two continuous transformations of a
metric space is continuous.
8.2.6.T.H. Prove that the set of all bicontinuous invertible transformations
of a metric space forms a group of transformations.
8.2.7. Prove that every isometry of a metric space M is a bicontinuous
transformation of M.
8.2.8. Let R3 be the three-dimensional real vector space, and introduce the
metric from 8.1.1, (3) on R 3. Let F denote a figure in R3 (a subset of R 3 )
and let G be the group of self-coincidences of F (see Chapter 3.5). Prove that
G is a group of continuous transformations of R 3 •
8.2.9.H. Prove that the set of all isometries of a metric space forms a group
of continuous transformations.
8.2.10. Let M be a three-dimensional vector space, and introduce the metric
from 8.1.1, (3) on M. Prove that a transformation f of M qua metric space
is an isometry if and only iff satisfies the definition of an isometry as given
in Chapter 3.5.
8.2.11. Let R be the metric space of real numbers [see 8.1.1, (2)]. Consider
the set G of all transformations of R of the form
f(x) = x +a (x E R)
where a is an arbitrary but fixed real number. Prove that every transforma-
tion in G is an isometry of R. Does G form a group of continuous transforma-
tions?
8.2.12. Let v" be an n-dimensional vector space. Introduce the metric from
8.1.1, (3) on v". Consider the set G of all transformations h of v" defined by
where (x l ' ... , X n) E Vn and Ii. "# 0 is a fixed real number. Prove that each h
is an invertible bicontinuous transformation of v" , and that G forms a group
of continuous transformations of v".
8.2.13. Let Vn be as in 8.2.12. Let G be the set of all nonsingular linear
transformations of v,. onto itself. Prove that each f EGis bicontinuous and
that G forms a group of continuous transformations of v,..
Groups of Continuous Transfonnations of a Metric Space 169
8.2.14. Let f be a continuous transformation of a metric space M and let

M' be a compact subset of M. Prove that the image of M' under f is a compact
subset of M.
8.2.15. Let f be a continuous transformation of a compact metric space
with metric p. Prove that for all I: > 0 there exists b > 0 such that
p (/(x), l(y» < e

for all x, Y EM with p(x, y) < b.
8.2.16.H. Let M be a compact metric space with metric p. Let j; g be con-
tinuous transformations of M. Show that
max p (/(x), g(x»

xEM
always exists.
8.2.17. Let M be a metric space with metric p. Let G be a group of continuous
transformations of M such that
sup p (/ (x), g(x»

xEM
exists for all j; g E G. Prove that the mapping p* defined by
~* (f, g) = sup p (I (x), g(x»

xEM
is a metric on G, i.e., G admits the natural metric.

8.2.I8.H. Let G be the group of all isometries of a compact metric space M
(see 8.2.9). Prove that the natural metric can be introduced on G.
8.2.19.H. Let G be the group of all isometries of a compact metric space M
and introduce the natural metric p* on G (see8.2.I8). Prove that G is a compact
metric space.
8.2.20. Let G be a group of bicontinuous transformations of the metric
space R of real numbers [see 8.1.1, (2)]. Can the natural metric be introduced
on G?
8.2.21. Let M denote the unit interval [0, 1]. Consider the mapping p defined
by
p(x, y)=lx-yl (x, Y EM)
Show that p is a metric. Let G be the group of all invertible bicontinuous

transformations of M (see 8.2.6). Prove that the natural metric can be
introduced on G.
8.2.22. Let G be a group of bicontinuous transformations of the metric

space R of real numbers [see 8.1.1, (2)J as defined in 8.2.12. Can the natural
metric be introduced on G?
8.2.23.". Let M be a metric space with metric p. Prove that there exists a
metric Po which is equivalent to p and such that the natural metric can be
introduced on the group of continuous transformations of M relative to Po.
3. Topological Spaces
Let X be any set and denote by P(X) the set of all subsets of X. A trans-
formation rx of P(X) is called a closure operator of X if it satisfies the following
conditions:
1) rx(A) = A for every subset A c X consisting of one element;
2) rx(A U B) = rx(A) U rx(B) for all A, B E P(X);
3) rx(rx(A)) = rx(A) for all A E P(X).
The set rx(A) is called the closure of A and is denoted by it.
If a closure operator rx is defined on a set X, then we say that rx defines a
topology on X or that a topology is introduced on X. In such a case X is
called a tOPQiogicai space relative to the closure operator rx.
A subset F of a topological space X is said to be closed if F = F. In
other words, closed sets are those sets which are fixed points under :to A
subset G c X is called open if X"G is closed.
A family of open sets !J{j in a topological space X is called a basis if
every open subset of X is a union of sets in !J{j. It is obvious that every topo-
logical space has a basis.
A mapping f of X into a topological space Y is said to be continuous
if f(/1) c f( A) for every A c X. The mapping f is called a homeomorphism
if it is one-to-one and preserves theclostire operator, i.e., f(/1) = f(A) for
every A c X. The spaces X and Yare then said to be homeomorphic. Thus
homeomorphic spaces differ only by the nature or notation of their elements.
A mapping f of X into Yis called open if f( G) is open in Yfor every open
set Gin X.
8.3.l.T. Let M be a metric space and P(M) the set of all subsets of M. Set
rx(A) = A (A E P(M)), where A consists of all elements in A and all of its
limit points. Prove that M is a topological space relative to the operator rx.
8.3.2. Which of the following transformations rx i (i = 1,2,3,4,5) are closure
operators on the sets Ai given below?
1) Let A 1 be an infinite set. Define rx 1(M) = M if M is a finite subset of
A land rx 1(M) = A 1 if M is infinite.
2) Let A2 = {a o, al , ... , an, .. .}. Set rx2(M) = M if M is a finite subset
and rxiM) = M U ao if M is infinite.
Topological Spaces 171
3) Let AJ = {ai' a z , a3}, and for M = {a2 , a3} put C(3(M) = {ai' az }.
4) Let A4 = {... ,a_z,a_l,ao,al,az, .. ·} and set C(4(M) = M U ao
for every M c A 4 .
5) Let As = (ai' a 2 , . . . , a", .. . }. If M is infinite set C(s(M) = M and
if M = (ai" ... ,aiJ set C(s(M) = M U (a n ,an + 1 , . . . }, wht:re n =
max {ii' iz ,···, ik }·
8.3.3. Let X be an arbitrary set. Show that it is always possible to introduce
a topology on X for which every subset of X is closed, and that this topology
IS umque.
Remark. This topology is called the discrete topology.
8.3.4. Let A = {a o , ai' az, ... }. Define a closure on the set of all subsets of A
as indi.cated in 8.3.2., (2). Determine which of the subsets listed below are
open and which are closed.
1) M J = lah a1' aa, ... }
2) M2 = A'\. {al> a~, ... , as}
3) M3 = {aa, ai' a~};
4) M~ = lao, al> a2, aa, ... }
5) M3 = lao, a2, a4, au, ••• , a 2k , ..• }
8.3.5. Let X be a topological space, and M and N subsets of X. Prove that

the following relations hold: (I) M c M, (2) if MeN, then MeN,
(3) M nNe M n N, and (4) if M is finite, then M = M.
8.3.6. Let X be a metric space, Xo an arbitrary but fixed point in X, and k a
positive number. Prove that the set of all elements x E X such that p(x, x o) < k
is closed relative to the topology defined in 8.3.1.
8.3.7. Let R be the set of all real numbers. Introduce a topology on R relative
to the metric p(x, y) = Ix - yl (x, Y E R), as stated in 8.3.1. Prove that every
open set in R is a union of a countable number of closed sets in R.
Remark. The topological space R is usually called the realline.
8.3.8. Let A be a set of points on the real line and denote by A' the set of all
limit points of A. Does there exist a subset Ao of the real line such that
Ao = (A~)' is nonempty and Ao = (Ao)' is empty?
8.3.9. Find the closure of the set of all rational numbers on the real line (see
8.3.7).
8.3.10.T. Prove that in any topological space:
1) the intersection of any family of closed sets is closed;
2) the union of a finite number of closed sets is closed.
8.3.11. Let M be a metric space on which the topology as indicated in
8.3.1. is introduced and let k be an arbitrary positive number. Prove that for
any Xo E M, the set of all points x E M such that p{x, xo) < k forms an open
set.
8.3.12. Prove that every closed subset F of the real line (see 8.3.7) is an
intersection of a countable number of open sets.
8.3. 13.T. Prove that in any topological space:
1) the union of any family of open sets is open;
2) the intersection of a finite number of open sets is open.
8.3.14. Let M be a complete metric space with metric p and introduce on M
the topology as indicated in 8.3.1. Prove that every closed subset F of M
is a complete metric space relative to the metric p' considered on F (see
8.1.27).
8.3.15. Let X be a topological space, A a subset of X, and §P the family of all
closed subsets of X containing A. Denote by D the intersection of all sets in §P.
Prove that if = D.
8.3.16. Let R be the real line (see 8.3.7). Does R possess two distinct subsets
F1 and F2 for which P1 = P2?
8.3.17. Let M be a metric space with metric p, n a natural number, and
Xo EM. Define
S(Xo, n) = {x EM: p(x, Xo) < lin}
Denote by .~theclass of all S(xo, n). Prove that ~forms a basis for the topology
introduced in 8.3.1.
8.3. 18.T. Let X be a topological space. Prove that in order for a class ~
of open sets in X to be a basis it is necessary and sufficient that for every
open set G c X and every a E G there exists U E ~ such that a E U c G.
Does every topological space have a basis?
8.3.19. Let X be a topological space, A c X, and f!J a basis for X. Prove
that a E A if and only if UnA i= 0 for every set U E ~ which contains
ao·
8.3.20. T. Let ~ be a basis for a topological space X. Prove that:
1) for all a, b E X, a i= b, there exists U E ~ such that a E U, b ¢ U;
2) for all U, VE ~ and for every a E U n V there exists WE ~ such that
aEWcUnV.
8.3.21.T.H. Let X be a set and let ~ be a collection of subsets of X satisfying
conditions (1) and (2) of 8.3.20. Let A c X and denote by if the set of all
x E X with the property that A n U =1= 0 for every U E ~ containing x.
Consider the transformation a of P(X) defined by a(A) = if. Prove that a is
a closure operator. Is ~ a basis for the topological space thus obtained?
Remark. Compare the results of this problem with those for 8.3.20.
8.3.22. Let R be the real line (see 8.3.7). Consider the class ~ of all open
intervals having rational endpoints.
1) Does ~ form a basis for R?
2) Prove that ~ satisfies conditions (1) and (2) of 8.3.20.
Topological Spaces 173
3) Introduce a topology on R by means of 11 as indicated in 8.3.21.

Does this topology coincide with the topology introduced in 8.3.7?
8.3.23. Let M be a metric space and f be a continuous transformation of
M as defined in Chapter 8.2. Define the topology on M as indicated in
8.3.1. Is f a continuous transformation of the topological space M?
8.3.24. Let C[a.b] denote the metric space of continuous functions defined on
the interval [a,b] with the metric from 8.1.2,(1). Define a topology on
C[a.b] as indicated in 8.3.1. Let R be the set of real numbers with the topology
introduced in 8.3.7.
Which of the following mappings of C[a.b] into R are continuous:
1) Fl(y)=y(a) 0'ECra.bj)
2) F~(y)= max IY(x) I (y
xE la, bj
E Cra, bJ)
3) Fa 0') = max y (x) 0' E Cra. bJ)
xE la, bJ
b
4) F, (y) = ~y (x) dx (y E Cra, bj)
a
0 if f(x o) < 0 for some Xo
5) Fs(f) = 1t if f(x) = ° for all x

1 if f(x) ~ 0, and f(x o) =f. °
for at least one Xo
8.3.25. Let g be a one-to-one mapping of a topological space X onto itself

such that g and g-I are continuous. Is g a homeomorphism of X onto itself?
8.3.26.T. Let X and Y be topological spaces and f a mapping of X into Y.
Prove that in order for f to be continuous it is necessary and sufficient that
the inverse image F of every closed set F' in Y be closed in X.
8.3.27.T. Let X and Y be topological spaces and f a mapping of X into Y.
Prove that in order for fto be continuous it is necessary and sufficient that the
inverse image G of every open set G' in Y be open in X.
8.3.28.T.H. Let X and Y be topological spaces and f a mapping of X into
Y. Prove that f is continuous if and only if for every x E X and every open
G' c Ywithf(x) = YEG'thereexistsanopenG c Xsuchthatf(G) c G'.
8.3.29.T.H. Let X and Ybe topological spaces and f a mapping of X into Y.
Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for f to be open is that for
every x E X and every open G c X containing x there exists an open V c Y
containingf(x) such that V c f(G).
8.3.30.T.H. L~t X be the Cartesian product of the topological spaces X I'
Xz, ... ,X n . For any open sets V I ,V 2 , .•• ,V n (V i c X;) denote by (VI'
V 2, ... , Vn) the set of all elements (XI' X2 , · · · , xn) in X such that Xi E Vi.
Denote by !!I the class of all sets (V I, V 2, ... , V n), where the Vi are arbitrary
open sets in Xi. Introduce the transformation of P(X) as indicated in
8.3.21. Prove that X is a topological space relative to this transformation.
Remark. The space X is called the direct product of the topological
s paces X I , X 2 , .•. , X n •
8.3.31. Let M be a metric space with metric p. Let M' be the metric space
consisting of all elements of M, but with the metric PI defined by
PI (x, y) = kp (x, y) (x, Y EM')
where k is a fixed positive number (see 8.1.6). Define the topologies on M

and M' beginning with the metrics P and PI as indicated in 8.3.1. Do these
topologies coincide?
8.3.32. Let C be the set of all continuous functions defined on the interval
[a, b]. Introduce two metrics on C as indicated in 8.1.2, (1) and (2). Define
topologies on C starting with these metrics as in 8.3.1. Do these topologies
coincide?
8.3.33. Let X be the direct product of n copies of the real line (see 8.3.7).
Define the metric P on X by
X=(Xh .... XII) E X; Y=(Yh "'1 YII) EX

P(x, y) = V (Xl -YI)i + ... + (XII - YII)'J
Introduce the topology on X starting with P (see 8.3.1). Prove that the topol-
ogy on X from 8.3.30 coincides with the topology introduced by means of p.
8.3.34.T. Introduce distinct topologies on a set X with bases f!41 and flI2
(see 8.3.18). Assume that for each V E flIl and every a E V there exists V' E flI2
such that a E V' c V, and for each V' E flI2 and everya' E V' there exists
V E flit such that a' EVe V'. Prove that these topologies coincide.
8.3.35. State and prove the converse of 8.3.34.
8.3.36. Let there be given two equivalent metrics PI and P2 on a set X.
Prove that the topologies introduced on X starting with PI and P2 (see
8.3.1) coincide.
4. Topological Groups
Let G be a set with an operation (which we shall call multiplication)
under which G is a group and a closure operator under which G is a topologi-
cal space. Then G is called a topological group relative to the given operation
Topological Groups 175
and topology if it satisfies the following condition: for all a, bEG and for
every open set W containing ab - 1 there exist open sets U and V such that
a E U, bE V, and U V-I C W, where V-I is the set of all inverses of elements
in V.
This latter condition connects the group operation and the topology in
the following sense:
1) each left translation of G is a continuous transformation of G;
2) the transformation of G which takes each element onto its inverse is
continuous (see 8.4.5 and 8.4.40).
The set of elements of a topological group G when considered with
respect to the group operation only is called an algebraic group. This defini-
tion conforms with the definition given in Chapter 2.6, since it is possible to
introduce a topology on every group G such that G is a topological group
with respect to this topology (see 8.4.15). In this section we will usually add
the term "algebraic" to the terms group, subgroup, homomorphism, etc.,
when we consider these concepts with respect to the group operation only.
Thus we speak of algebraic subgroups, algebraic homomorphisms, algebraic
isomorphisms, etc. We will use the same letter to denote both the algebraic
group and the topological group.
A subset H of a topological group G is called a subgroup of G if:
1) H is a subgroup of the algebraic group G;
2) H is a closed subset of the topological space G.
A subgroup N of a topological group G is called a normal subgroup of
G if N is a normal subgroup of the algebraic group G.
Let G and G' be topological groups. A mapping f of G onto G' is called a
topological isomorphism, or simply an isomorphism, if:
1) f is an isomorphism of the algebraic group G onto the algebraic
group G';
2) f is a topological mapping (homeomorphism) of the topological
space G onto the topological space G'.
A mapping g of G into G' is called a homomorphism if:
1) g is a homomorphism of the algebraic group G into the algebraic
group G';
2) g is a continuous mapping of the topological space G into the
topological space G'.
A homomorphism f of G into G' is said to be open iff is an open mapping
of the topological space G into the topological space G'.
Let Tbe a topological space and let G be a topological group of invertible
transformations of T(cf. Chapter 3.2). Then G is called a continuous group of
transformations of T if for every a E G, x E T and for every open set WeT
containing ct(x) there exist open sets U c G containing ct and VeT con-
taining x. such that ct'(x') E W for all a' E U, x' E V. Every transformation
!Y. EGis a homeomorphism (see 8.4.30).
A continuous group of transformations of a space T is called transitive

if it is. a transitive algebraic group of transformations of T (cf. Chapter 4.9).
8.4.1. Let G1 and G2 be the groups defined below and let (Xi (i = 1,2) be
transformations of P(G;). Determine which of the Gi are topological groups:
1) G 1 any group, (X1(A) = A for all A c G1 ;
2) G2 = [a]g an infinite cyclic group, C<l(A) = A if A is finite and C<2(A) =
A U e if A is infinite.
8.4.2. Does the real line (see 8.3.7) form a topological group relative to
ordinary addition?
8.4.3. Let v" be an n-dimensional vector space and introduce the metric p
on v,,:
Define the topology on v" as indicated in 8.3.1. Does v" form a topological
group relative to ordinary addition of vectors?
8.4.4. Let G be the set of n x n real matrices a = (a i ) with determinants
different from zero, and let k be a positive integer. Consider the class :18 of all
sets U ak' where U ak consists of all matrices x = (Xi) for which
IXij-aijl <! (l,j=l, ... ,n)

