Introduction

What is Hydroelectric Power Plant?

Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine converts
the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the
mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy. Hydropower or hydroelectricity refers
to the conversion ofenergy from flowing water into electricity.Today, modern hydro
plants produce electricity using turbines and generators, where mechanical energy is created
when moving water spins rotors on a turbine. It’s a form of energy, a renewable resource.
Hydropower provides about 96 percent of the renewable energy in the United States. Other
renewable resources include geothermal, wave power, tidal power, wind power, and solar power.
Hydroelectric powerplants do not use up resources to create electricity nor do they pollute the
air, land, or water, as other powerplants may.

Hydroelectric power has played an important part in the development of this Nation's electric
power industry. Both small and large hydroelectric power developments were instrumental in the
early expansion of the electric power industry. Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water
winter and spring runoff from mountain streams and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the
force of gravity, can be used to turn turbines and generators that produce electricity.

Hydroelectric power is important to our Nation. Growing populations and modern technologies
require vast amounts of electricity for creating, building, and expanding. In the 1920's,
hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 40 percent of the electric energy produced. Although
the amount of energy produced by this means has steadily increased, the amount produced by
other types of powerplants has increased at a faster rate and hydroelectric power presently
supplies about 10 percent of the electrical generating capacity of the United States.

Hydropower is an essential contributor in the national power grid because of its ability to
respond quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which base load plants with
steam systems powered by combustion or nuclear processes cannot accommodate.
Reclamation=s 58 powerplants throughout the Western United States produce an average of 42
billion kWh (kilowatt-hours) per year, enough to meet the residential needs of more than 14
million people. This is the electrical energy equivalent of about 72 million barrels of oil.

Hydroelectric powerplants are the most efficient means of producing electric energy. The
efficiency of today's hydroelectric plant is about 90 percent. Hydroelectric plants do not create
air pollution, the fuel--falling water--is not consumed, projects have long lives relative to other
forms of energy generation, and hydroelectric generators respond quickly to changing system
conditions. These favorable characteristics continue to make hydroelectric projects attractive
sources of electric power.
History of Hydroelectric Power Plant
The technology to take advantage of falling water and get useful mechanic energy is old. The
history of hydropower started over 2000 years ago, when water wheels were being used by the
ancient Greeks to grind grain. It was not until the Middle Ages that the technology was spread to
Europe.

Hydroelectric power was also important during the industrial revolution at the beginning of the
1800’s and provided mechanical power for textile and machine industries.

Probably the most important year in hydropower history was in 1831 when the first electric
generator was invented by Michael Faraday. This layed the foundation for us to learn how to
generate electricity with hydropower almost half a centurey later, in 1878.

The first hydroelectric power plant, located in Appleton, Wisconsin, began to generate electricity
already in 1882. The power output was at about 12.5 kW. 7 years later, in 1889, the total number
of hydroelectric power plant solely in the US had reached 200.

In the 19th century these power plants got an increased amount of commercial attention and was
built rapidly in suitable areas all over the world. 1936 marks an important year – the largest
hydroelectric power plant, the Hoover Dam, was opened and generated 1345 MW (installed
capacity later increased 2080MW) from the flowing water in the Colorado River. Below is a
picture of the Hoover Dam Hydroelectric Power Plant.

During the first half of the 1900’s hydropower became the world’s most important source of
electricity.

In 2008, Three Gorges Dam in China was built. This is the largest power plant at current date,
generating 22.500 MW, adding to China’s installed hydroelectric capacity of 196.79 GW (2009).

Hydropower is considered a mature technology contributes about 16% of global electricity

generation today and will contribute even more in the future. There’s almost 30 major
hydroelectricity projects with atleast 2.000 MW capacity under development, most of which are
located in China. Hydropower has been used for centuries.

The Greeks used water wheels to grind wheat into flour more than 2,000 years ago. In the early
1800s, American and European factories used the water wheel to power machines. The water
wheel is a simple machine. The water wheel is located below a source of flowing water.