Show that it is possible to define a topology on G such that :18 is a basis for
that topology (see 8.3.21). Does G form a topological group relative to this
topology and ordinary matrix multiplication?
8.4.5.H. Let G be a topological group, a E G. Prove that each ofthe mappings
below is a homeomorphism of the topological space G onto itself:
1) Idx) =xa (x E 0)
2) Ii (x)=ax(x EO)
3) !a(x)=x-I (x EO)
8.4.6. Let G be a topological group, F a closed set in G, U an open set in G,
P any subset of G, and a E G. Which of the following sets are closed: Fa,
aF, F- 1 ? Which of the following are open : UP, PU, U -1?
8.4.7.T. Let G be a topological group and a, bEG. Show that there exists a
homeomorphism J of the space G for which J(a) = b.
8.4.8.T. Let:18* be the set of all open sets in a topological group G which
contain the identity. Let :18 consist of all sets of the form aU, where a E G,
U E :18*. Prove that :18 is a basis for the topological space G.
8.4.9. Let G be the additive group of integers, a E G, and p a prime. Let Uka
denote the set of all integers of the form a + bri (b E G) and let {f4 p consist of
all sets Uka (k is a natural number, a E G). Show that{f4p satisfies the conditions
in 8.3.21. Does G form a topological group relative to ordinary addition
and the topology determined by {f4 p?
Let p #- q be two primes. Let {f4p and {f4q be bases for topologies as defined
above. Are these two topologies equal?
8.4.10. Let R be the real line. Then R is a topological group under addition
(see 8.4.2). Denote by Z the algebraic subgroup of integers. Is Z a topological
subgroup of R?
8.4.11.0. Let G be the topological group of all points in the plane relative to
the operation and topology introduced in 8.4.3. Let N be a line with slope
~ and H the set of all points with integral coordinates.
1) Is either H or N a subgroup of the topological group G?
2) For which ~ is the set P = H + N closed?
8.4. 12.T.H. Let.G be a topological group and H an algebraic subgroup of the
algebraic group G. Is H a subgroup of the topological group G?
8.4.13.T.H. Let G be a topological group. Prove that for every algebraic
normal subgroup N of G, N is a normal subgroup of G.
8.4.14. Let G and G' be topological groups and let f be an algebraic iso-
morphism of G onto G' which is continuous. Is f necessarily a topological
isomorphism?
8.4.15. Let {f4 be the family of all subsets of an algebraic group G. Prove that
(1) there exists a unique topology on G for which {f4 is a basis, (2) G forms a
topological group relative to this topology, and (3) this topology is discrete.
Is every algebraic subgroup of G a topological subgroup? Is every algebraic
isomorphism of G onto a topological group G' continuous? Is every algebraic
isomorphism of G onto a topological group G' a topological isomorphism?
Remark. A group with the discrete topology is called a discrete group.
8.4.16. Let R be the topological group of real numbers under addition (see
8.4.2). Let R' be the set of all positive real numbers. Define a mapping f
from P(R') into itself by f(A) = it (A c R') where it is the set of all a E R'
for which there exists a sequence an E A with lim a. = a. Prove that:
.--+ 00
1) f defines a topology on R' ;

2) R' forms a topological group relative to multiplication and this
topology. Are the topological groups Rand R' isomorphic?
8.4.17.T.H. Let H be an algebraic subgroup of a topological group G. Prove
that in order for H to be a topological subgroup of G it is necessary and suffi-
cient that there exist an open set U such that U n H = U n H #- 0.
8.4.18. Let G be the topological group of nonsingular n x n real matrices

(see 8.4.4). Which of the following subsets of G are subgroups, and which of
these are normal:
1) the set of all nonsingular matrices whose determinants are rational;
2) the set of all nonsingular diagonal matrices;
3) the set of all nonsingular matrices of the form
aU 0 0 0 )
( a'll a2:1 0 0
a~l •an~ ~n3·•• '· an~

4) the set of all matrices with determinant 1?
8.4.19.T.H. Let G be a topological group and H a subgroup of G. Let GIH
denote the set of all right cosets of H in G, and let fJI be a basis for G. For each
U E fJI, denote by U* the set of all cosets xH where x E U. Let 111* be the set of
all U*, where U EfJI. Prove that a topology can be introduced on GIH for
which f!J* is a basis.
8.4.20.T.H. Let N be a normal subgroup of a topological group G and let
GIN be the factor group of the algebraic group G by N. Introduce a topology
on GIN as indicated in 8.4.19. Prove that GIN is a topological group.
Remark. The topological group GIN is called the jactor group
of G by N.
8.4.21.H. Let G be a topological group, N a normal subgroup of G, and GIN
the factor group of G by N. Consider the natural homomorphism qJ (see
2.4.18) of the algebraic group G onto the algebraic group GIN. Is qJ a continu-
ous mapping of the space G onto the space GIN? Is qJ an open mapping of G
onto GIN? Find conditions which insure that qJ will be a topological iso-
morphism.
8.4.22. Let G and G' be topological groups, f a homomorphism of G onto G',
and N the inverse image of the identity e' E G' (the kernel of f). Prove that N
is a normal subgroup of the topological group G.
8.4.23.H. Let G and G' be topological groups, g an open homomorphism of
G onto G', and N the kernel of g (see 8.4.22). Prove that GIN is topologically
isomorphic to G'.
8.4.24.T. Let G 1 , Gz , . .. , Gn be topological groups,and let G be the Cartesian
product G 1 x Gz x ... x Gn , with componentwise multiplication (see
5.6.29). Introduce a topology on G as indicated in 8.3.30. Prove that G is a
topological group.
Remark. The group G is called the direct product of the topological
groups G1 , Gz , ... , Gn •
8.4.25.H. Let G be the direct product of the topological groups G 1 ,G z ,· .. , Gn .

For each Xj E Gj define f(x) = (e 1 , ••• ,ej _ 1, Xj' ej + l' ... , en) E G, where e;
is the identity of G; (i = 1, ... , n). Prove that f is an isomorphism of the
topological group Gj into the topological group G.
8.4.26. Let C be the topological group of complex numbers under addition
(see 8.4.3) and let C' = R x R be the direct product of two copies of the
topological group of real numbers (see 8.4.2). Are C and C' isomorphic
topological groups?
8.4.27. Let C be the topological group of complex numbers under addition
(see 8.4.3) and let A be the set of all pairs of real numbers (x, y) such that x ~ 0
and
I
O~Y~l-x+l
Denote by B the set of all pairs of real numbers of the form (x, 0).
1) Is either A or B a closed set?
2) Is A +- B closed?
8.4.28.T.H. Let G be a topological group. Prove that for every open set U
and for every x E U there exists an open set V such that x E Vand V c U.
8.4.29.T.H. Let G be a topological group and let A be the center of the
algebraic group G. Prove that A is a subgroup of the topological group G.
8.4.30. Let G be a continuous group of transformations of a topological
space X. Prove that every g EGis a homeomorphism of X onto itself.
8.4.31. Let G' be the set of all invertible topological transformations of a
topological space X. Prove that G' forms an algebraic group under composi-
tion of transformations.
8.4.32. Is the product of two continuous transformations of a topological
space continuous?
8.4.33. Let G be a continuous group of transformations of a topological
space X. (1) Is every subgroup H of G a continuous group of transformations
of X? (2) Let G be a transitive group of transformations of X. Is every sub-
group H of G a transitive group of transformations of X?
8.4.34. Let G be the group of all rotations of the plane D about a point O.
Introduce a topology on D as indicated in 8.4.3. Prove that each x EGis a
homeomorphism of D. Each rotation x E G determines an angle of rotation
IX, so we can write x = x •. For every A c G, define f(A) = ii, where Xo =
x'o E iI if and only if there exists a sequence of angles {lXn} such that
lim IXn = lXo and x. E A (n = 1, 2, ... ). Prove that G is a topological group
n- 00 11
relative to f. Is G a continuous group of transformations of D?

8.4.35.H. Let D be the set of all points in the plane. Introduce a topology on
D as indicated in 8.4.3. Denote by G the group of all affine transformations of

D.
1) Prove that every affine transformation is a homeomorphism of D.
2) Is it possible to introduce a nondiscrete topology on G such that G
is a continuous group of transformations of D?
8.4.36. T.H. Let G be a topological group and H a subgroup of G. Introduce
a topology on the set GIH of right cosets as indicated in 8.4.19. Define the
transformation IX by IX(A) = IXA, where IX E G, A E GIH. Prove that G is a
transitive continuous group oftransformations of the topological space GI H.
Remark. Compare this result with the introductory remarks to Chapter
7.2.
S.4.37.T. Let G be a transitive continuous group of transformations of a
topological space X. Fix a E X and denote by At the set of alIa E G for which
a(a) = t (t E X). Prove that Aa is a subgroup of the topological group G.
8.4.3S.T.H. Let G be a continuous group of transformations of a topological
space X and define At as in 8.4.37. Prove that the mapping J defined by
J(t) = At is a one-to-one mapping of X onto the set GI Aa of right cosets of Aa
in G. Is J - 1 a continuous mapping ofthe topological space GI Aa (see 8.4.19)
onto X?
8.4.39.H. Let M be a metric space with a bounded metric p. Prove that it is
possible to introduce the natural metric p* on the group of transformations
G of M. Introduce the topologies on M and G relative to the metrics p and p*,
respectively, as indicated in 8.3.1. Prove that G is a continuous group of
transformations of the topological space M.
8.4.40. Let G be a set with an operation under which G is a group and a
closure operator under which G is a topological space. Prove that if the
following two conditions are satisfied then G is a topologicaJ group:
1) each left translation of G is continuous;
2) the transformation J defined by J(x) = X-l (x E G) is continuous.
5. Ordered Groups
Let G be a group and define an ordering relation on the set of elements in
G. If this relation is two-sided compatible, then G is called an ordered group
relative to this ordering. In particular we speak of a linearly ordered group
if the given ordering is also linear (in the literature the term "ordered group"
is sometimes used in place of what we have called a "linearly ordered group").
An element x of an ordered group G is said to be positive if x ~ e and
negative if x ~ e. The set of all positive elements of G is called the positive part
of G and is denoted by G +. (It is also called the semigroup of positive elements,
which is implied by 8.5.6.) The set of all negative elements of G is called the
negative part of G (semigroup of negative elements) and is denoted by G -.
Ordered Groups 181
It is natural to use additive notation to denote the operation of the

group. In this case the identity element is called the zero, denoted by 0, and the
inverse of an element x is denoted by - x. The positive part then becomes all
elements x such that x ~ o.
8.5.1. Let G be an ordered group. Prove that x ~ Y if and only if X-I Y ~ e.

Remark. Hence it follows that the positive part of an ordered group G
completely determines the ordering.
8.5.2. Prove that in an ordered group G, x ~ Y if and only if Y- Ix ~ e.
Remark. Hence it follows that the negative part also determines the
ordering completely.
8.5.3. Let C be the additive group of complex numbers. Determine which
of the following orderings on C are two-sided compatible, and find their
positive and negative parts:
1) ZI ~ Z2 if a l > a2 or a l = a2 and b l ~ b2 (ZI = a l + bli, Z2 =
az + b2 i);
2) ZI ~ Zz if arg (Z2 - z I) E [IX, P], where IX and p are fixed angles satis-
fying 0 ~ p - IX < n;
3) ZI ~z2ifal ~a2andbl ~b2;
4) Zl ~ Z2 ifargz i ~ argz2 and Izd ~ IZ21·
8.5.4. Prove that an element x =j:. e of an ordered group G is negative if and
only if x- I is positive.
8.5.5. Prove that if an ordered group G contains an element x =j:. e of finite
order, then x is neither positive nor negative.
8.S.6.T. Prove that the positive part G + of an ordered group G satisfies the
following properties:
1) if x, Y E G + then x Y E G + ;
2) e E G+ ;
3) if x E G+, where x =j:. e, then X-I ~ G+ ;
4) ifxEG+ andgEG,theng-IxgEG+.
Remark. Property 1 implies that G + is a semigroup.
8.5.7. T.H. Let H be a subgroup of a group G satisfying the following
conditions:
1) ifx,YEH,thenxYEH;
2) eEH;
3) if x E H, where x =j:. e, then X-I ~ H;
4) if x E Hand g E G, then g - Ixg E H.
Prove that it is possible to introduce a two-sided compatible ordering on G
such that H is the positive part of G relative to this ordering, i.e., H = G+.
Remark. Compare this with 8.5.6.
8.5.8. Let {Pa} be a family of two-sided compatible orderings on a group G,

and denote the positive part of G relative to Pa by Ga+. Prove that n G:
a
is the positive part of some two-sided compatible ordering t on G. How is.
related to the Pa?
8.5.9. Prove that the negative part G- of an ordered group G has the
properties:
1) ifx,YEG-,thenxYEG-;
2) e E G-;
3) if x E G-, where x "" e, then X-I ¢ G- ;
4) ifxEG- andgEG,theng-IxgEG-.
8.5.10. Prove that every subset of a group G which is the positive part for
some two-sided compatible ordering P is the negative part of G for some other
two-sided compatible ordering t. How are these two orderings related?
8.5.11. Prove that an ordered group G is linearly ordered if and only if
G+ U G- = G.
8.S.12.H. Describe all possible two-sided compatible orderings on cyclic
groups.
8.5. 13.H. Let G be the additive group of all polynomials with real coeffi-
cients. Let H c G consist of all polynomials which are nonnegative on the
interval [0,1]. Prove that H is the positive part for some two-sided compatible
ordering p. Determine how the following elements are related under p:
8.S.14.H. Let G be the set of all pairs of real numbers. Introduce an operation
on G by setting
Prove that G is a group with respect to this operation. Prove that the subset
H of all elements (x, y) such that x > 0 or x = 0 and Y ~ 0 is the positive part
for some two-sided compatible linear ordering.
8.5.15. Let G = n a
Ga be a direct product of groups Ga , each of which has a
two-sided compatible ordering defined on it. Put x ~ Y in G if and only if
Xa ~ Ya in Ga for every factor Ga.
1) Determine whether this ordering is two-sided compatible.

2) If all of the orderings on the Ga are linear, under what conditions will
the ordering on G be linear?
Ordered Groups 183
8.5.16. Let G = n*G,

, be a free product of groups G" each of which has a
two-sided compatible ordering defined on it. Let x, y E G be written in the
form
x= XatX lIg ••• xa"
Y = YajYag" ·Yan
where XII;' YIX; E GIX ;. Set X :::; Y if and only if XIX; :::; YIX; (i = 1,2, ... , n). Does
such a rule define an ordering on G? If so, is it two-sided compatible?
8.5.17. Let G be a free product of two (finite or infinite) cyclic groups,
G = [x] * [y J. Let H be the subset of G consisting of the identity and all
elements z which can be written in the form
z = xa'yb,xa9ybj . .. xOny b"
at +ag+ ... +an>O
Determine under what conditions there exists a two-sided compatible order-
ing on G for which H is the positive part of G, i.e., H = G+.
8.5.18. Let G be a commutative group, x E G, x of. e. Determine when there
exists a two-sided compatible ordering on G such that x ~ e.
8.5.19. Prove that the ordering on the infinite cyclic group G = [x] defined
by x" :::; xm if and only if n :::; m is two-sided compatible.
8.5.20. Let there be given a two-sided compatible ordering on the infinite
cyclic group G = [x] under which x :::; x 2 • Prove that x" :::; xm if and only if
n < m.
Remark. Thus the relation x :::; x 2 completely determines the ordering
considered in 8.5.19.
8.5.21. Assume that any two elements in an ordered group have an upper
bound. Prove that any two elements will then also have a lower bound.
Remark. An ordered group having this property is called a directed
group.
8.5.22.T. Let G be a directed group. Prove that for every x E G there exist
u, v E G + such that x = uv - 1.
8.5.23.T. Assume that for every element x in an ordered group G there exist
u, v E G + such that x = uv - 1. Prove that G is a directed group.
8.5.24. Determine which of the ordered groups stated in problems 8.5.3, (1)
and (2), and 8.5.13 are directed.
8.5.25. Let G be the set of real matrices of the form
1 a C)
M= ( 0 1 b
001
Prove that:
1) G is a group under ordinary matrix multiplication;
2) G has anontrivial (different from the diagonal) two-sided compatible
linear ordering.
8.5.26.H. Prove that if an abelian group G has at least two distinct two-sided
compatible orderings, then there is an infinite number of all such orderings on
G.
8.5.27. Prove that a nontrivial (see 8.5.25) two-sided compatible ordering
can be defined on every group G which contains elements of infinite order in
the center of G.
8.5.28. Prove that if a nontrivial (see 8.5.25) two-sided compatible ordering
can be defined on the center of a group G, then a two-sided compatible order-
ing can also be defined on all of G.
HINTS
CHAPTER 1
1.2.3. Use the well-known fact that the set of all primes is infinite.
1.2.18. Take a one-to-one mapping ({Jk of Mk into Mk for each k = 1,2, ....
Select subsets N 1 ,N 2 ,N 3 , ••• in U Mk for which xEN k if xEM t and
k
t + qJt(x) = k for some t. Each Nk is finite (or empty) and U Mk = U N k .
k k
Apply 1.2.17.
1.2.19. Write the set of all rational numbers as a union of subsets Mk
(k = 1,2, ... ), where M k consists of all rational numbers p/q (p and q are in-
tegers) such that Ipi + Iql = k. Apply 1.2.17.
1.2.20. Use 1.2.2.
1.2.21. Write the set of all polynomials with rational coefficients as a union
of subsets Mk (k = 1,2,3, ... ), where the polynomial
Po xn+P1 xn-1 + ... +Pn-l x+Pn

qo ql qn-l qn
(Po, PI,· .. , Pn, qo, q I,· .. ,qn are integers) lies in M kif
n n
n+ ;=0
~ Ipi 1+ ~ Iqjl=k
j=o
Apply 1.2.17.
1.2.23. Suppose that there exists a mapping qJ of the set of all natural numbers
onto the set of real numbers r such that 0 :::;; r :::;; 1. Write each of these num-
bers in the form of an infinite decimal fraction:
Cfl = 0, £11£12£13 .. .
Cf2 = 0, £21£22£23 .. .
Cf3 = 0, E 81£32£33 •••
185
186 Hints
(here the Gijare the symbols 0,1,2, ... , 9). Define the number r = 0,'11 '12 Yf 3 ... ,
where Yfk = 1 if Gkk -# 1 and Yfk = 2 if Gkk = 1 (k = 1,2,3, ... ). Show that
cpm -# r for all m = 1,2,3, ... , which contradicts the definition of cpo
1.2.24. Use 1.2.16 and 1.2.23.
1.2.25. First prove that the set of all algebraic numbers is countable by using
1.2.17 and 1.2.21, and then show that each polynomial has a finite number of
roots. Next prove that the sets of all real numbers and all complex numbers
are uncountable by using 1.2.16 and 1.2.23. Finally prove that the sets of all
real transcendental numbers and all transcendental numbers are uncountable
by using 1.2.16 and 1.2.18.
1.2.26. First prove that any two intervals are equivalent. Then represent
each of the given sets as a disjoint union of a countable number of intervals.
1.2.27. Prove the existence of a one-to-one mapping of A into M. Suppose
there exists a one-to-one mapping cp of A onto M. Fix two elements b, b' in
B, b -# b'. Consider the mapping tfJ of A into B defined by tfJa = b if cpa -# b
and tfJa = b' if cpa = b. Prove that tfJa -# cpa for all a E A.
1.2.28. For each subset N of M define a mapping CPN of M into the set
°
{O, I} by CPN(X) = 1 if x E N, and CPN(X) = if x ¢ N. Prove that the set of all
cP" coincides with the set of all mappings of Minto {O, I}. Use 1.2.15and 1.2.27.
1.3.18. Prove by induction on the number of elements in the set. Select one
of the maximal elements y E X with respect to p. By using the induction
assumption, establish a linear ordering a on X "-. {y} such that a - b(p)
implies a ...., b(a) for all a, bE X"-. {y}. Starting with a construct the desired
ordering p' on X.
CHAPTER 2
2.1.11. Consider the mapping of G onto H which takes rEG onto In r E H.