It captures the water in buckets attached to the wheel and the weight of the water causes the
wheel to turn. Water wheels convert the potential energy (gravitational potential energy) of the
water into motion. That energy can then be used to grind grain, drive sawmills, or pump water.
In the late 19th century, the force of falling water was used to generate electricity. The first
hydroelectric power plant was built on the Fox River in Appleton, WI in 1882. In the following
decades, many more hydroelectric plants were built. At its height in the early 1940s, hydropower
provided 33 percent of this country’s electricity. By the late 1940s, the best sites for big dams
had been developed. Inexpensive fossil fuel plants also entered the picture. At that time, plants
burning coal or oil could make electricity more cheaply than hydro plants. Soon they began to
underprice the smaller hydroelectric plants. It wasn’t until the oil shocks of the 1970s that people
showed a renewed interest in hydropower.
System of a Hydropower Plant
A typical hydropower plant is a system with three parts:

. a power plant where the electricity is produced;

. a dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and

. a reservoir (artificial lake) where water can be stored.

To generate electricity, a dam opens its gates to allow water from the reservoir above to flow
down through large tubes called penstocks. At the bottom of the penstocks, the fast-moving
water spins the blades of turbines. The turbines are connected to generators to produce
electricity. The electricity is then transported via huge transmission lines to a local utility
company.

Head and Flow

The amount of electricity that can be generated at a hydro plant is determined by two factors:
head and flow. Head is how far the water drops. It is the distance from the highest level of the
dammed water to the point where it goes through the power-producing turbine.

Flow is how much water moves through the system—the more water that moves through a
system, the higher the flow. Generally, a high-head plant needs less water flow than a low-head
plant to produce the same amount of electricity.

Where Does Hydroelectric Energy Come From?

Hydroelectric energy can be defined as a form of hydropower where the motion of running water
(kinetic energy) is converted into electricity.

The water cycle is driven directly by solar energy. When the sun heats the water in the ocean,
some of the water on the surface is vaporized. The water vapor rises and when it reaches higher
layers of air and is cooled, the water falls down in the form of rain, hail or snow. The water flows
in streams and rivers, finally reaching the sea where it again evaporates.

What is Hydroelectricity? Hydroelectric energy is potential energy that is converted to kinetic

energy through the forces of gravitation, which again comes from solar energy, driving the water
cycle around. To answer the question, hydroelectric energy is the result of heat energy from the
sun and the gravitational forces from the earth

Storing Energy

One of the biggest advantages of a hydropower plant is its ability to store energy. The water in a
reservoir is, after all, stored energy. Water can be stored in a reservoir and released when needed
for electricity production.

During the day when people use more electricity, water can flow through a plant to generate
electricity. Then, during the night when people use less electricity, water can be held back in the
reservoir.

Storage also makes it possible to save water from winter rains for generating power during the
summer, or to save water from wet years for generating electricity during dry years.

Pumped Storage Systems

Some hydropower plants use pumped storage systems. A pumped storage system operates much
like a public fountain does; the same water is used again and again. At a pumped storage
hydropower plant, flowing water is used to make electricity and then stored in a lower pool.

Depending on how much electricity is needed, the water may be pumped back to an upper pool.
Pumping water to the upper pool requires electricity so hydro plants usually use pumped storage
systems only when there is peak demand for electricity. Pumped hydro is the most reliable
energy storage system used by American electric utilities.
Coal and nuclear power plants have no energy storage systems. They must turn to gas- and oil-
fired generators when people demand lots of electricity. They also have no way to store any extra
energy they might produce during normal generating periods.
Parts of Hydro Electric Power Plant

A hydroelectric plant consists of a reservoir for storage of water, a diversion dam, an intake
structure for controlling and regulating the flow of water, a conduit system to carry the water
from the intake to the waterwheel, the turbines coupled with generators, the draft tube for
conveying water from waterwheel to the tailrace, the tailrace and a power house i.e., the building
to contain the turbines, generators, the accessories and other miscellaneous items.