2.2.9. Use 1.4.1 and 1.4.4.
2.3.12. Take x E R, Y ELand consider their product xy.
2.3.13. Use 2.3.12.
2.3.18. First prove that for any two matrices A and B, the rank of the
product AB is less than or equal to the minimum of the ranks of A and B.
Prove next that if A and B have the same rank, then there exist matrices P
and Q such that A = PBQ. Finally, the proof follows by using elementary
transformations, and the fact that each elementary transformation can be
brought about by multiplying matrices on the left or right by certain non-
singular matrices.
2.4.22. Use 2.4.20 and 2.4.21.
Hints 187
2.5.1. The proof proceeds by induction on n, the length of the word

X1X2'" X n • For a given word consider two processes for reducing the length
of the word. These reductions are achieved by a sequence of substitutions of
any two adjacent terms in the product.
Let the first process begin with the substitution of a pair XiX i + 1 in the
product, and the second process with the substitution of a pair XjXj+ l '
Then consider two cases separately: (1) i + 1 < j, and (2) i + 1 = j.
2.5.16. Take any element a' such that ad a = a. Then consider the element
a = dad.
2.5.19. Consider the relation Pion S defined by x '" y(p 1) (x, YES) if there
exist elements a, b E S, k, k' E K such that one of the four, following conditions
holds: (1) x = akb, Y = ak'b; (2) x = ak, Y = ak'; (3) x = kb, y = k'b; and
(4) x = y.
Consider the relation P2 on S defined by x '" Y(P2) if there exist elements
tl = x,t 2 ,· .. ,tn- 1 , tn = YES such that ti '" t i + 1 (Pl) (i =1,2, ... ,n - 1).
Prove that P2 is a congruence. Consider SI P2 and the canonical mapping on
S onto SI P2 which takes each XES onto the Prclass containing x.
2.5.23. Take any element x of a finite semigroup. Consider [x]. Use 2.5.10.
2.6.16. Choose the appropriate powers of x as the desired elements Yl,
Y2, ... , Ym' Use the well-known result from number theory that if d is the
greatest common divisor of the integers k 1 , k 2, ... , km, there exist integers
Xl' X2,"" Xm such that xlk l + x2k2 + ... + xmkm = d.
2.6.21. Let G' be an arbitrary subgroup of G = [x]g. Select the element Xk
in G' having the smallest exponent k. Next use 2.6.7. Then compare G' with
Hk •
2.6.22. Use 2.6.8 and the hint 102.6.21.
2.6.23. Use 2.6.21 and 2.6.22.
2.6.24. Use 2.6.21 and 2.6.23.
CHAPTER 3
3.1.26. Use 3.1.22 and 3.1.25.

3.1.31. If r{3 ~ n, then choose permutations y and b such that ya{) = {3.
3.1.34. Use 3.1.25, 3.1.26, and the existence of an identity in a group.
3.1.35. Consider the set G of all transformations {3 satisfying (1) {3x = {3y
if and only ifax = ay, and (2) {3X = aX. Prove that G is a group.
3.1.37. Use 3.1.18.
3.1.38. Prove by induction on the rank, beginning with n - 2.
188 Hints
3.1.39. Use the fact that a transformation of rank n cannot be written as a

product of transformations of smaller rank. Prove that by multiplying a
permutation of rank n - 1 by a suitably chosen permutation of rank n it
is possible to obtain any other permutation of rank n - 1.
3.1.40. Use the hint to the preceding problem.
3.2.6. Use 3.2.5.
3.2.8. Consider the binary relation p on the set X defined by (x,y) E p if
c(x = y. Prove that there exists f3 E Tx such that p = Pp, and that f3 is the
inverse of c(.
3.2.9. Use 3.2.7.
3.3.14. Prove that (a l a2'" ak) = (alak)(alak-l)'" (ala2)'
3.3.16. Use 3.2.23 and 3.2.24. Prove that if
(
1 ... n)
C( = al ... an
is an even permutation, then J~(al ... an) > 0, and if C( is odd then
•.. an) < O.
fn(a l
3.3.17. Use 3.2.25. Multiply each even permutation by the transposition
(12).
3.3.19. Use 3.3.5, 3.3.9, and 3.3.14.
3.3.21. Use 3.3.9 and 3.3.19. Show that the order of the group [(34), (123),
(456)] is less than 31.
3.3.23. Use 3.3.19.
3.3.24. Use 3.3.7.
3.3.26. Use 3.3.24 and prove that if two numbers appear in a cycle in the
decomposition of C( into disjoint cycles then they appear in the same cycle in
the decomposition of C(', and vice versa.
3.4.13. Use 3.4.4.
3.4.23. Use 3.4.4. In the set of integers consider the ordering whereby the
natural numbers are ordered by the usual ordering and the remaining num-
bers are not comparable.
3.4.27. Introduce a system of coordinates and prove that if the abscissas of
Pl , P2 , and P3 satisfy Xl < X 2 < X 3 , then so do the abscissas of their images.
3.4.30. Use 3.4.6.
3.4.32. (2) Prove the assertion for transformations of rank n - 1 and pro-
ceed by induction on the rank.
3.4.34. Prove that
C( = (a bed f)
a ab b c
Hints 189
is an endomorphism of X which is not a regular element.

3.5.25. Use the preceding problem and the fact that for each pair of vertices
there exists a self-coincidence of the tetrahedron mapping one vertex onto
the other.
3.5.28. Use the hint to 3.5.25.
3.5.29. Use the preceding problem. Prove that the identity transformation is
the only permutation which maps each of the four diagonals of a cube onto
itself. Consider the set of transformations of the diagonals of the cube which
correspond to all rotations of the cube.
3.5.32. Use the hint to 3.5.25.
3.6.8. Use the theorem concerning the existence of roots of a polynomial.
3.6.22. Use 3.1.40 and 3.3.19.
3.6.24. See the preceding problem.
3.6.28. Prove that eM is the identity of A, and use 3.6.5.
3.6.29. Use invertibility and the definitions of the domain and range of the
product of two transformations. Prove that d~ = df3 and r~ = rf3 for any
~, f3 in the given group. Then use 2.6.1 and 3.6.12.
CHAPTER 4
4.1.1. Use 2.6.19.

4.1.2. Use 4.1.1.
4.1.4. By virtue of 4.1.3 the union of all right co sets is equal to G. Eliminate
the repeated cosets from this union, i.e., select one member from each col-
lection of equal cosets. Apply 4.1.2.
4.1.9. Use 2.6.21.
4.1.16. Prove that Hy-I = Hz- 1 if and only if yH = zH. Consider the fact
that g = x~h implies g-I = h-IX~ I.
4.1.20. Use 4.1.4 and 4.1.19. The right decomposition of H in G gives a
partition of the n elements of G into k subsets, each of which consists of
m elements.
4.1.21. Use 4.1.20 and 2.6.9.
4.1.23. Consider the subset of G of all elements of the form u-1v, where
u, v E K, and the subset of all elements of the form uv - 1, where u, v E K.
4.1.26. Develop an argument in a manner similar to the one exhibiting the
existence of a right decomposition of a subgroup in a group (see 4.1.2,
4.1.3, and 4.1.4).
4.1.30. Consider the right decomposition of Din HI' where D = HI n H 2.
Multiply both parts of the obtained equality by H 2. Use 2.6.19.
190 Hints
4.2.10. Use 4.1.20 and 4.2.9.

4.2.24. For x E K 1 denote by Sx the number of pairs (y, z) (y E K 2 , Z E K 3 ) for
which x = yz. Prove that Sx = Sx' for all x, x' E K I ' Show that k2k3 = k1s,
where s = Sx for all x E K 1 '
4.2.26. Consider (x- I H Ix)H 2' and use 4.1.30 and 4.2.25,
4.2.27. Use 4.1.19, 4.1.30, and 4.2.26.
4.3.5. Use the result concerning the determinant of the product of two
matrices.
4.3.12. Use the preceding problem.
4.3.17. Use 3.5.5. Prove that each coset of N in G' different from N consists
of rotations about all points through an angle cp.
4.3.25. Consider the decomposition of S4 by the Klein group. With all
elements in a class associate the permutation in that class which has 4 fixed
points.
4.3.26. Use 4.3.21 and 2.4.18.
4.3.27. If f(gd = f(g2), then find f(gllg2)'
4.3.28. Use 4.3.27. Consider the following mapping I/! of G' into G/ N: if
g' E G', then I/!(g') = gN is the set of elements mapped onto g' by the given
homomorphism.
4.4.1. Consider the equality stated at the end of the introduction to Chapter
4.2, and take 4.2.10 into account.
4.4.2. Use 4.3.29 and 4.4.1 to show that the group is commutative. Consider
the product of two distinct cyclic subgroups of the group, and apply 4.1.30.
4.4.3. Prove by induction on the order of G. Take the product of all cyclic
subgroups of G which are generated by elements in the center of G. If the
order of one of these subgroups is divisible by p, then this subgroup has an
element of order p. If no such supgroup exists, then according to 4.1.30 the
order ofthe center of G is not divisible by p. In this case, by using the equation
stated at the end of the introduction to Chapter 4.2, we get that some ki is
not divisible by p. But by 4.2.10 ki is the index of some proper subgroup Hi
of G. Since the index of Hi in G is not divisible by p, then it follows from 4.1.20
that the order of Hi is divisible by p. By the induction hypothesis, Hi contains
an element of order p.
4.4.4. Use 4.4.3.
4.4.5. Use 4.1.30 and 4.4.3.
4.4.6. Proceed by induction on the order of G. Consider the equation given
at the end of the introduction to Chapter 4.2. By 4.2.10 each k i > 1 is the
index of some subgroup of G. Apply the result of 4.4.3 to the center of G.
4.4.7. Note that P is a normal subgroup of its normalizer. By taking 4.1.30
into account, show that the order of [x]P is a power of p for all x E N.
Hints 191
4.4.10. Let PI and P 2 be two p-Sylow subgroups of G. Consider the decom-

position of G by the pair (PI' P2), and use the equation given in 4.2.27.
4.4.11. Let P be one of the p-Sylow subgroups of G, and let N be the nor-
malizer of P. Consider the decomposition of G by the pair (N, P) and the equa-
tion in 4.2.27 associated with this decomposition. By virtue of 4.2.10 and
4.4.10, the number of p-Sylow subgroups is the index of N in G. By using
4.4.7, show that in the decomposition of G by (N, P), X-I Nx n P = P for
exactly one of the classes N x P.
4.4.12. Use 4.4.5 and 4.4.11.
4.4.14. Use 4.4.11.
4.4.18. Consider the decomposition of G by the pair (P, H), where P is a
p-Sylow subgroup of G, and the equation in 4.2.27.
4.4.19. Prove that for such a group G the elements in distinct p-Sylow
subgroups of G commute. Use 4.4.1. Consider the set of all elements of G
which commute with elements in the center of one of the p-Sylow subgroups.
4.4.20. Prove by induction on the order of G, and use 4.3.33, 4.4.1, and 4.4.3.
4.5.14. Prove that every 3-cycle is a commutator in Sn'
4.5.17. Use 4.4.20 and the fact that a group of order p is abelian.
4.5.18. Prove that in this case the commutator subgroup lies in the center.
Prove that besides elements in the commutator subgroup, the group has
other elements of order 4.
4.5.19. Use 2.2.15.
4.5.22. Use the result concerning the determinant of the product of two
matrices. Represent matrices whose determinant is 1 as products of matrices
of the form
(1o a) (1a 0)
1
I
1
I (a ~ )
0 -
a
I (0 -1 ) -1 0)
1 0
I (
0 -1
4.6.3. Use 4.4.13.

4.6.5. Use 4.5.14 and 4.3.4.
4.6.6. Suppose that Sn is solvable for n ~ 5. Take a sequence of subgroups
as in 4.6.4. Select the last term H k of this sequence which contains all of the
3-cycles. By using 4.5.10, show that this implies that H k + 1 also contains all
of the 3-cycles.
4.6.7. Take a sequence of subgroups as in 4.6.4. For a subgroup F c G
consider the sequence
192 Hints
4.6.8. Use 4.5.20 and 4.6.4.

4.6.9. Construct a sequence of subgroups of G as in 4.6.4, starting with the
corresponding sequences of subgroups of N and GIN. Use 4.5.20.
4.6.13. Use 2.6.24 and 4.5.12.
4.6.14. Use 4.5.17.
4.6.15. Use 4.3.7, 4.6.5, 4.6.6, 4.6.7, and 4.6.9.
4.6.18. Use 4.4.11 and 4.6.3.
4.6.19. Use 4.4.11 and 4.6.3.
4.6.20. Use 4.3.17.
4.7.4. Use 4.6.12 and 4.6.13.
4.7.8. Use 4.7.7; prove by induction on k such that Hk c Zn-k'
4.7.9. Prove by induction on k such that Hn-k c Zk'
4.7.10. Use 4.7.8 and 4.7.9.
4.7.14. Use 4.4.1.
4.7.15. (1) Use 4.7.12; (2) use 4.7.11 ; (3) use 4.7.12; (4) use 4.7.14 and 4.7.4.
4.7.16. Use 4.7.14.
4.7.21. Use 4.7.4.
4.8.10. Use 4.8.8.
4.8.11. Use 4.8.8.
4.8.20. Compute the number of elements in the conjugate classes of all
elements of order 2. Use 4.2.19.
4.8.22. Use the preceding problem. If cp is an automorphism of S4 and
cp(12) = (ab), cp(13) = (ac), cp(14) = (ad), then consider ta where
lJ. = (1 234)
abc d
4.8.28. Use 3.3.20 and 4.8.3. Find the number of generating sets of A4 which
consist of 2 elements.
4.8.31. Use 4.3.29 and 4.8.18.
4.9.8. If lJ. is a regular permutation, then lJ.k maps at least one number onto
itself for some k.
4.9.20. If Gx c G' c G and lJ.G' is a right coset of G' in G, then prove that
M = {IXgiX, IXgjX, ... }, where gi' gj"" E G' is an imprimitive system.
4.9.21. Let (ijd, (ij2)"'" (ijk) be all transpositions in G containing the
number i, and let H be the group generated by the group Gi and these trans-
positions. Prove that k < n - 1 and that H #- G. Use 3.3.19 and 4.9.20.
Hints 193
4.9.22. Use 4.9.13 and 4.9.21.