The size, location, and type of each of these essential elements depend upon the topography and
geological conditions and the amount of water to be used. The height to which the dam may be
built is usually limited by the extent of flowage damage. Pondage may have great value,
particularly for peak load power plants, warranting the purchase of extensive flowage rights. The
spillway section of the dam must be long enough to pass safely the maximum amount of water to
be expected. Likewise the abutments and other short structures must be built to withstand
successfully the greatest freshet conceivable on the river.

1) Storage Reservoir

It is the basic requirement of a hydroelectric plant. Its purpose is to store water during excess
flow periods (i.e., rainy season) and supply the same during lean flow periods (i.e., dry season)
and thus it helps in supplying water to the turbines according to the load on the power plant.

A reservoir can be either natural or artificial. A natural reservoir is a lake in high mountains and
an artificial reservoir is made by constructing a dam across the river. Low head plants require
very large storage reservoir. The capacity of reservoir depends on the difference between runoffs
during high and lean flows.
 2) Dam

The function of dam is not only to raise the water surface of the stream to create an artificial
head but also to provide the pondage, storage or the facility of diversion into conduits. A dam is
the most expensive and important part of a hydro-project. Dams are built of concrete or stone
masonry, earth or rock fill.

The type and arrangement depends upon the topography of the site. A masonry dam may be built
in a narrow canyon. An earth dam may be best suited for a wide valley. The choice of dam also
depends upon the foundation conditions, local materials and transportation available, occurrence
of earth quakes and other hazards.

Mansory dams are of three major classes’ viz., solid gravity, buttress and the arch dams.

Solid gravity dam shown in Fig. 2.8 (a) is made of concrete and is suitable for most sites. The
height of the dam, which cannot be very high, depends on the strength of subsoil strata. Arch
dam, shown in Fig. 2.8 (b) is a curved dam and transmits a major portion of its water pressure
horizontally to the abutments by arch action.

An arch dam is preferred where a narrow canyon width is available. This dam has the inherent
stability against sliding. The buttress or deck dam has an inclined upstream face, so that water
pressure creates a large downward force which provides stability against over-turning or sliding.
Such a dam is more suitable for weak foundations and earth quake prone sites.
An earth dam has a very wide base as compared to its height. Such dams are quite suitable for a
pervious foundation because the wide base provides a long seepage path.

The earth dams have got the following advantages:

1. They are cheaper than masonry dams.

2. They fit best in natural surroundings.

3. Such a dam provides the most permanent type of structure if protected against erosion.

However, earth dams have the following disadvantages:

i. The seepage of water is more than that in case of masonry dams.

ii. They are subject to erosion by water.

iii. They are not suitable for a spillway; therefore, a supplementary spillway of adequate capacity
is required.

3) Forebay

The forebay serves as a regulating reservoir storing water temporarily during light load period
and providing the same for initial increase on account of increasing load during which water in
the canal is being accelerated. In short, a forebay may be considered as an enlarged body of
water just above the intake to store water temporarily to meet the hourly load fluctuations. This
may either be a pond behind the diversion dam or an enlarged section of a canal spread out to
accommodate the required widths of intake.

Where the hydroelectric plants are located just at the base of the dam, no forebay is required
because the reservoir itself serves the purpose of the forebay. However, where the plants are
situated away from the storage reservoir a forebay is provided.
 4) Spillway

This is constructed to act as a safety valve. It discharges the overflow water to the down-stream
side when the reservoir is full, a condition mainly arising during flood periods. These are
generally constructed of concrete and provided with water discharge opening shut off by metal
control gates. By changing the degree to which the gates are opened, the discharge of the head
water to the tailrace can be regulated in order to maintain the water level in the reservoir.