4.9.26. Letting H be an intransitive normal subgroup of a transitive group G,
prove that the set of intransitive systems of H is an imprimitive series of G
(see 4.9.3).
4.9.34. Use 4.9.6.
CHAPTER 5
5.1.5. Prove that the last three relations are consequences of the previous
ones.
5.1.6. Show that the relation a 2 = c 2 (see 5.1.15) is not a consequence of the
given set of relations.
5.1.20. Determine the form of the direct consequences of the given set of
relations.
5.1.24. Use 5.1.10.
5.1.27. Use 5.1.26.
5.2.4. Use 5.1.4.
5.2.7. Use 5.1.19.
5.2.8. Use 5.1.19.
5.2.13. Use 5.2.9, 5.2.11, and 5.2.12.
5.2.21. Prove that every word in G can be reduced to the form cmd", where
m and n are integers.
5.2.22. Use 5.2.3.
5.2.23. Consider the fact that if r is a solution of the congruence x P == 1
(mod q), then the remaining solutions are r2, r3, ... , rP - 1.
5.3.4. Prove that K can be decomposed into two disjoint subsets K 1 and K2
of the same cardinality such that the set of all classes containing k E K 1 is a
free generating set of FK'
5.3.8. (3) Use the preceding problem.
5.3.12. If K = {a, b, ... } is a free generating set, then for every integer n
the set K' = {ab n, b, ... } is also.
5.3.13. Prove the statement for the group FK in 5.3.4.
5.3.17. Use 5.3.15 and 5.3.16.
5.3.19. Use 5.3.11 and 5.3.14.
5.4.1. Construct the free group over K and use 5.3.15.
194 Hints
5.4.3. To show that G2 and G3 are not commutative, use 5.1.18 and 4.3.35
and find a noncommutative group in which the stated relations do not
hold
5.4.5. Use the hint to 5.4.3.
5.4.6. Use 5.4.2 and 4.3.35.
5.4.7. Use 5.1.18 and the hint to 5.4.3.
5.4.10. Construct the group of ordered pairs (\"yi).
5.4.14. Use 5.4.12 and 5.4.13.
5.4.16. Use 5.4.13.
5.4.18. Use 5.2.18 and show that every automorphism maps (ab)2 onto
itself.
5.4.20. Use 5.4.19, 5.2.16, and 5.2.17.
5.4.22. Use 5.4.21, 5.2.15, and 5.2.19.
5.4.23. Use 5.4.20 and 5.4.22.
5.4.24. Use 4.4.6, 4.4.11, and 4.4.14.
5.4.25. For a, b elements of orders p, q, respectively, show that all of the
elements a, b-1ab, b- 2 ab 2 , ••. , b-(q-l)abq- 1 are distinct. Then verify that
a-ibai = bri for every natural number j. Finally, use 4.4.5.
5.4.27. Use 5.4.26, 5.2.22, 5.2.23, and 4.4.14.
5.4.29. Use 5.4.27, 5.4.23, and 4.4.3.
5.5.20. Denote by f the partial transformation f(z) = -liz (z i= 0) and
by g the partial transformation g(z) = z + 1.
Prove that {J, g} is a generating set of G. Let h be any element in G;
then h can be realized as a transformation of the form
h(z) = az + b (z i= die)
cz + d
First consider the case d = O. Then for the case d i= 0, let Ibl ~ Idl > O.
Prove that gnh can be realized as a partial transformation
nh(z) = (a + nc)z + (b + nd) (z #- -die)

g ez + d
If 0 ~ Ibl ~ d, consider the element fh. Further, by mUltiplying h on the

left by the corresponding power of g and by J, show that h can be expressed
Hints 195
in terms of f and g. Consider the elements u = gf and f Prove that G is

generated by u and f Show that u3 = P = e and hence every element in G
can be written as a product in which the elements f and either u or u2 alter-
nate. Assume that this representation is not single valued for some element in
G. Show that in this case a relation of the form fu k 'fu k2 ••. fu kn = e holds,
where the k i assume the values 1 or 2. Proceed by induction on n to obtain a
con tradiction.
5.5.24. Consider a family of groups G. (0( E A) such that G. is isomorphic to
G. and G. n G. = e., where e. acts as the identity of both G, and G•. Con-
sider the set of words X 1X2 .•• xn over M = U G. in which no two adjacent
.EA
elements Xi and x i + 1 lie in the same G•. Define an operation on M which
maps a pair of words over M onto the successive multiplication of the factors
in the same G., if such exist.
5.6.5. (4) Use 4.4.14.
5.6.26. Use 5.6.25.
5.6.28. Use 5.6.26.
5.6.29. Use 5.6.14.
5.6.31. Prove that there exists a homomorphism of G onto the direct product
of n infinite cyclic groups (see 5.6.29).
5.6.32. Compare the cardinality (Chapter 1.2) of G with the cardinality of
the set of all sequences (aI' ... ,ai' ... ) (a i E Gi ), where only a finite number of
ai are different from the identity of Gi .
CHAPTER 6
6.1. 9. Consider the set G~ of all elements in G whose orders are powers of
the prime p. Show that G~ is a subgroup of G, and that G~l n G~2 = e if
Pl#-P2·
6.1.27. Use 6.1.26.
6.1.28. Use 6.1.24 and 6.1.27.
6.2.6. Let H be the subgroup introduced in the preceding problem. Prove
that [H, a] = [a] x H = G.
6.2.7. Use 6.1.9 and 6.2.6.
6.2.9. Do the problem first for f)nite primary groups.
6.2.13. Use 6.2.12.
6.3.1. Proceed by induction on the number of generators.
6.3.2. Proceed by induction on the number n = Ind + ... + Ind.
6.3.4. By using 6.3.2, find a generating set {g 1 , •.• ,gd of G such that the
orders of g l ' . . . , gk do not decrease, and such that there does not exist a
196 Hints
generating set {gil' ... ,g~} for which the order of g I is equal to the order of gil
and the order of gi is greater than the order of g; for some i = 2, ... , k.
6.3.7. Use 6.2.13.
6.3.8. (6) Choose {ala~aL a2, a3} as a new generating set; (7) choose
{ala2,a2J as a new generating set; (8) choose {ala~aLa2,a3} as a new
generating set; (9) choose {ala2a31, a2, a3} as a new generating set.
6.4.4. Consider the set consisting of all elements in the maximal linearly
independent set A and the representatives of all classes in the maximal
linearly independent set G/ A.
6.4.20. lJse 6.4.15.
6.4.21. Consider the set H of all elements in G which are linearly dependent
on elements in M. Prove that H is a pure subgroup of G. lJse the result of
6.4.20.
6.4.25. lJ se 6.4.23 and 6.4.24.
6.4.26. lJse 6.4.21 and 6.4.25.
CHAPTER 7
7.1.18. Consider the set Sf = S U z (z ~ S). Prove that the mapping C( defined
by
fj1 (a) = (Z' a(J.' a~, ... , a~, ... ) (a E S)
a, aa tl • aa~1 •. , I aa~, .. .
is an isomorphism of S into the semigroup of all transformations of Sf.

7.1.20. lJse the representation defined in the hint to 7.1.18.
7.1.28. Consider the following mapping of S into C: let ao be a fixed element
in S, then set
_ { 0 if aao i= ao
J:o(a) - . (a E S)
1 If aao = ao
Prove that !ao is a homomorphism for every ao E S.
7.2.10. Consider the subgroups HI = {(a 9a , bP)} and H 2 = {(a 3a , b3P )},
where C(, fJ are any integers.
7.2.13. If H 2 = a-I H 1 a, then consider the mapping! of the set of right cosets
of HI in G into the set of right cosets of Hz in G defined by f(xHd = xaH z .
7.2.14. Let f be a one-to-one mapping of the set of right cosets of H I onto
the set of right eosets of H 2 satisfying!(A~'(xH 1)) = A~2(f(xH 1))' Prove that
Hints 197
if f(Hd = aH z then f(xH 1) = xaH z and H2 = a-lHla. In this proof use

the fact that gH 1 = HI if and only if g E HI'
7.2.17. lJse 7.2.15.
7.2.21. lJse the preceding problem.
7.2.22. lJse 7.2.21.
7.2.23. lJse 7.2.12.
7.2.27. lJse 7.2.13 and 7.2.14 and prove that every faithful transitive rep-
resentation of S4 by a subgroup of order four is similar to one of those in
7.2.13.
7.2.28. lJse 7.2.14.
7.2.29. lJse 7.2.13, 7.2.14, 7.2.27, and 7.2.28. Prove that every faithful
transitive representation of S4 by a subgroup of order four is similar to one
of those in 7.2.27.
7.2.31. (1) Consider the mapping g of the set of right cosets over H I into
the set of right co sets over Hz defined by g(xH I) = f(x)H z and (2) consider the
mapping t of the image of the representation rx H I into the image of the
representation rxH 2 defined by
7.2.33. Let t be an isomorphism between the images of the representa-

tions rxH I and rxH2' Let g be a one-to-one correspondence between the right
co sets over HI and the right cosets over H 2' If rx is the automorphism of G
determined by t (see 7.2.32) and if g(H I) = xH z, then prove that rx(H d =
xH 2X - 1. Thus deduce that the desired automorphism f is defined by f(a) =
x-1rx(a)x.
7.3.17. lJse 7.3.16.
7.3.18. Let
T (x) = ( Tl (x) 0 )
A (x) T2 (x)
where TI(x) is an ml x m1 matrix and Tz{x) is an mz x mz matrix. Suppose

that the order of G is n. Consider the matrix
p=(:l ~mJ
where Em, is the mi x mi (i = 1,2) identity matrix, and
F= ~ ~ A (x) Ttl (x)

xEQ
198 Hints

7.3.20 and 7.3.21. Use 7.3.17.
7.4.11 and 7.4.12. Use 7.4.10.
7.4.13-7.4.16. Use 7.4.6 and 7.4.10.
7.4.18-7.4.20. Use 7.4.6, 7.4.10, and 7.4.17.
7.4.21-7.4.24, 7.4.28, and 7.4.34. Use 7.4.10 and 7.4.17.
7.5.7 and 7.5.8. Use 7.3.21.
7.5.10. Use 7.4.10 and 7.5.7.
7.5.14. Use 7.5.13.
CHAPTER 8
8.1.1. (3) Use the Cauchy inequality

n n n
(~ ajbjY ~ (~an· (~bi)
i=1 i=1 i=1
8.1.16. Consider the set of polynomials with rational coefficients and use
the result of problem 1.2.21.
8.1.17. Introduce the following metric on M T :
p (x, y) = sup I x (t) - Y (t) I
8.1.20. Consider the mapping
,
p (x, y) ={ P (x, y), if P ~X, y) ~ 1
.
1, If p (x I Y) > 1
. 8.2.6.Use 8.2.5 .
8.2.9. Use 8.2.7.
8.2.16. As a preliminary, prove that the set {p(f(x), g(x))} (x E M) is bounded
in the metric space of real numbers (8.1.1 (2)). Then use the well-known
theorem that the least upper bound of a bounded set of real numbers always
exists, and that this bound can be reached.
8.2.18. Use 8.2.7 and 8.2.16.
8.2.19. Use 8.2.15.
8.2.23. Use 8.1.20.
8.3.21. Use 8.3.18.
8.3.28 and 8.3.29. Use 8.3.19.
8.3.30. Use 8.3.21.
Hints 199
8.4.5. Use 8.3.28.

8.4.11. Suppose IX is an irrational number. It is well-known from number
theory that for any positive number e and any real numberd whatsoever,
there exist integers m and n such that ImlX - d - nl < e. Make use of this
result to solve the second part of the problem.
8.4.12 and 8.4.13. Use 8.3.19.
8.4.17. Suppose that x E U n H. Prove that there exists an open set V
containing e such that x V cU. Let a E H. Prove that there exists b E H such
that xba- I E xV c U. Thus xba- I E H. Prove that a E H.
8.4.19. Use 8.3.21, 8.3.19, and 8.4.6.
8.4.20. Use 8.4.19.
8.4.21. Use 8.4.6, 8.3.25, 8.3.27, and 8.3.29.
8.4.23. Use 8.4.21, 8.4.20, 8.3.28, and 8.3.29.
8.4.25. Use 8.3.28 and 8.3.29.
8.4.28. Use 8.4.5, 8.4.7, and 8.3.19.
8.4.29. Use the preceding problem and 8.4.13.
8.4.35. Introduce a coordinate system on D and use the well-known theorem
that all formulas which express affine transformations in these coordinates
are linear.
8.4.36. Use 8.4.19 and 8.3.28.
8.4.38. Let g be the composition of the mappings q> and I-I, where q> is
the canonical mapping of G onto the set of right cosets G/ Au' Prove that q>
is open. Prove that since g is continuous, it follows that I-I is continuous.
8.4.39. Use 8.2.23.
8.5.7. Consider the relation p defined by x '" y(p) if and only if X-I Y E H.
Prove that p is a two-sided compatible ordering.
8.5.12. Use 8.5.5.
8.5.13 and 8.5.14. Use 8.5.7.
8.5.26. Use 8.5.1, 8.5.6, and 8.5.7.
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1
313
1.1.1. lEM1: -2,0, IE M2: -2,0,1, 5' 1" EM3: 1, 5' V2, 7t,
1 3 1 1
1" EM 4; 0, 1 E. M .. ; 5' V2, -2, 7t, 7' I, -I, Y2 +V21 I, 2+IE M6•
1.1.2. X, z.
1.1.3. Three elements.
1.1.4. Ml c M z c M 3 ; Ml c M 4 ; M5 C M z C M 3 .
1.1.6. Zero.
1.1.7. (1) all real numbers; (2) 0.
1.1.8. (1) The set of all natural numbers; (2) 0; (3) Mb where k is the least
common multiple of m and n; and (4) the set of all natural numbers different
from 1.
1.1.10. (1) M; (2) 0·
1.1.11. (1) A; (2) M; (3) 0; (4) An B; (5) AU B; (6) A; (7) A U B; (8)
A U B; (9) 0; (to) M.
1.1.12. 24; 14.
1.1.13. There are three partitions: M 0 U M z U M 3; M 4 U M 5; M 0 U
M 1 UM 3 UM 6 UM 7 ·
1.1.14. Yes, it forms a partition.
1.1.15. 0 ..
1.1.17. 243 = 35 .
1.1.18. (-1, a, a), (-1, h, a), (-1, c, a), (1, a, a), (1, b, a), (1, c, a).
1.1.19. kl . k z . k 3 •
1.1.20. Let M have m elements. If m is even, then both classes must contain
1m elements. If mis odd, then one class will have i{m + 1) elements, and
the other i{m - 1).
201
202 AnswelS
1.2.1. The largest number of mappings is mn; mappings of A onto B exist

when n ~ m, one-to-one mappings of A into B when n ~ m, and one-to-one
mappings of A onto B when n = m; there are n(n - 1) ... 3·2·1 = n!
mappings of A onto B.
1.2.3. Mappings of C onto A of the desired type do not exist; there are
mappings of C onto B of the desired type.
1.2.4. 175.
1.2.5. Yes, l{J is one-to-one; l{J(M) consists of all natural numbers except
for the n integers n, n + 1, ... , 2n - 1.
1.2.6. Yes, l{J is one-to-one; l{J(N) =F N, i.e., l{J maps N into N but not onto N.
1.2.7. It is necessary and sufficient that h(x) =F 0 for all x.
1.2.8. The mapping is one-to-one, but not onto. All equilateral triangles
are fixed points of the mapping.
1.2.18. The set U k
Mk is finite if and only if all of the Mk are finite and there
exists a natural number n such that each M i is equal to one of the sets
M 1 ,M 2 ,···,Mn •
1.2.31. The mapping l{J must be one-to-one, and N"-l{J(N/) must be infinite.
1.3.3. (1) pr1Pk = {k + 1, k + 2, ... } if k =F 0; prlPo = N; (2) pr 2 Pk =
{t, 2, ... } ; (3) n '" m(u) if and only if n ~ m; (4) n '" m(u*) if and only if
m < n; (5) n '" m(r) if and only if n ~ m; and (6) n '" m(r*) if and only if
m ~ n.
1.3.5. (al,a2, ... ,an) '" (bl,b2,· .. ,bn)('t"I)ifal = b l ,a2 = a3 = ... = an =
0; 't"2 = ~; (ai' a2'"'' an) "" (b l , b2,· .. , bn)('t"3) if a l = b l , a2 = a3 = ... =
an = b2 = b3 = ... = bn = O.
1.3.6. (1) The relation PI is symmetric; (2) P2 is reflexive, transitive, and
antisymmetric; (3)P3 is anti symmetric ; (4) P4 is transitive and anti symmetric ;
(5) Ps is reflective, antisymmetric and transitive; and (6) 0"0 is reflexive,
transitive, symmetric, and anti symmetric, whereas Uk for k =F 0 is only
an tisymmetric.
1.3.11. The real numbers a and b are in the same equivalence class of the
transitive closure of P if and only if b ~ a. The transitive closure of p U P* is
equal to W R .
1.3.12. (1) ZI "'- Z2 (PI n pT) if and only if IZII = IZ21; (2) WK; (3)~; (4) WK'
1.3.13. p' = P U p*.
1.3.14. p' = P U ~.
1.3.15. PI is an ordering, but P2, P3, P4, and Ps are not orderings.
1.3.16. PI is an ordering, P2 is an equivalence, P3 is neither an ordering nor
an equivalence, and P4 is an ordering.
Answers 203
1.3.20. All finite linearly ordered sets and infinite linearly ordered sets are
of the following three forms:
Cl l < Cl 2< ... < Cl n < ... I Cl l > Cl 2> ... > Cl n > ...
... < CI_ n < ... < CI_2< CI_ 1< Cl O< Cl l <Cl 2< ... < Cl" < ...
1.3.21. The sets given in (2) and (6) are well-ordered. The others are not
well-ordered.
1.3.22. M is a finite set.
1.4.1. p2 = P; P(J = (J; (J2 is a binary relation such that n '" m((J2) for
,2
n - m < 1; = w; PA k is a binary relation such that n '" m(pAk) if n divides
either m + k or m - k; AkP is a binary relation such that n '" m(AkP) if m
is divided by either n - k or n + k; (J).k = AkO' is a binary relation such that
n '" m(O'Ak) if n < m + k; AkA[ is a binary relation such that n '" m(AkA[) if
In - ml = k + lor In - ml = Ik - II.
1.4.6. pR = Z; Rp = Z; O'R = R; Rr = R; pC = C; C(J = Z; Cr = C;
pP is the set of all complex numbers z such that Izl = 1; p(1 is the set of all
numbers of the form bi, where b is a positive real number; Pr = {- i}.
1.4.9. W(PI n P2) = {(a, a), (b, a)}; WPI n WP2 = w.
1.4.10. w 2 = w; w~ = ~w = w if X contains more than one element;
w~ = ~w = 0 jf X consists of one element; ~ 2 = w if X contains at least
three elements; ~ 2 = ~ if X consists of two elements; ~ 2 = 0 if X consists
of one element.
1.4.11. PiPj = w ifi # j and P; = Pi'
1.4.12. p2 = p; pp is a relation such that P '" Q(pp) if Q # M; pp is a
relation such that P ~ Q(pp) if P # 0; pp* = w; pp* = p.
1.4.13. p~ = ~P = P; WP is a relation such that a '" b(wp) if bE pr2P; pw
is a relation such that a'" b(pw) if a E prlp,
1.4.14. (1) pr 2 P = X; (2) pr l P = X; (3) pr l P = pr 2 P = X; (4) P # 0; and
(5) ap n bp # 0 for all a, b E XI'
1.4.15. (Ji = (J1' (1~ = (12; (J~ = w; J(x) '" g(x) ((Jl(12) if and only if J(a) :::;
g(a) and J(b) :::; g(b); 0'20' 3 is a relation such that J(x) '" g(x)(O' 2(J 3) if J(a) #
g(a)andJ(b) # g(b);0'30'2 = (J2(J3'
1.4.20. If PI and pz are reflexive, then so is PIP2' This result does not hold
for transitivity, symmetry, and anti symmetry.
1.4.22. PIP2 is a linear ordering only when P1 = P2'
1.4.24. p2 and p3 are reflexive, symmetric, and transitive; 0'2 and (J3 are
reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive; P(J, O'P, (JPO', and P(JP are reflexive.
204 Answers
CHAPTER 2
2.1.1. 45.
2.1.2. 2 3 4 5
2
3 2
4 3 2
5 4 3 2
2.1.3. X2, X3, X4, X 6 ·
2.1.4. , Zl Z2 Za Z.
Zj
Z2 Zj
Za Zj
Z. Zj
2.1.5. (1) The result uf the operation is defined in N for all pairs (a, b) where
a and b have the same parity, i.e., they are both even or both odd; (2) the
result is defined for all pairs of elements in N; and (3) the result is defined for
all pairs (a, b) for which a i= b.
2.1.8. M is isomorphic to M l' but M 2 is neither isomorphic to M nor M l '
2.1.12. 5.
2.1.13. Two subsets {a, b, c} and {b, c, e}.
2.1.15. M is isomorphic to every infinite subset of itself.
See the following tables for 2.2.1-2.2.3, and 2.2.6.
2.2.1
<I)
.::'"
'"
:0 .:= E
'"
Operation ~
<I)
.::
:;
'"
>
.;:
~... ...
';:
'"
>
.,]
<.)
"i)
t)
c
«:S '>" .5 c «:S
t) ,q
"0 S 'u0 «:S
-
'"'"0 S
.5
.::: 1::bJl u
.::: 1:: ;:: ...0
0 '" .!:!> '"
u U '"
<C ...l'" ~ '"
...l ~
"0
<I)
N
Addition Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No

Multiplication Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes
Subtraction Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
Division No No No No No No Yes No No
Answers 205
2.2.2
<l)
.2:
<l)
::0 "
.2: :§
.2:"
<l)
... :§
Set Operation ~
<l)
.2:
......
::0
";. "il
u
OJ
u
C
:; '(;j
<l)
;. .S c 0;
"0 8 ·u .S 0; u .2
...0
<l) u
til
0 E 0
til <!::
~
OIl <!::
~
OIl
C<l)
0
u u
til
-<
<l)
-l ~ '"
-l ~ :8 N'"
Natural Addition Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No No
numbers Multiplication Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No
Subtraction No No No Yes No Yes Yes No No
Division No No No Yes No Yes Yes No No
Integers Addition Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Su btraction Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
Rational Addition Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
numbers Multi plication Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes
Positive Addition Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No No

numbers Multiplication Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Division Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
Negative Addition Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No No

numbers Multiplication No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No No
Division No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No No
2.2.3
<l) .2:'"
" "
::0 .~ :§
.:::" ~... ... ..::;! OJ
u
Operation
'(;j .2:" <l)
;. OJ
u C
:; '(;j " .S c u
0;
"0 8 ·u0 .5
;.
0;
u
.q
...0
<l)
til
0
8 til <!::
~
OIl <!::
~
OIl
C
<l)
0
u '" '"
til
U « -l" ~ -l ~ :8 N
Addition Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No

206 Answers
2.2.6
.,
., .g
., ., .~ c:.,
., .,...0
:; :;c:., .,
.:: 00
.:: ., :n ~...., ] ..:::!

~
00
:s N
Operation "ie .,... .,
.,...'"
~ u
:; .£: ~
c c:., "0
'"0
0 "0
.,...
> u
.5 c :s
'u0'" '" "0 "0
.,
"0 E
>
.5 '"
u
:s .;;; N .;;;
'"0 E ., :c: u
., :c: ., :c: 6 N
:c: 0
I
0 '" .;:: 0/) .;:: 0/) .;:: 0/)

.,
.;:: 0/)
<'"
~ ~
0 u ...J C2 -l C2 -l C2 f-< -l C2 f-
Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes

2 Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes No No No
3 Yes No No No No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes No No
4 No Yes No No No Yes Yes No No No No No No
2.2.7. Closure and associativity. It has an identity and a zero. Nonsingular

matrices have inverses.
2.2.8. It is closed for all p, q, r; commutative for p = q; associative for p =
q = 1, p = q = 0, p = 1 and q = r = 0, and p = r = and q = 1; left
invertible for p =1= 0; right invertible for q =1= 0; left cancellative for q =1= 0;
°
right cancellative for p =1= 0.
2.2.9. Closure and associativity. There is an identity and a zero.
2.2.10. Closure, commutativity, left and right invertibility, and left and right
cancellation. Neither an identity nor a zero exists. All elements are idempo-
tents.
2.2.11. Closure, left and right invertibility, and left and right cancellation.
2.2.12. The operation corresponds to addition of vectors. It is associative
and left and right cancellative.
2.2.13. (1) All entries are filled in; (2) the table is symmetric with respect to
the diagonal; (3) all of the elements occur in each column; (4) all of the ele-
ments occur in each row; (5) no element occurs in any row more than once;
and (6) no element occurs in any column more than once.
2.2.14. For commutativity, associativity, and left and right cancellation.
2.2.16. The operation of union is closed, commutative, and associative. The
operation of intersection satisfies these same properties.
2.2.17. All of the basic properties except associativity.
2.3.1. RR = RZ = ZR = R;ZZ = Z;PP = P;PN = N;NN = P.
2.3.2. (MM)M = {a}, M(MM) = {a,b}.
2.3.7. A is an ideal; B is closed but is not an ideal; C 1 is closed; C n is not
closed for n > 1; Dn is an ideal; Cn n Dm is empty if n < m, is not closed if
n ~ m, n =1= 1, and is closed but not an ideal if n = m = 1.
Answers 207
2.3.8. The set of all real numbers is closed but is not an ideal; the set of all
pure imaginary numbers is not closed.
2.3.9. The set of all nonsingular matrices is dosed but is not an ideal; the
set of all singular matrices is an ideal.
2.3.16. Tt and T2 are ideals; Tt T2 is not an ideal.
2.3.17. {z} is closed if and only if z is an idempotent; {z} is a left ideal if z
is a right zero of M ; {z} is a right ideal if z is a left zero of M; {z} is a two-
sided ideal if z is a zero of M.
2.3.18. n + 1.
2.4.1. qJ 1 and qJ 3 are homomorphisms; qJ 2 and qJ 4 are not homomorphisms.
2.4.2. (l) The homomorphism qJo which maps all of R onto 0; (2) the
homomorphism qJt defined by qJt(O) = 0, qJt(r) = 1 (r i= 0); and (3) the
remaining homomorphisms are constructed in the following manner. Let
R' be the set consisting of - 1 and all prime natural numbers, and P any
nonempty subset of R'. The homomorphism qJp is defined by qJp(O) = 0,
qJp(l) = 1, qJp(r) = (_l)kl +...+kn, where r = p~l ... p~nqlll ... q~m (PI"" Pn E P,
ql"'" qm E R'",,-P; k l , · · · , k n, II,"" 1m are integers).
2.4.3. qJt and qJ3 are homomorphisms; qJ2 is not a homomorphism.
2.4.7. For each k = 1,2,3, ... the mapping qJk defined by qJk(5 n) = 5 kn
(n = 1,2,3, ... ) is a homomorphism. There are no other homomorphisms.
All of the qJk are isomorphisms.
2.4.10. It is necessary and sufficient that Mohave at least one idempotent.
2.4.12. a '" b(a) but aa '" bb(a) does not hold.
2.4.13. (1) qJ t is a homomorphism; each class of the corresponding partition
consists of all polynomials which have the same leading coefficient; (2) <fJ2
is a homomorphism; each class consists of all polynomials with the same
leading coefficient; (3) qJ3 is a homomorphism; each class consists of all
polynomials whose values are equal at x = 1; (4) qJ4 is a not a homomor-
phism; (5) qJs is a homomorphism; each class consists of all polynomials
whose constant terms have the same absolute value; and (6) qJ6 is a homomor-
phism; for c i= ± 1 each class consists of all polynomials of the same degree,
for c = 1 there is one class which consists of all polynomials, and for c = - 1
there are two classes, one consisting of all polynomials of even order and the
other all polynomials of odd order.
2.4.15.
R+ R+ R- RO
R- R- R+ RO
RO RO RO RO
208 Answers
2.4.17.
M/T11 Tl M/T21 2 T2 MITa' 2 4 Ta
~1 I
T1 2 T2 2 4 Ta
Tl Tl 2 2 T2 T2 2 2 4 Ta Ta
T2 T2 T2 T2 4 4 Ta Ta Ta
Ta Ta Ta Ta Ta
2.4.18. q> is an isomorphism only when p is the equality relation.
2.4.21. Every equivalence in which a '" b, and every equivalence in which
a and b are not equivalent and are not equivalent to any elements other than
themselves, is a congruence. Altogether there are 7.
2.4.22. 5.
2.5.3. The set consists of all primes and the number 1.
2.5.4. [xJ is the set of all matrices of the form
where n is any natural number ; [x, t] is the set of all matrices of one of the
following forms:
( 2k 0)
o 0 '
where k and n are any natural numbers; [y, zJ is the set of all matrices of one
of the following forms:
( 2k 0 )
o 2l '
( o2k 0)
1 '
where k and n are any natural numbers; [y, t] is the set of all matrices of one
of the following forms:
(o10)
2n
(o2n 00)
where n is any natural number.
2.5.12. Ten subsemigroups, of which five are ideals.
2.5.13. (1, p), where p is a prime, and (2, 1).
2.5.15. (1,1), (2, 1), and (3, 1). Any subset which contains 0 and is such that
if it contains Q k then it also contains all elements b ik is a left ideal. Any subset
which contains 0 and is such that if it contains ak then it also contains all
elements bki is a right ideal. Any subset which contains 0 and is such that if it
contains Qk then it also contains all bik and bki is a two-sided ideal.
Answers 209
2.5.17. It is a regular semigroup in which every element is an inverse of

every other element.
2.5.20. It is a normal subset which is a subsemigroup.
2.5.21. If S [x] then besides the four subsets consisting of one element each,
=
the normal subsets are
2.6.3. The groups are (2), (4), (5), and (6).

2.6.4. M is the set of all matrices of the form
000)
( oa 0 (a ~O)
000
2.6.6. The orders, respectively, are 2, infinite, 4, infinite, and infinite.

2.6.11. 8.
2.6.12. 16.
2.6.24. (1) The group consisting of the identity; (2) cyclic groups of prime
order; and (3) cyclic groups whose orders are the form p2, where p is a prime.
2.6.25. (l){I, -1,i, -i};(2){I, -t + tij3, -t - tij3};(3){I, -tj2 +
tij2, -tij2, tj2 - tij2, tj2 + tij2, i, -i, -I}; (4) {24k, 24k+\
_24k+2, _2 4k+ 3 i} (k = 0, ± I, ±2, ... ,); (5) {( -l)n2 k sn} (k, n = 0, ± 1,
±2, ... ); (6) {I, -t}, {l}, {I, -t}, [24k, _24k+2} (k = 0, ±I, ±2, ... ),
[( -lt2 k sn} (k, n = 0, ± 1, ±2, ... ).
2.6.29. All periodic groups.
2.6.33. Abelian groups.
2.6.38. H 2 is not a normal subgroup of G.
2.6.39. {l}, {I, -l}, {I, -1, i, -i}, {I, -1,j, -j}, {I, -1, k, -k}, Q.
CHAPTER 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8) ( 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8)
3.1.2. (1.'1 =( y~ = 1 6 2 8 3 8 4 S
873 1 724 S
2~ = (1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8) ~y3 = (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
P 1 8 1 222 8 2 S2 78 2 3 S1
xp;' = (I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8)
37887 I 3 7
210 Answers
3.1.3. The types of cx, fJ, cxfJ, and fJcx are (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1), and (2, 1), respec-
tively.
3.1.4. (1) closure and associativity; (2) closure and associativity; (3) closure,
associativity, and (left and right) cancellation; (4) closure, associativity,
(left and right) cancellation, and (left and right) invertibility; (5) all seven
properties; and (6) closure, associativity, commutativity, and (left and right)
cancella tion.
3.1.5. (1) All constant functions are left zeros, there are no right. and there-
fore no two-sided, zeros; (2) all functions whose values lie in the interval
[0, 1J are right zeros, there are no left zeros; (3) the same as in (1); and (4) no
zeros.
3.1.6. The left zeros are the transformations cxa(a E X) defined by cxa(x) =
a(x EX).
3.1.7. (1) All of the sets in 3.1.4 are semigroups, and 3.1.4 (4) and (5) are
groups; (2) both sets are semigroups; (3), (4), and (5) are semigroups; and
(6) is not a semigroup. None of the semigroups in (2H5) are groups.
3.1.8. The type of rx is (1,1), the type of fJ is (1,2).
3.1.9. The vectors of the translation are perpendicular to the given line,
have length twice the distance between the given lines, and have opposite
signs.
3.1.11. All Yc commute with each other and with fJ; rx. commutes only with
Yo and YI'
3.1.12. (I) fJl = 1, fJ3 = 3, rx(fJn) = rxn (nEX, n 1= 1,3); and (2) fJI = 3,
fJ3 = 1, rx(fJn) 1= rxn (n E X, n 1= 1,3).
3.1.13. (1) The semigroup [rx, fJJs consists of the transformations of the form
k + 1, if n ~ 1+ 1
{
Yk.,(n) = n_ I + k, if n > I +1
where k, I are any positive integers. (2) The semigroup has a unique irreducible
generating set {rx, fJ}.
3.1.14. (1) The inverses of rx are
1 2 3 ...
(k
n ... ) (kEN)
12 ... n-1 ...
the inverses of fJ are
1 2 3 ...n ... )
rx and (
134 ... n+1 ...
(2) rx and fJ are inverses of each other.
Answers 211
3.1.19. (3) The identity transformation is the only idempotent.

3.1.20. M 3 ,M4 , and Ms are subsemigroups, M4 and Ms are right ideals,
M4 is a two-sided ideal, and M l' M 4 , and M s are normal subsets.
3.1.21. The equation a2 y = Pis not solvable; a1Y = Phas a unique solution;
a3 y = /3 has four solutions.
3.1.23. PX c aX and for each y E /3X there exists a unique x E X such that
ax = y.
3.1.24. The equations ya 1 = P and ya 2 = P are solvable, ya 3 = /3 is not
solvable. The first has a unique solution.
3.1.25. The equation ya = /3 is solvable if and only if ax = ay implies
/3x = py (x, y E X). There is a unique solution if and only if aX = X holds
in addition to the above condition.
3.1.26. (1) a is a one-to-one mapping of X into itself; (2) aX = X; and (3)
ax = x for all x E aX.
3.1.27. (2) All elements of T' are idempotents; (3) all subsets containing
ao and /3 1 are left ideals of T', and {et o}, {P d, {eto, /31}, and T' are the right
ideals of T'.
3.1.28. The normal subsets are (1), (3), and (4).
3.1.32. M 1 and M 3 are groups.
3.2.1. (1) In problem 3.1.2, a is an invertible transformation, and
et- 1 = (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
341 5 678 2
f3 and yare neither left nor right divisors of the identity; (2) in problem 3.1.4,
Q(is a right divisor of the identity, and Pis a left divisor; neither transformation
is invertible.
3.2.2. f1(X) is invertible when n is odd, f3(X) is invertible, f2(X) and fix)
are not invertible.
3.2.3. pr 1 Pa = pr 2 Pa = X, each cut consists of one element.
3.2.5. (etf3) - 1 = /3 - 1et - 1.
3.2.6. The identity is the identity transformation. The inverse element of a
is its inverse transformation Q( - 1.
a' b' c' ... )
3.2.9. a- 1 = ( .
abc ...
3.2.10. (1) The Yc (c =/; 0) satisfy the first condition, Pand Yc (c =/; 0) satisfy
the second; (2) both conditions are satisfied by all of the transformations in
3.1.19; (3) in 3.1.36, the first condition is satisfied by a and y, the second by
0(,13, and y.
212 Answers
3.2.11. (1) Not invertible; (2) not invertible; (3) not invertible; (4) Ye (c i= 0),
lim•n and li, }' (of 3.1.36) are invertible, the rest are not,
-1
Ye = Yl/e
-1
rl.m,n = rI. 11m, - nlm
rI.- 1 = rI.,
( nt - I )
3.2.12. rI. - 1 [f(t)] f -= rnt + k
g(t) g( nt - I \
-rnt + kl
3.2.13. (2) It is a group; (3) the transformations of order two are rI. and p,
defined by
( kt + I)
li[f(t)] = f mt=k p[f(t)] = f( - t)
g(t) ( kt + I ' g(t) g( - t)
g--
rnt - k
3.2.14 (1) rl.l rl.z rl.3 rl.4 rl.s li6
rl.l rl.l liZ rl.3 rl. 4 rl.s rl.6
rl.2 rl.2 rl.l rl.6 rl. s rl. 4 rl.3
rl.3 rl.3 rl.s rl.l rl.6 rl.2 rl. 4
1X4 rl. 4 1X6 rl. s IXI 1X3 1X2
lis rl. s li3 rl. 4 rl.2 rl.6 IXl
rl.6 rl.6 li4 rl.2 rl.3 li l rl. s
(2) li l is the identity; the inverses of rl.z, li3' and li4 are rl.2' rl.3, and 1X4' re-
spectively.
3.2.16. H is normal and H" is a subgroup of G.
3.2.18. (1), (3), and (4) are invertible.
3.2.19. The sets (1), (2), and (4) are groups.
3.2.20. 24.
Answers 213
3.3.1. 1X3 = (4865), fl21X = (235846), yJ, = (16824)(375), y4J2 = (2487356),

and ,Jy = (186732)(45).
3.3.2. IX has order 12, Phas order 5.
3.3.4. IX = (123)(4568), P = (I 92 12)(38)(4 II 10)( 5 6 7), and .,,- -
( 194)(267)(358).
k {X i + k, if i +k~n
3.3.7. IX Xi = . .
xi+k-n' if I + k > n
where 0 ~ k ~ n. If k > nand k = pn + r (0 < r ~ n), then IXk = IX'.
3.3.10. IXJIX- I = (43251)(23)(26), ,-2 ,2
y = (847)(7523)(8641), p-sJp s =
(82134)(12)(15).
3.3.12. Only the powers of the given cycle.
3.3.13. All possible products of powers of IXI and 1X2 commute with IX, where
IXI = (X I X 2 X 3 X 4 XS) and 1X2 = (X 6 X 7 XljX 9 X lO )·
3.3.18. Letting IX = (12)(34), P= (13)(24), y = (14)(23), we obtain the table:

E:lXfly
E: E:lXfly
IX IXE:YP
{3 {3 y E: IX
Y y{3lXE:
3.3.27. rn = 1,2,3,4.
3.4.1. Monotonic increasing functions (not necessarily strictly monotonic).
3.4.2. (1) Neither is an endomorphism; (2) r is an endomorphism of N;
(3) y is not an endomorphism; and (4) Jm is an endomorphism of N.
3.4.3. The transformation <5 m preserves addition, rand <5 1 preserve multipli-
cation.
3.4.4. No.
3.4.13. No.
3.4.14. IX(~ ~) = (~ ~).