5) Intake

The intake includes the head-works which are the structures at the intake of conduits, tunnels, or
flumes. These structures include booms, screens or trash racks, sluices to divert and prevent
entry of debris and ice into the turbines.

Booms prevent the ice and floating logs from going into the intake by diverting them to a bypass
chute. Screens or trash racks are fitted directly at the intake to prevent the debris from going into
the take. Debris cleaning devices should also be fitted on the trash racks.

Intake structures can be classified into high pressure intakes used in case of large storage
reservoirs and low pressure intakes used in case of small ponds provided for storing small
amount of water for daily or weekly load variations.
 6) Surge Tank

A reduction in load on the generator causes the governor to close the turbine gates and thus
create an increased pressure in the penstock. This may result in water hammer phenomenon and
may need pipe of extraordinary strength to withstand it otherwise the penstock may burst. To
avoid this positive water hammer pressure, some means are required to be provided for taking
the rejected flow.

This may be accomplished by providing a small storage reservoir or tank (open at the top) for
receiving the rejected flow and thus relieving the conduit pipe of excessive water hammer
pressure. This storage reservoir, called the surge tank is usually located as close to the power
station as possible, preferably on ground to reduce the height of the tower.

A decrease in load demand causes a rise in water level in the surge tank. This produces a
retarding head and reduces the velocity of water in the penstock. The reduction in flow velocity
to the desired level makes the water in the tank to fall and rise until damped out by friction.

Increase in load on the plant causes the governor to open the turbine gates in order to allow more
water to flow through the penstock to supply the increased load and there is a tendency to cause a
vacuum or a negative pressure in the penstock. This negative pressure in the penstock provides
the necessary accelerating force and is objectionable for very long conduits due to difficult
turbine regulation.

The ideal location of a surge tank is at the turbine inlet but in the case of medium and high head
power plants, the height of the surge tank will become excessive. Because of this reason, the
surge tanks are usually provided at the junction of the pressure tunnel and the penstock.

Surge tanks may be simple surge tank (Fig. 2.10), restricted orifice surge tank or differential
surge tank. Simple surge tank is very sluggish in action and needs the largest volume. So this is
the most expensive and is seldom used, except in special cases.
 7) Penstock

It is a closed conduit which connects the forebay or surge tank to the scroll case of the turbine. In
case of medium head power plants each unit is usually provided with its own penstock. In case of
high head plants, a single penstock is frequently used, and branch connections are provided at the
lower end to supply two or more units. Penstocks are built of steel or reinforced concrete. Steel
penstocks are almost always welded on the longitudinal seam.

The circumferential seam may be welded also. In long penstocks great care must be taken to
protect the conduit against water hammer. The thickness must be adequate to withstand both the
normal hydrostatic pressure and also the sudden surges both above and below normal caused by
fluctuations in load and by emergency conditions.

8) Valves and Gates

In low head plants gates at the entrance to the turbine casing are usually all that is needed to shut
off the flow and provide for unwatering the turbine for inspection and repairs. Individual hoist-
operated gates are provided in cases where frequent shutdowns may be called for and where the
time available for inspection is limited.

Other plants employ stop gates or stop logs which are placed in sections by means of travelling
crane. For installations employing medium or longer length penstocks or employing a common
penstock for more than one unit, it is necessary to install valves at or near the entrance to the
turbine casing. These are usually of the butterfly or pivot type for low and medium heads.
 9) Trash Racks

These are built up from long, flat bars set vertically or nearly so and spaced in accordance with
the minimum width of water passage through the turbine. The clear space between the bars
varies from 25 mm or 40 mm to 150 or 200 mm on very large installations. These are to prevent
the ingress of floating and other material to the turbine. In some cases where large diameter
turbines are employed, the racks are omitted, but provision is usually made for skimmer walls or
booms to prevent ice and other material from entering the unit.