3.4.15. G' = {I, -I}, the identity subgroup, and the group itself.
3.4.16. 51.
3.4.17. The group of automorphisms consists of permutations of the form
(a b C d f)
IX = abc' d' f'
where (c', d', f') is a permutation of the numbers c, d, f.
214 Answers
3.4.18. The following transformations are endomorphisms: (1) all trans-

formations of rank 1; (2) all transformations ~ of rank greater than one
satisfying ~a = a.
3.4.24. No.
3.4.27. Yes.
3.4.28. ~(j2) = ±j2, ~(J3) = ±J3.
3.4.32. I, ... , i-I, i,
(
I, ... , i-I, i,
I, ... , i-I, i, 1+1,
(
I, ... , i-I, l+I, i+I,
i=I, 2, ... , n-I
3.5.3. The elements of finite order are all rotations through an angle nr
where r is rational, reflections, and the products of reflections and parallel
translations by vectors which are perpendicular to an axis of symmetry.
The elements of order 2 are reflections, rotations through 180°, and the pro-
ducts stated above.
3.5.7. (1) Infinite, (2) 2, and (3) 1.
3.5.8. ~-1 E A if ~(F) = F.
3.5.9. A is a group for (1) and (3) but not for (2).
3.5.10. The group of all parallel translations of the plane onto vectors
lying on the given plane.
3.5.12. (1) 1; (2) 2; (3) infinite.
3.5.13. G consists of parallel translations of the plane by vectors which are
parallel to the given line, rotations of the plane about a point on the given
line through an angle of n, and reflections of the plane about the given line
and lines perpendicular to it.
3.5.14. (1) The group consists of all rotations of the rhombus about its
°
center through the angles and n, and reflections about its diagonals; (2)
the group is of order 8 and consists of the rotations of the square about its
center through the angles 0, n12, nand 3n12, and reflections about its diagonals
and the lines which join the midpoints of opposite sides; and (3) the group
consists of the identity transformation and the reflection about the altitude
of the triangle.
3.5.15. n.
3.5.16. The group is of order 2n and consists of all rotations about the center
through the angles 0, 2n/n, . .. , 2(n - l)n/n, and reflections about the axes of
symmetry of the polygon.
3.5.17. The group consists of rotations about the common vertex through the
°
angles and n, and reflections about both the line through the diagonals of
Answers 215
the squares and the line perpendicular to it and passing through the common
vertex.
3.5.20. It is a cyclic group of order n.
3.5.21. For n a prime number.
3.5.22. 4n.
3.5.25. The group consists of rotations of the tetrahedron about its altitudes
through the angles 0, 2n/3, 4n/3, rotations about the lines joining the mid-
points of opposite edges through the angle n, and reflections about the 12
planes of symmetry of the tetrahedron.
3.5.26. Rotations about the axes of symmetry of the tetrahedron.
3.5.27. The group is of order 6, and consists of rotations ofthe cube about the
diagonals which pass through A through the angles 0, 2n/3, and 4n/3, and
reflections about the planes of symmetry of the cube which pass through A.
3.5.28. 48.
3.5.30. The alternating group A 4 •
3.5.31. The group is of order 10, and consists of 5 rotations of the icosahedron
about the axis of symmetry which passes through P through the angles 0,
2n/5, 4n/5, 6n/5, and 8n/5, and 5 reflections about the planes of symmetry
which pass through P.
3.5.33. (1) Rotations through the angles 2n/3 and 4n/3 about the centers of
the triangles which form adjacent vertices of F and rotations through the
angle n about the centers of the rhombi which form adjacent vertices.
3.5.34. (1) The group consists of rotations through the angles 0, n/2, nand
3n/2 about all points with coordinates (tk, tl) where k, I are integers of the
same parity, rotations through the angle n about all points with coordinates
(tk, tl). where k, I are integers of different parity, reflections about the axes of
symmetry of all squares made up of adjacent points in F, and parallel trans-
lations by vectors joining any 2 points of F ; and (2) the subgroup consists of
rotations about a point through the angles 0, n/2, n, and 3n/2 or is generated
by 2 reflections about mutually perpendicular axes.
3.6.2. (1) iX~ = (93 lO), iX l iX 2 = (1 7 lO), iX2iXl = (2 8), Pi = (lO);and (2)
10 4 4 5 3 3 2
the types of iX l , /31, and /32 are (2,1), (4,1), and (4,2), respectively.
3.6.3. (1) The type of iX l is (1, 1) if x = y and (2, 1) if x#- y; (2) the type of
iX3 is (1, 1); and (3) the type of IX3 is (n, 1).
3.6.4. IX
_ 1
= (1234578) , iXiX _ I = (1234578) , IX - I IX = (1345678)
7583641 1234578 1345678
3.6.5. the partial identity on rex and ex-lex is the partial identity on dx.
IXex- 1 is
The equality holds if and only if dex = rx.
216 Answers
3.6.6. (l)r[fl(x)] = (- 00, (0),d[f2fix)] = {kn:/2} wherekisany odd integer,

r[fd3(x)] = {o}; (2) d[f~(x)] = [!, el(l + e)], where
In x
f iO() I-x
x = n e (I-x)
I
In--'---'-
x
d[fsf4(X)] = {-I, t} where fsf4(X) = 0, and f~f4(X) = 0; and (3) d[f~(x)] =

(- 00, -In] U [In, oo),f~(x) = J(x 2 - n).
3.6.7. (1) Those that are one-to-one are fl (X),f4(X), and f6(X); (2) dfl1(x) =
(-00, (0), fl1(x) = ~/(1 + eX), dfil(X) = [-nI2,nI2], fil(X) = sin x,
df6"I(X) = (-00, a/e) U (ale, (0) if e#O, df6"I(X) = (-00,00) if e=O,
f 6" I(X) = (dx - b)/(a - ex); and (3) JJi- 1(X) = edfC 1 ,Ji- 1J;{X) = edfi.
3.6.9. rJ.2 = 0 if and only if drJ. n rrJ. = 0, a 3 ::;;: 0 if and only if ax ¢ da for
all x E da n ra.
3.6.10. When rrJ.2 c da t .
3.6.12. (1) When rrJ. c drJ. and rJ. 2x = rJ.X for all x E rrJ.; and (2) if and only if
it is a partial identity transformation.
3.6.13. (1) If rrJ. = X; and (2) if dex. = X and ex. is one-to-one.
3.6.14. (1) If drJ. # X; and (2) ifrrJ. # X.
3.6.17. The right cut of p over each x E X must contain at most one element.
3.6.18. (1) rJ. is the identity transformation; (2) dex. = rrJ. = M and a2 = eM'
where M is a subset of X; and (3) if x E da and rJ.X # x then x ¢ rrJ..
3.6.23. If X is the set of all real numbers, then
df2 = X".{l, 2/3}, f2(X) = (x - 9)f(3x - 2)
df3 = X". {-1,2/3, 11/4}, f3(X) = (-7x - 12)/(4x - 11)
3.6.24. No.
CHAPTER 4
4.1.6. S3 = {e,(l2)} U {(13),(l23)} U {(23),(132)}.

4.1.7 A4 = {e, (123), (l32)} U {(l24),(l3)(24),(324)} U (142),(143),(14)(23)}
U {(234), (134), (12)(34)}.
4.1.8. K = {l, -l} U {i, -i} U {j, -j} U {k, -k}. The right and left de-
compositions coincide since { -1, I} is a normal subgroup of K.
Answers 217
4.1.9. 0= fe} U f.r} U {X2} U {X3} U {Xl} U {xli} U {X°}U

U{X7} LJ {XH} LJ {XR}
0= fe, x~'} U {x, x&} U {x 2, X7} LJ
{X3, x 8 } LJ {x\ Xll}
0= Ie, X2, x1, xn, XH} U{x, xa, xo, x 7, XIl}
0= {e X x 2 X'~ Xl x" x G X7 X S rll}
, , , , , , , J , ..
4.1.10. G = Ko U K 1 U K 2' where Ko is the set of all xn where n is divisible

by 3, K 1 the set of all xn where n divided by 3 leaves a remainder of 1, and K2
the set of all xn where n divided by 3 leaves a remainder of 2. The decomposi-
tion can be given by a set of representatives, for example
4.1.11. The decomposition of G by e is a representation of G as a union of

its one element subsets. The decomposition of G by G consists of one coset,
which is equal to G.
4.1.14. (1) f[f(z)] = f(z); (2) f(Z)Z-l E H; and (3) f(hz) = f(z).
4.1.18. 81.
4.1.24. K 1, K 3, and K 5 are co sets, K 2 and K4 are not.
4.1.25. The stated set is both a left and a right coset by the subgroup of all
matrices with determinant 1.
4.1.27. SI={e, (123), (132), (12)(34), (134), (234)} LJ
U {(\2), (23), (\3), (34), (1342), (1234)} U
U {(l4), (1423), (1432), (1243), (1324), (24)} U
U {(124), (13)(24), (243), (143), (14) (23), (142)}
4.1.28. S3 = {e,(l2)} U {(13),(23), (l32), (123)}.
4.2.4. S3 = {e} U {(12), (13), (23)} U {(l23), (132)}.
4.2.5. K = {1} U { -l} U {i, - i} U {j, - j} U {k, - k}.
4.2.6. 6.
4.2.8. The normalizer of x is the set of all matrices of the form
(~ ~) (a ~ 0, b ~ 0)
The normalizer of y is the whole group G. The normalizer of z is the set of all
matrices of the form
4.2.13. The cyclic group of order 2.

218 Answers
4.2.14. The normalizer of an element of the form (2k + 1, m) is the set of all
elements of the form (2a, 0) and (2a + 1, b), where a and b are integers; it has
an infinite number of conjugates. The normalizer of an element of the form
(2k, m), where m =1= 0, is the set of all (2a, b), where a and b are any integers; it
has 2 conjugates. The normalizer of (2k, 0) is the entire group; it has one
conjugate, the identity element.
4.2.20. S4 = {e} U {(12), (13), (14), (23), (24), (34)} U
U {(123), (124), (132), (134), (142), (143), (234), (243)} U
U {(1234), (1243), (1324), (1342), (1423), (1432)} U
U {(12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}
4.2.21. A. = {e} U {(123), (134), (142), (243)} U
U{(124), (132), (143), (234)} U{(I 2) (34), (13)(24), (14)(23)}
4.2.22. The only conjugates are x 1 and x 3
4.3.1. e, {e, (123), (132)}, S3'
4.3.2. M I generates S4' M 2 generates A4 , and M 3 is a normal subgroup.
4.3.3. Yes.
4.3.12. N is the identity of the group, (XN)-l = X-I N.
4.3.14. GIG is the identity group, GIE coincides with G.
4.3.32. HI = GIN, H2 = {N, xN}, where det x = -I, x E G.
4.3.34. The alternating group A 4 , the Klein group, and the subgroups
fe, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (12), (34), (1423), (1324)}

fe, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (13), (24), (1234), (1432)}
fe, (12)(34), (13)(24), (14) (23), (23), (14), (1342), (1243)}
The Klein group and A4 are normal subgroups of S4'
4.4.8. (l) The subgroups which contain the Klein group (see 4.3.34); and
(2) the four cyclic subgroups generated by 3-cycles.
4.4.9. [(x', yO)], [(x 5, y), (XO, y2)], [(x, y), (XO, y)]
[(x B, y), (x 8, y)], [(x 7, y), (x 2, y)], [(XU, y), (x', y)]
4.5.2. Each commutator is equal to the identity.

4.5.6. (XI'X 2) = (132), (X I ,X 3) = (142), (xI,y) = (12)(34), (X2'X I ) = (123),
(X 3 ,X I ) = (124), (y, Xl) = (12)(34).
4.5.7. -1 and 1.
4.5.8. (x, y) = ( -27 -14) ,(y, z) = ( -35-3)

2 ,(z, x) = (12)
2 5
Answers 219
(v, w) = ( =~ =: ~I)
3 2 1
00
( ~
(w, u) =
2. I 0)
o 03
4.5.10. (x, y) = (a, b, c)
4.5.14. The alternating group An.
4.5.21. The group of all parallel translations.
4.5.22. The subgroups of matrices whose determinant is 1.
4.6.12. Cyclic groups of prime order.
4.6.15. For n = 1,2,3,4.
4.6.16. Yes.
4.6.17. Yes.
4.7.2. 0 for the identity group, 1 for every other abelian group.
4.7.3. (1) Sn is not nilpotent for n > 2, the nilpotency class for Sl is 0, the
nilpotency class for Sl is 1; (2) is nilpotent of class 2; (3) is nilpotent of class
2; (4) is not nilpotent; and (5) is nilpotent of class 2.
4.7.6. Lower central series: Ho = H, HI = {(e, 1), (e, -1), (e,k), (e, -k)},
H2 = {(B, 1), (e, -I)}, H3 = e. Upper central series: Zo = e, ZI = {(e, 1),
(e, -l)}, Z2 = {(e, 1), (e, -1), (e, k), (e, - k)}, Z3 = H.
4.7.11. 2.
4.7.15. (1) and (3) are not nilpotent; (2) has nilpotency class 2; and (4) has
nil potency class 3.
4.7.17. The set {kl' kl' k 3 , . . . } must have a maximum. This number is
the nilpotency class for H.
4.7.20. If and only if the set {kl' kl' k 3 , ••. } has a maximum.
4.8.1. (l3 is the only automorphism.
4.8.2. (ll and (l2 are automorphisms.
4.8.4. (l3 and (l5 are automorphisms.
4.8.5. The group of automorphisms is isomorphic to the symmetric group S 3'
4.8.6. A cyclic group of order 2.
4.8.n. (1) Isomorphic to the Klein group (see 3.3.18); and (2) a cyclic group
of order 6.
220 Answers
4.8.14. Letting U3 = (13), U4 = (23), Us = (123),
4.8.15. L1 = e, L 1 = (j, - j)(k, -k), and tj = (i, -i)(k, -k).

4.8.16. Abelian groups.
4.8.17. 4.
4.8.22. 24.
4.8.23. <p(x + yi) = (xa + yc) + (xb + yd)i, where (a, b, e, d) is any 4-tuple
of integers satisfying ad - be = ±1.
4.8.27. Letting U 1 = (12)(34), U z = (13)(24), and U 3 = (14)(23),
4.8.28. 24.
4.9.4. G1 is transitive; M 1 = {I, 2, 3,4} and M 2 = {5, 6} are intransitive
systems of G2 ; M3 = {I, 2, 3, 4} and M4 = {5, 6, 7} are intransitive systems
ofG 3 •
4.9.14. M 1 = {a, c}, M 2 = {b, d}.
4.9.15. (1) A4 and S4 are primitive; and (2) the cyclic subgroups of order 4,
the Klein group K, and all subgroups of order 8 containing K are imprimitive
(see 4.3.34).
4.9.17. When n is a prime number.
4.9.18. (1) and (2) are transitive, and (1) is primitive.
4.9.25. The set H in the preceding problem.
4.9.31. (1) is doubly transitive.
4.9.32. n ~ 4.
4.9.33. 2.
CHAPTERS
5.1.1. The relations are t1 = t 2 ,t1 = t4 ,t2 = t4 ,t3 = ts.

5.1.2. The relations which are consequences of the others are a' = a 3 ,
a7ebsa3bll = a3e,bea 3 = eba2 ,a 3ea = a3e,be = cb.
5.1.6. No.
Answers 221
5.1.15. II! - 1.
5.1.16. (1) II V UV VIl (2) yes.
Il Il llV UV II
V Vtl V V VIl
llV II UV UV II
VU Uil V V VIl
5.1.20. Only when it consists of one element.

5.1.22. (1) a is the only idempotent; and (2) a and arc'b n where r = 0, 1 and
s is any natural number.
5.1.23. (2) (1, 1), (1,5), (2,5), (3,5), (5,5), infinite; and (3) a and acmb n where
m = 1,2,3,4 and n is any nonnegative integer.
5.1.27. (1) The semigroup S is regular; (2) the inverse of arbS is a'b' (all ele-
ments in S different from the identity can be written in the form a'b' for some
nonnegative integers r, s); and (3) the only automorphism of S is the identity.
5.3.3. The class containing kqJ(k) is the identity, and the inverse of the class
containing k is the class containing qJ(k).
5.3.8. (1) 2; (2) infinite; and (3) 4; H 1 and H 3 are normal subgroups, H 2 is
not.
5.3.9. A free group of rank 1, i.e., the infinite cyclic group.
5.3.17. 2n.
5.4.3. G1 •
5.4.5. Infinite.
5.4.6. Infinite.
5.4.7. U 2 = Us, u 3 = U6' the others are distinct.
5.4.9. 2n , where n is the number of elements in K.
5.4.10. (2) xi,yi' = xi2yh if i1 = i2 and jl = jz; xi2yi2 = (xi'yi,)-l if i l =
i2 = 0 and m2 = - m1 or if i1 = i2 = 1 and m2 = m1 - 2.
5.4.14. There are an infinite number of elements of finite and of infinite
order.
5.4.15. The identity, and the element (X l X2 ... xn) and all of its conjugates
have finite order.
5.4.18. (1) 12; (2) {e, (ab)2}; and (3) the group of automorphisms is iso-
morphic to G.
5.4.20. 3.
5.4.23. 5.
222 Answers
5.4.27. If q ~ 1 (mod p) the group is cyclic. If q == 1 (mod p) the group is

noncyclic and is of the form G~q (see 5.2.22).
5.4.28. One group of order 15, two groups of order 14.
5.4.29.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(1 (n) 1 1 1 2 1 :>. 1 5 2 2
5.5.1. Yes.
5.5.2. A free group G is decomposable into a free product if and only if G
is not an infinite cyclic group.
5.5.4. G = Gt * G4 .
5.5.6. No.
S.S.8. It is never finite.
S.S.9. Only the identity.
S.S.14. Yes.
5.S.IS. No.
5.5.17. A free product of complete groups is never complete.
5.5.18. The center is equal to e.
5.5.19. No.
S.S.21. Yes.
5.6.1. G is the direct product of four cyclic groups of orders 3, 5, 7, and 13.
S.6.5. The only decomposable group is (4).
5.618. No.
5.6.9. One.
S.6.IS. Yes.
5.6.16. m1m2 ••• mn
S.6.27. When the orders of the Gj are distinct.
S.6.32. No.
CHAPTER 6
6.1.2. The subgroup of all roots of the identity.

6.1.12. No.
6.1.14. There is always a unique solution.
6.1.16. Cyclic groups of prime orders.
Answers 223
6.1.17. No.
6.1.19. (1) A cyclic group of order 15; (2) 4; (3) the direct product of the four
infinite cyclic groups; and (4) the direct product of the cyclic group of order
3 and the four infinite cyclic groups.
6.2.2. (1) Cyclic groups of orders 7 and 3; (2) cyclic groups of orders 5, 3, and
2; (3) cyclic groups of orders 11, 7, 3, and 2; and (4) a cyclic group of order
101.
6.2.3. (1) 4; (2) 2; (3) 2; and (4) 2.
6.2.4. The direct product of cyclic groups of orders 2,3,5, 7, 11, and 13.
6.2.10. (1) 5, 7; (2) 23 ; (3) 2,3; (4) 22, 3, 5; and (5) 23 , 2, 2.
6.2.11. A necessary and sufficient condition is for G to be a primary group
relative to p.
6.2.14. p~" ... , p~".
6.2.15. p~l, ... , p~".
6.2.16. Cyclic groups and abelian groups with invariants p, p.
6.2.17. Cyclic groups of prime order.
6.2.18. No.
6.2.19. p3 - 1.
6.2.20. (1) 10,000; (2) there are subgroups of orders 25, 10, and 40; and (3)
2,2,5 and 22, 5.
6.2.21. No.
6.2.22. 11.
6.3.8. (1) Rank 1, set of invariants 3; (2) infinite cyclic group; (3) rank 1,
set of invariants 5; (4) cyclic group of order 11; (5) torsion-free group of
rank 2; (6) rank 1, set of invariants 3; (7) torsion-free group of rank 2; (8)
rank 1, invariants 3, 3,2; and (9) infinite cyclic group.
6.3.9. (1) 2; (2) cyclic group of order 10; (3) the direct product of two infinite
cyclic groups; (4) 4; and (5) [an [an
6.3.10. (1) Yes; (2) yes; (3) no; and (4) no.
6.3.11. No.
6.3.12. 3, 5.
6.3.14. (1) 11;(2) 11; and (3) yes.
6.3.15. 40.
6.3.16. 31.
6.3.17. (1) Yes; and (2) no.
6.4.9. No.
6.4.10. No.
6.4.11. (1)-(4).
224 Answers
6.4.14. No.
6.4.16. All three.
6.4.27. Let m = p~' ... P~", where the Pi are primes listed in increasing order.
Then (1) (00,00, ... ,00, ... ), (2) (kt, ... ,kn,O, ... ); and (3) (00,k 2 , ... ,kn,
0, ... ).
CHAPTER 7
7.1.1. ~1 (Zi) = u ll (i= 1,2,3)
there are no other representation" of X in ,il.

7.1.2. No.
7.1.3. It is impossible for lJ. to be extended to a representation of S.
7.1.8. ~dai) = ( ~ ~ ), ~dai) = ( ~ ~ ), ~3 (aj) = ( ~ ~ )

i = I, 2, 3, 4, 5.
All of the ({J j (j = I, 2, 3) are similar, none are faithful.

7.1.11. (1) Let ({J be the representation of the cyclic semi group S = [a] by
left translations. Then
The representation ({J is not faithful. (2) The representation ({J t of S t by left
translations is given by
It is faithful. (3) The representation ({J2 of S2 by left translations is given by
I t is faithful.
Answers 225
7.1.15. ct(x)(y) = x (x, y EM).

7.1.16. The identity transformation.
7.1.21. No.
7.1.22. No.
7.1.23. Infinite cyclic semigroups and cyclic semigroups of type (1, d).
7.1.24. The identity group only.
7.1.25. Only commutative semigroups.
7.1.26. (1) Left cancellative semigroups; (2) right cancellative semigroups;
and (3) two-sided cancellative semigroups.
7.1.29. Only semi lattices.
7.2.4.
( ) _ (H, aH, bH, abH)

~ H a - aH " H abH, bH'
'~H (b)
T
= (H, aH, bH,
bH abl'J H
abH)
aH
, I, ,
CPH is not faithful.

7.2.6. Denote the representations by CPl' CP2' CP3' and CP4' respectively. Then
I) <pdl) = e, <J'd- I) = (I, - I) (i, - i) (j, - j) (k, - k)

<PI (i) = (I, i, - I, -i) U, k, - j, - k)
~,(-i)=(I, -i, -1, i)(j, -k, -j, k)
~I (j) = (1, j, - 1, - j) (i, - k, - i, k)
~I ( - j) = (1, - j, - 1, J) (i, k, - i, - k)
~I (k) = (1, k, - 1, - k) (i, j, -i, - j)
ffl(-k)=(l, -k, -1, k)(i, - j , -i,j)
(2) ({J2(e) is the identity permutation,

~2 (a) = (e, a) (b, ab) (ba, aba) (bab, (aW)
'PI (b) = (e,
b) (a, ba) (ab, bab) (aba, (aW)
Cf'2 (ab) = (e,
ab, (aW, ba) (b, a, aba, bab)
92 (ba) =
(e, ba, (ab)2, ab) (a, b, bab, aba)
IP2 (aba) = (e, aba) (a, ab) (b, (ab)2) (bab, ba)
92 (bab)= (e, bab) (a, (abF) (b, ba) (ab, aba)
9~ [(aWl = (e, (aW) (ab, ba) (b, aba) (a, bab)
(3) a noncyc1ic group G of order six can be written in the form G = [a, b],
wherea 2 = b 3 = e,a-1ba = b 2 ,sothatG = {e,a,b,b 2,ab,ab 2}; CP3(e) is the
identity permutation,
~a (a) = (e, a) (b, ab) W, ab 2 ); CPs (b) = (e, fI, b2) (a, ab 2 , ab)
IPa (b 2) = (e, b2, b) (a, ab, ab 2); CP3 (ab) = (e, ab) (b, ab 2) (a, b' )
IPa (ab 2 ) = (e, ab 2 ) (a, b) (ab, bi )
226 Answers
(4) if G = {e, a, a 2, a 3}, then <p4(e) is the identity permutation,

!f4 (a) = (e, a, a2 , as); !f4 (a 2) = (e, a2 ) (a, as)
CPt (as) = (e, a8, a2, a)
7.2.8. The identity subgroup.

7.2.18. No.
7.2.24. The representations by the subgroups {e, a} and {e, b} and the
representation by left translations,
7.2.26. It does not.
7.2.27.
1) 1') _ (HlI (12) HlI (13) HI, (14) HI, (23) HI, (34) HI)
'fHI ( - - (12) HI, HI, (34) HI, (23) HI, (14) HlI (13) HI
(1234) _ (Hu (12) H J, (13) Hu (14) HI, (23) HI' (34) HI)
'fH t - Hu (23) HlI (13) Hu (12) Hu (34) Hu (14) HI
2)!f (12) = (H2' (13) H2, (14) H 2, (23) H 2, (13) (24) Hi, (24) H2)
H2 H 2 , (23) H s, (24) H 2 , (13) H2 , (13) (24) H 2 , (14) H2
IfH2 (1234) =
= (H2' (13) H2 , (14) H 2 , (23) H2 , (24) H 2 , (13) (24) H2 )
(13) H 2, (13) (24) H 2, (23) H~, (14) H 2, H 2, (24) Hs
7.2.33. For commutative groups.

7.3.4. Yes.
7.3.5. No.
7.3.6. No.
7.3.10. Yes.
7.3.15. No.
7.4.3. An infinite cyclic group.
7.4.5. The identity group.
7.4.7. R(A, B) is isomorphic to the subgroup of all elements in B whose
orders divide p".
7.4.8. The group of endomorph isms is isomorphic to G.
7.4.11. An infinite cyclic group.
7.4.12. A finitely generated, torsion-free, abelian group of rank r
7.4.14. A finite abelian group with invariants 52, 52, 5,5, 5.
7.4.15. A finite group with invariants 72 , 7.
Answers 227
7.4.18. (1) A cyclic group of order 5; (2) a finite abelian group with invariants
5,5, 5, 5, 5, 5; Y, 32, 3, 3, 3; and (3) a cyclic group of order 2.
7.4.19. (1) The direct product of two infinite cyclic groups and two cyclic
groups of order 3 ; (2) a cyclic group of order 3; and (3) a finite abelian group
with invariants 17, 17.
7.4.20. (I) A finite abelian group with invariants 53, 52, 52, 52, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5;
72, 7, 7, 7; 33, 3, 3, 3; 23, 22,2 2,2 2 ,2,2,2,2,2; (2) a finite abelian group with
invariants 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3; 52, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5; 7, 7, 7, 7; (3) a finitely
generated abelian group of rank 4 with invariants 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5,
5,5,5,5,5; 73 , 73 , 73 , 7, 7, 7, 7, 7; and (4) a direct product of 49 infinite cyclic
groups.
7.4.26. (1) No; (2) no.
7.4.28. (1) A necessary and sufficient condition is for A to be a finite cyclic
group; and (2) a necessary and sufficient condition is for A to be an infinite
cyclic group.
7.4.29. No.
7.4.32. No.
7.4.34. A necessary and sufficient condition is for A to be either an infinite
cyclic group or a finite group all of whose primary components are cyclic
groups.
7.5.1. (1) X(x) = 2 cos IY. x + 1; (2) x(e) = 3, x(at! = 0, x(ai) = 0, x(a 2) = 1,
x(a j a2) = 1, x(a~a2) = 1; and (3) x(a k) = 2, (k = 0, ± 1, ±2, ... ).
7.5.5. Yes; for example, a cyclic group of prime order.
7.5.7. There are n characters Xi (i = 1,2, ... , n) of the group [a]. These can
be written in the form
Xi(a k ) = t ki (i, k = 1, ... , n)
where t is an nth root of unity.
7.5.9. (1) A cyclic group of order pk; (2) a finite abelian group with invariants
3, 3; and (3) a cyclic group of order 10.
7.5.11. The group of characters is isomorphic to the mUltiplicative group of
all complex numbers modulo 1.
7.5.12. The group of characters is isomorphic to the direct product of r
groups, each of which is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of all complex
numbers modulo 1.
CHAPTER 8
8.1.1. M j , M 2, M 3, M 4, and M 7 are metrics.

8.1.2. (2) Yes.
228 Answers
8.1.3. Only ((J4'

8.1.6. a > 0, b = O.
8.1.7. Only P3'
8.1.11. A necessary and sufficient condition for In to converge to I in the
sense of the metric on C[a, b] is for f" to converge uniformly to f
8.1.14. (2), (3), and (4).
8.1.17. Yes.
8.1.18. None.
8.2.3. (1) and (4).
8.2.4. The only continuous transformations of R are the continuous func-
tions on R. The only bicontinuous transformations are the monotonic
increasing or monotonic decreasing continuous functions whose domains
are all of R.
8.2.11. Yes.
8.2.20. Yes.
8.2.22. No.
8.3.2. (Xl and (X2'
8.3.4. (1) Open, (2) open and closed, (3) open and closed, (4) closed, and
(5) closed.
8.3.8. Yes.
8.3.9. All real numbers.
8.3.16. Yes.
8.3.18. Every topological space has a basis.
8.3.21. Yes.
8.3.22. (1) Yes, (3) yes.
8.3.23. Yes.
8.3.24. All but F 5 .
8.3.25. Yes.
8.3.31. Yes.
8.3.32. No.
8.4.1. G1 and G 2 •
8.4.2. Yes.
8.4.3. Yes.
8.4.4. Yes.
8.4.6. The sets Fa, aF, and F- 1 are closed, UP, PU, and U - 1 are open.
8.4.9. G forms a topological group. The topologies are not equal.
8.4.10. Yes.
8.4.11. Hand N are both normal subgroups of G ; P is closed if and only if (X
is rational.
Answers 229
8.4.12. Yes.
8.4.14. No.
8.4.15. All algebraic subgroups are topological subgroups. Every algebraic
isomorphism is continuous. Not every algebraic isomorphism is a topological
isomorphism.
8.4.16. Yes.
8.4.18. (1) Not a subgroup; (2) subgroup, not normal; (3) subgroup, not
normal; and (4) normal subgroup.
8.4.21. q> is continuous and open. A necessary and sufficient condition is
N = e.
8.4.26. Yes.
8.4.27. A and B are closed, but A + B is not.
8.4.32. Yes.
8.4.33. (1) Yes, (2) no.
8.4.34. Yes.
8.4.35. Yes.
8.4.38. Yes.
8.5.3. (1) The ordering is two-sided compatible, the positive part consists of
all z = a + bi such that a > 0 or a = 0 and b ~ 0, the negative part consists
of all z = a + bi such that a < 0 or a = 0 and b : : :; O. (2) The ordering is
two-sided compatible, C+ consists of all z such that arg z E [a, 13], C- con-
sists of all z such that 1C + arg z E [a, 13], (3) The ordering is two-sided com-
patible, C + consists of all z = a + bi such that a ~ 0 and b ~ 0, c- consists
of all z such that a :s;; 0 and b :s;; 0 and (4) The ordering is not two-sided
compatible.
8.5.8. r = n P"
a
8.5.10. P = r- 1 .
8.5.12. The diagonal (equality) is the only two-sided compatible ordering
on finite cyclic groups. Let G = [x]g be an infinite cyclic group. For i = 1,
2, ... , define the relations Pi on G by Xl ~ Xk(Pi} if and only if k - I ~ 0 and
is divisible by i. Then all of the Pi and Pi- 1 are two-sided compatible orderings
on G, and every such ordering must be of the form Pi' fii- 1, or the diagonal.
8.5.13. f~(x) > f3(X) > fl(X) > f~(x).
8.5.15. The ordering is two-sided compatible. It is linear if and only if no
more than one of the factors Go is different from the identity.
8.5.16. It is a two-sided compatible ordering.
8.5.17. The cyclic group [x] must be infinite.
8.5.18. When x has infinite order.
8.5.24. All of the groups are directed.
Appendix
MULTIPLICATION TABLE FOR S4
In this section we give the multiplication table for the symmetric group on
four elements S4 and list its proper subgroups, 28 in all. We use the following
notation:
e = identity transformation a= (34)
VI = (12)(34) b= (23)
V2 = (13)(24) c= (24)
V3 = (14)(23) d= (12)
A = (234) f = (13)
B = (243) g = (14)
C = (123) h = (1234)
D= (124) j = (1243)
E= (132) k = (1342)
F = (134) 1=(1324)
G= (142) m = (1432)
H = (143) n = (1423)
The subgroups of S4, listed according to their order, are given below.
Order 12: A4 = fe, VI' V2 , V3 , A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H}
Order 8: {e, VI' V2 , V3 , a, d, I, n}, {e, VI, V2 , V3 , c,f, h, m} {e, VI' V2 , V3 , b,
g,j, k}
Order 6: {e,a,b,c,A,B}, {e,b,d,f,C,E} {e,c,d,g,D,G}, {e,a,f,g,F,H}
Order 4: {e, VI' V2 , V3 }, {e,a,d, VI}' {e,c,f, V2 }, {e,g,b, V3 }, {e,l,n, VI}'
{e,h,m, V2 }, {e,1,k, V3 }
Order 3: {e, A, B}, fe, C, E}, fe, D, G}, fe, F, H}
Order 2: fe, VI}, {e, V2 }, fe, V3 }, {e,a}, {e,b}, {e,c}, {e,d}, {e,f}, {e,g}
231
232 Appendix
e VI V2 VJ A BCD E F G H a b c d f g h j k m n
e e VI V2 VJ a b c d f g h j k m n
VI VI e VJ V2 d k m a h j f g b n c
V2 V2 VJ e VI n j f c k m b g d h a
V3 V3 V2 Vie g h n m b c k j a f d
A c a b h k n j d I f g m
B b c a j I m d h f k n g
C j f n b d h I m c g a k
D h I g c j d k n a m b f
E m d k f b I g a n h j c
F g h I k a f n c m j d b
G k m d g n c a f h b I j
f n j m g a b I d c k h
A B VI F H C D E V2 G V3
b b j g ac n m B e A C E V3 D VI V2 FH G
c c h m a
b j g n A B e D V2 G VI C F E VJ H
d d a n I m f
k g h c j VI E G e C D FHA VJ B V2
f f m c h n
j b I d g k a H C V2 E e F VJ B G D VI A
g g k j b h
I n c m a d f F V3 D G H e A V2 VI BE C
h h c m f I
g k n a j b d D F VJ A VI C V2 GBHe E
j j b g k f n I m c d a h C V2 H B D VI E VJ e G A F
k k g b j m d a f h n I c G VI E F A V2 H e V3 C D B
I n a d g h c k j m f b VJ D F V2 BEG A H VI C e
m m f h c d k g a n b j I E G VIHVJB e F C A V2 D
n n I d a j f m b g c h k V2 H C VJ G A B E D e F VI
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. The books in this section are devoted entirely to group theory and
are suitable for an initial acquaintance.
1. Alexandrov, P. S., An Introduction to the Theory of Groups (translated
by Hazel Perfect and G. M. Peterson), Hafner, 1959.
2. Baumgartner, L., Gruppentheorie, de Gruyter, 1921.
*3. Baumslag, B. and Chandler, G., Theory and Problems of Group Theory,
Schaum's Outline Series, 1968.
*4. Burrow, M., Representation Theory of Finite Groups, Academic Press,
1965.
*5. Dixon, J., Problems in Group Theory, Blaisdell, 1967.
*6. Fuchs, L., Abelian Groups, Pergamon, 1960.
*7. Gorenstein, D., Finite Groups, Harper and Row, 1968.
8. Hall, Jr., M., The Theory of Groups, Macmillan, 1959.
*9. Huppert, B., Endliche Gruppen, 2 vols., Springer Verlag, 1967.
*lO. Kaplansky, 11, Infinite Abelian Groups, University of Michigan Press,
1954.
11. Kurosh, A. G., The Theory of Groups, 2 vols. (translated by K. A.
Hirsch), Chelsea, 1960.
12. Kurosh, A. G., Lectures on General Algebra (translated by K. A.
Hirsch), Chelsea, 1963.
*l3. Lederman, W., Introduction to the Theory of Finite Groups, Oliver and
Boyd, 1957.
*14. Rotman, J. J., The Theory ofGroups .' An Introduction, Allyn and Bacon,
1965.
15. Schmidt, 0., Abstract Theory of Groups (translated by Fred Holling
and J. B. Roberts), Freeman, 1966.
*16. Scorza, G., Gruppi Astratti, Rome, 1942.
*17. Scott, W., Group Theory, Prentice-Hall, 1964.
*18. Sono, S., Group Theory, Tokyo, 1928 (in Japanese).
* 19. Wielandt, H., Finite Permutation Groups (translated by R. Bercov),
Academic Press, 1964.
The references preceded by an asterisk have been added by the translator.
233
234 Bibliography
2. The books in this section do not deal entirely with group theory
but have chapters which introduce the reader to the basic elements of group
theory.
*20. Albert, A., Modern Higher Algebra, University of Chicago Press, 1937
*21. Barnes, W., Introduction to Abstract Algebra, D. C. Heath, 1963.
*22. Birkhoff, G. and MacLane, S., A Survey of Modern Algebra, Mac-
millan, 1953.
23. Bourbaki, N., Algebre (Structures Algebriques. Algebre Lineaire.
Algebre Multilineaire), Hermann, 1964.
24. Chebotarev, N. G., Basic Galois Theory, GTTI, 1934 (in Russian).
25. Chebotarev, N. G., Lie Group Theory, Gostekhizdat, 1940 (in Russian).
*26. Herstein, I., Topics in Algebra, Blaisdell, 1964.
*27. Jacobson, H., Lectures in Abstract Algebra, 3 vols. (Basic Concepts,
Linear Algebra, Theory of Fields and Galois Theory), Van Nostrand,
vol. I 1951, vol. II 1953, vol. III 1964.
28. Kurosh, A. G., Higher Algebra, Fizmatigiz, 1962 (in Russian).
*29. Lang, S., Algebra, Addison-Wesley, 1965.
30. Lyubarski, G., Group Theory and its Applications to Physics, Gostekhiz-
dat, 1958 (in Russian).
*31. McCoy, N. H., Introduction to Modern Algebra, Allyn and Bacon,
1960.
32. Okunev, L., Foundations of Modern Algebra, Uchpedgiz, 1941 (in
Russian).
33. Postnikov, M. M., Galois Theory, Fizmatgiz, 1963 (in Russian).
34. Proskuryakov, I. V., A Collection of Problems on Linear Algebra,
Gostekhizdat, 1957 (in Russian).
35. Smirnov, V. I., A Course of Higher Mathematics (translated by D. E.
Brown), Addison-Wesley, 1964.
*36. Van der Waerden, B. L., Modern Algebra (translated by F. Blum),
Ungar, 1953.
*37. Zariski, O. and Samuel, P., Commutative Algebra, vol. I, Van Nostrand
1958.
3. The present book also includes notions which do not belong properly
to group theory. The references listed below are suitable for an introduction
to these notions.
38. Alexandrov, P. S., Introduction to the General Theory of Sets and
Functions, Gostekhizdat, 1948 (in Russian).
39. Birkhoff, G., Lattice Theory, Amer. Math. Soc. Colloq. Pub!., vol. 25,
1948.
40. Bourbaki, N., Theorie des Ensembles, Hermann,' 1964.
·Bibliography 235
41. Bourbaki, N., Topologie Generale (Structures Topologiques), Hennann,