10) Tailrace

The water after having done its useful work in the turbine is discharged to the tailrace
which may lead it to the same stream or to another one. The design and size of tailrace
should be such that water has a free exit and the jet of water, after it leaves the turbine,
has unimpeded passage.
 11) Draft Tubes

An airtight pipe of suitable diameter attached to the runner outlet and conducting water down
from the wheel and discharging it under the surface of the water in the tailrace is known as draft
tube.

If there is no draft tube and the water discharges freely from the turbine exit, then the turbine
operates under a head equal to the height of the headrace water level above the runner exit. By
installing draft tube, the operating head is increased by an amount equal to the height of the
runner outlet above the tailrace. This creates a negative pressure head at the runner exit. This
makes it possible to install the turbine above the tailrace without loss of head.

By installing the draft tube and increasing its section from runner exit to the tailrace, some of the
kinetic energy possessed by the water leaving the runner outlet is converted into pressure energy
and the water leaves at the tailrace at a much reduced velocity. This results again in the kinetic
head which increases the negative pressure at the runner exit. This in turn increases the operating
head on the turbine increasing its output and efficiency.

The height and type of tube used depends upon two factors. The pressure at the turbine exit or
inlet of the draft tube should not be less than one-third of the atmospheric pressure. This is
essential to avoid cavitation. Also to maintain continuity of flow without vaporisation, the
pressure at any point in the tube should not fall below the vapour pressure of water. Further, to
avoid separation of flow, the included angle should not exceed 10°.

Various types of draft tubes are shown in Fig. 2.11. The straight conical type draft tube, shown in
Fig. 2.11 (a), has an efficiency of about 90% and is employed for low specific speed, vertical
shaft Francis turbine. Vertical bell shaped draft tube is shown in Fig. 2.11 (b). Where there is a
little head room available, the bent draft tubes, shown in Figs. 2.11 (c) and 2.11 (d) are used. In
Fig. 2.11 (d), the horizontal portion of the tube is gradually bent upwards to lead the water gradu-
ally to the tailrace and to prevent entry of air from the outlet end. The exit end of the tube must
always be immersed in water.
 12) Prime Movers or Water Turbines

In hydroelectric power plants, water turbines are used as prime movers and their function is to
convert the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy which is further utilised to drive the
alternators generating electrical energy.
How Hydroelectric Power Plants Work?
Hydroelectric power comes from water at work, water in motion. It can be seen as a form of
solar energy, as the sun powers the hydrologic cycle which gives the earth its water. In the
hydrologic cycle, atmospheric water reaches the earth=s surface as precipitation. Some of this
water evaporates, but much of it either percolates into the soil or becomes surface runoff. Water
from rain and melting snow eventually reaches ponds, lakes, reservoirs, or oceans where
evaporation is constantly occurring.
Moisture percolating into the soil may become ground water (subsurface water), some of which
also enters water bodies through springs or underground streams. Ground water may move
upward through soil during dry periods and may return to the atmosphere by evaporation.
Water vapor passes into the atmosphere by evaporation then circulates, condenses into clouds,
and some returns to earth as precipitation. Thus, the water cycle is complete. Nature ensures that
water is a renewable resource.
Generating Power
In nature, energy cannot be created or destroyed, but its form can change. In generating
electricity, no new energy is created. Actually one form of energy is converted to another form.
To generate electricity, water must be in motion. This is kinetic (moving) energy. When flowing
water turns blades in a turbine, the form is changed to mechanical (machine) energy. The turbine
turns the generator rotor which then converts this mechanical energy into another energy form --
electricity. Since water is the initial source of energy, we call this hydroelectric power or
hydropower for short.
At facilities called hydroelectric powerplants, hydropower is generated. Some powerplants are
located on rivers, streams, and canals, but for a reliable water supply, dams are needed. Dams
store water for later release for such purposes as irrigation, domestic and industrial use, and
power generation. The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing water to be released as needed
to generate power.