1965.
*42. Bruck, R. H., A Survey of Binary Systems, Springer, 1958.
*43. Clifford, A. H. and Preston, G. B., The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups,
Math. Surveys No.7, Amer. Math. Soc. vol. I 1961, vol. II 1967.
44. Dieudonne, 1., Foundations of Modern Analysis, Academic Press, 1960.
*45. Halmos, P. R., Naive Set Theory, Van Nostrand, 1960.
*46. Hoffman, K. and Kunze, R., Linear Algebra, Prentice-Hall, 1961.
*47. Husain, T., Introduction to Topological Groups, Saunders, 1966.
*48. Kamke, E., Theory of Sets (translated by F. Bagemihl), Dover. 1950.
*49. Kelley, 1., General Topology, Van Nostrand, 1955.
50. Kolmogorov, A. N. and Fomin, S. V., Elements of the Theory of
Functions and Functional Analysis, vol. I (translated by Leo F.
Boron), Graylock, 1957.
51. Lyapin, E. S., Semigroups, 2nd edition (translated by Amer. Math.
Soc.), 1968.
52. Maltsev, A. I., Foundations of Linear Algebra (translated by Thomas
Craig Brown), Freeman, 1963.
53. Natanson, I. P., Theory of Functions of a Real Variable (translated by
Leo F. Boron), Ungar, 1955.
54. Pontriagin, L. S., Topological Groups (2nd edition translated by Arlen
Brown), Gordon and Breach, 1966.
55. Shilov, G. E., Mathematical Analysis, A Special Course (translated by
1. D. Davis), Pergamon, 1965.
*56. Taylor, A. E., Introduction to Functional Analysis, Wiley, 1964.
57. Vulikh, B. Z., Introduction to Functional Analvsis for Scientists and
Technologists (translated by I. N. Sneddon), Addison-Wesley, 1963.
INDEX
Abelian group, 6.1 Compatible relation, 2.4

Algebraic group, 2.5, 8.4 Complete group, 5.5
Algebraic number, 1.2 Complete metric space, 8.1
Algebraic operation, 2.1 Complete ordering, 1.3
Alternating group, 3.3 Complete system of representations, 7.1
Antisymmetric relation, 1.3 Completely characteristic subgroup, 3.4
Aperiodic group, 6.1 Completely reducible representation, 7.3
Associative, 2.2 Component, 5.6
Automorphism, 3.4, 4.8 Composition series, 4.6
inner automorphism, 4.8 Congruence, 2.4
Conjugate class, 4.2
Conjugate elements, 4.2
Band,7.1 Conjugate relation, 1.3
Basis, 8.3 Connected set, 3.4
Bicontinuous transformation, 8.2 Consequence, 5.1
Binary relation, 1.3 Continuous group, 8.4
Bounded metric, 8.1 Continuous mapping, 8.3
Bounded set, 8.1 Continuous transformation, 8.2
Converge, 8.1
Corollary, immediate, 5.1
Cancellative, 2.2 Corresponding relation, 5.3
Canonical homomorphism, 2.4 Coset. 4.1
Cardinality, 1.2 Countable set, 1.2
Cartesian product, 1.1 Crystal groups. 3.5
Center, 2.6 Cut, 1.4
Chain, 1.3 Cycle. 3.3
Character, 7.5 Cyclic group, 2.6
Characteristic, 4.8, 6.4 Cyclic semigroup, 2.5
Class, 1.3
Closed operation, 2.2
Closed set, 2.3, 8.3 Decomposable group, 5.6
Closure, 8.3 Decomposable representation, 7.3
Closure operator, 8.3 Decomposition, 4.1, 4.1. 5.6
Commutative, 2.2 Defining relation, 5.1
Commutator, 4.5 Defining set, 5.1, 5.1, 6.1
Commutator series, 4.6 Derived group, 4.5
Commutator subgroup, 4.5 Derived series, 4.6
Compact space, 8.1 Direct consequence. 5.\
237
238 Index
Direct factor, 5.6 Group of endomorph isms, 7.4

Direct product, 5.6, 8.3, 8.4 Group of homomorphisms, 7.4
Direct sum, 7.3 Group of isometries, 3.5
Directed group, 8.5 Group of representations, 7.4
Discrete group, 8.4 Group of transformations, 3.2
Discrete topology, 8.3 Groupoid,2.1
Disjoint cycles, 3.3
Disjoint sets, 1.1
Distance, 8.1
Distance function, 8.1 Height, 6.4
Divisible group, 6.4 Homeomorphic spaces, 8.3
Disjoint sets, 1.1 Homeomorphism, 8.3
Distance, 8.1 Homomorphism, 2.4, 8.4
Distance function, 8.1
Divisible group, 6.4
Double coset, 4.1 Ideal, 2.3, 2.4
Doubly transitive group, 4.9 Idempotent, 2.2.4
Identity element, 2.2
Identity representation, 7.3
Element, 1.1 Identity transformation, 3.1
Empty set, 1.1 Image, 1.2,3.1
Endomorphism, 3.4 Immediate corollary, 5.1
Epimorphism, 2.4 Imprimitive group, 4.9
Equivalence, 1.3 Imprimitive series, 4.9
Equivalent characteristics, 6.4 Imprimitive system, 4.9
Equivalent metrics, 8.1 Improper subset, 1.1
Equivalent representations, 7.3 Independent cycles, 3.3
Equivalent sets, 1.2 Index, 4.1
Even permutation, 3.3 Induced transformation, 4.8
Extension, 1.2, 5.6 Infinite height, 6.4
Infinite rank, 6.1
Inner automorphism, 4.8
Factor group, 4.3, 8.4 Intersection, 1.1
Factors, 2.1 Intransitive group, 4.9
Factor-set, 2.4 Intransitive system, 4.9
Faithful representation, 7.1 Invariants, 6.2
Federov group, 3.5 Inverse element, 2.2
Finitely generated group, 2.6 Inverse image, 1.2
Fixed point, 1.2 Inverse mapping, 1.2
Four-group, 3.3 Inverse relation, 1.3
Free generating set, 5.1 Inverse transformation, 3.2
Free group, 5.3 Inverses, 2.5
Free product, 5.5 Invertible endomorphism, 3.4
Free semigroup, 5.1 Invertible operation, 2.2
Fundamental sequence, 8.1 Invertible transformation, 3.2
Irreducible generating set, 2.5, 2.6
Irreducible representation, 7.3
Generating set, 2.5, 2.6 Isometry, 3.5, 8.2
Group, 2.5, 8.4 Isomorphic decompositions, 5.6
Group of characters, 7.5 Isomorphic sets, 2.1
Group of continuous transformations, 8.2 Isomorphism, 2.4, 8.4
Index 239
Kernel,4.3 Order, 2.6, 2.6

Klein group, 3.3 Ordered group. 8.5
Ordering, 1.3
Lagrange's Theorem, 4.1

Left translation, 7.1 p-Component, 6.1
Length of cycle, 3.3 p-Primary group, 6.1
Limit point, 8.1 Partial identity. 3.6
Linear ordering, 1.3 Partial transformation, 3.6
Linearly dependent set. 6.1 Partition, 1.1
Linearly independent set, 6.1 Periodic group, 2.6, 6.1
Linearly ordered group, 8.5 Periodic part, 6.1
Lower central series, 4.7 Permutation, 3.1, 3.3
Lowest layer, 6.1 Point, 8.1
Positive element, 8.5
Positive part, 8.5
Mapping, 1.2 Precedes, 1.3
Matrix representation, 7 J Primary component, 6.1
Maximal element, IJ Primary group, 6.1
Maximal periodic subgroup, 6.1 Primitive group, 4.9
Metric,8.1 Product, 2.1, 8.1
Metric space, 8.1 Proper homomorphism, 6.1
Minimal element, 1.3 Proper subgroup, 2.6
Minimal normal subgroup, 4.3 Proper subset, 1.1
Mixed group, 6.1 Pure subgroup, 6.4
Monogenic semigroup, 2.5
Monomorphism, 2.4
Multiplicative set, 2.3 Quotient-set, 2.4
Multiply transitive group, 4.9
Rank, 3.1. 5.3, 6.1

n-Angular dihedron, 3.5 Reaches, 4.7
Natural homomorphism, 2.4 Real line, 8.3
Natural metric, 8.2 Reducible representation, 7.3
Negative element, 8.5 Reflexive relation, IJ
Negative part, 8.5 Regular conjugates, 2.5
Nilpotency class, 4.7 Regular element, 2.5
Nilpotent group, 4.7 Regular permutation, 3.3
Normal complex, 2.5 Regular relation, 2.4
Normal series, 4.6 Regular semigroup, 2.5
Normal subgroup, 2.6,4.3,8.4 Relation, 5.1
Normal subset, 2.5 Representation, 7.1
Normalizer, 4.2 Representation by left translations, 7.1
Representation of G by H, 7.2
Result, 2.1
Odd permutation, 3.3
One-to-one mapping, 1.2
Open homomorphism, 8.4 Self-coincidence, 3.5
Open set, 8 J Semigroup, 2.5
Operation, 2.1 Semigroup of transformations, 3.1
Operative, 2.1 Semilattice, 7.1
240 Index
Separable metric space, 8.1 Transitive closure, 1.3

Serving subgroup, 6.4 Transitive group, 4.9, 7.2, 8.4
Set, 1.1 Transitive relation, 1.3
Set of representatives, 4.1, 4.1 Transposition, 3.3
Solvable group, 4.6 Type, 6.4
Stabilized series, 4.6, 4.7 Type of group, 6.4
Stable relation, 2.4 Type of semigroup, 2.5
Subdirect product, 4.9 Type perc, 6.4
Subgroup, 2.6, 8.4
Subsemigroup, 2.5
Subspace, 8.1 Union, 1.1
Sylow subgroup, 4.4 Universal binary relation, 1.3
Symmetric group, 3.3 Universally minimal element, 1.3
Symmetric relation, 1.3 Upper central series, 4.7
System of elements, 1.1
Value of a word, 2.5,5.1

Topological group, 8.4
Topological isomorphism, 8.4
Topological space, 8.3 Word, 2.5, 5.4
Torsion group, 6.1 Word problem, 5.4
Torsion free group, 6.1
Transcendental number, 1.2
Transformation. 3.1 Zero element, 2.2, 8.5

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Exercises in

E. S. Lyapin, A. Ya. Aizenshtat,

Translated by David E. Zitarelli

Plenum Press· New York

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 78-141243

© 1972 Plenum Press, N ew York

A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without

The present book is a translation of E. S. Lyapin, A. Va. Aizenshtat, and

Philadelphia, Pa., 1971 David E. Zitarelli

Leningrad, 1971 M. Lesokhin

guarantee him a complete and effective understanding of the material. It

5. Commutators and the Commutator Subgroup ............. , 91

Chapter 4 ................................................ 189

Appendix. Multiplication Table for S4 .. ......................... 231

Bibliography . ............................................... 233

Index ...................................................... 237

If the elements of a set are denoted by means of indices, for example,

where r is a set of indices, r = {IX, p, ... , ~, ... }.

It will not be necessary in this book to distinguish between an object x

The union of all sets M ~, denoted by

To each of the indices ~ E r there corresponds an element x~ in M. In this

Ma X M~ X ... X M; ... (e Er)

When the set of indices r of a Cartesian product is finite and consists

In particular, if M j =M for i = 1,2, ... , n, then we have the Cartesian

x=(_: ~). v=G :). z=n - ~)

1.1.4. Determine which of the sets M l' M 2 , M 3 , M 4 , M 5 of Problem 1.1.1

over all real numbers IX).

2) n M (the intersection taken over all n);

M 3 = set of all negative integers

in order that the Cartesian product MIx M 2 have a maximum number o f

Let A and B be two given sets. A mapping ~ of A into B is a rule which

Therefore we can define

By the cardinality of a set M we mean the symbol associated with the

1.2.1. Let A and B be sets consisting of nand m elements, respectively.

for all Pl' P2 E C, Pl ~ P2?

Is cp one-to-one? What is the image cp(M)?

1.2.11. Let M be a set which is written as a disjoint union of subsets which

For certain binary relations we use special symbols in place of "'. If no

An element a of an ordered set X is called maximal if a :(; b cannot hold

for some binary relation a on elements of X I and X 2' then a = p. Prove.

if a l + a2 + ... + ai = b l + b2 + ... + bj • Find each of the following

1.3.6. What basic properties (reflexivity, transltlVlty, symmetry, anti-

1.3.12. Consider the binary relations PI and pz on the set K of complex

4. Multiplication of Binary Relations

1.4.1. Define the binary relations p, a, r, Ak (k = 1,2,3, ... ) on the set N of

n '" m( r} if nand m are relatively prime;

Remark. Note those cases which show that multiplication of binary

prl (po) C prl p, pr~ (po) C pr~ a

1.4.3. For a binary relation P on a set X, prove that

(the associative law of mUltiplication of binary relations).

Z, ' " Z2 (p) if \ z, \= \ Z2\

Find and compare

Remark. Compare this result with 1.4.8.

1.4.13. Let P be an arbitrary binary relation on a set X. Determine the

1.4.16.T. Let P be an arbitrary binary relation on a set X. Prove that in

1.4.1S.T. Let P be an arbitrary binary relation on a set X. Prove that PP* is

1.4.20. If PI and P2 are reflexive (transitive, symmetric, antisymmetric)

1.4.25. Let P be an arbitrary binary relation on a set X. Prove that

We say that an algebraic operation, or simply an operation, is defined on

such that Xl 0 Y1 is defined in M 1 if and only if X 2 0 Y2 is defined in M 2'

The significance of the concept of an isomorphism lies in the fact that