The dam creates a “head” or height from which water flows. A pipe (penstock) carries the water
from the reservoir to the turbine. The fast-moving water pushes the turbine blades, something
like a pinwheel in the wind. The waters force on the turbine blades turns the rotor, the moving
part of the electric generator. When coils of wire on the rotor sweep past the generator’s
stationary coil (stator), electricity is produced.

This concept was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831 when he found that electricity could be
generated by rotating magnets within copper coils.

When the water has completed its task, it flows on unchanged to serve other needs.

Transmitting Power

Once the electricity is produced, it must be delivered to where it is needed -- our homes, schools,
offices, factories, etc. Dams are often in remote locations and power must be transmitted over
some distance to its users.

Vast networks of transmission lines and facilities are used to bring electricity to us in a form we
can use. All the electricity made at a powerplant comes first through transformers which raise the
voltage so it can travel long distances through powerlines. (Voltage is the pressure that forces an
electric current through a wire.) At local substations, transformers reduce the voltage so
electricity can be divided up and directed throughout an area.

Transformers on poles (or buried underground, in some neighborhoods) further reduce the
electric power to the right voltage for appliances and use in the home. When electricity gets to
our homes, we buy it by the kilowatt-hour, and a meter measures how much we use.
While hydroelectric powerplants are one source of electricity, other sources include powerplants
that burn fossil fuels or split atoms to create steam which in turn is used to generate power. Gas-
turbine, solar, geothermal, and wind-powered systems are other sources. All these powerplants
may use the same system of transmission lines and stations in an area to bring power to you. By
use of this A power grid,” electricity can be interchanged among several utility systems to meet
varying demands. So the electricity lighting your reading lamp now may be from a hydroelectric
powerplant, a wind generator, a nuclear facility, or a coal, gas, or oil-fired powerplant or a
combination of these.
The area where you live and its energy resources are prime factors in determining what kind of
power you use. For example, in Washington State hydroelectric power plants provided
approximately 80 percent of the electrical power during 2002. In contrast, in Ohio during the
same year, almost 87 percent of the electrical power came from coal-fired power plants due to
the area’s ample supply of coal.
Electrical utilities range from large systems serving broad regional areas to small power
companies serving individual communities. Most electric utilities are investor-owned (private)
power companies. Others are owned by towns, cities, and rural electric associations. Surplus
power produced at facilities owned by the Federal Government is marketed to preference power
customers (A customer given preference by law in the purchase of federally generated electrical
energy which is generally an entity which is non-profit and publicly financed.) by the
Department of Energy through its power marketing administrations.
Advantages
Hydropower is a fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source. Hydropower doesn't pollute the air
like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas.

Hydropower is a domestic source of energy, produced in the United States.

Hydropower relies on the water cycle,

which is driven by the sun, thus it's a renewable power source.

Hydropower is generally available

as needed; engineers can control the flow of water through the turbines to produce
electricity on demand.

Hydropower plants provide benefits in addition to clean electricity. Impoundment hydropower

creates reservoirs that offer a variety of recreational opportunities, notably fishing, swimming,

and boating. Most hydropower installations are required to provide some public access to the

reservoir to allow the public to take advantage of these opportunities. Other benefits may includ
e water supply and flood control.

Hydroelectric energy is renewable. This means that we cannot use up. However, there’s only a
limited number of suitable reservoirs where hydroelectric power plants can be built and even less
places where such projects are profitable.

Generating electricity with hydro energy is not polluting itself. The only pollution occurs during
the construction of these massive power plants.
Disadvantages
Fish populations can be impacted if fish cannot migrate upstream past impoundment

dams to spawning grounds or if they cannot migrate downstream to the ocean. Upstream fish
passage can be aided using fish ladders or elevators, or by trapping

and hauling the fish upstream by truck. Downstream fish passage is aided by

diverting fish from turbine intakes using screens or racks or even underwater lights

and sounds, and by maintaining a minimum spill flow past the turbine.

Hydropower can impact water quality and flow. Hydropower plants can cause low

dissolved oxygen levels in the water, a problem that is harmful to riparian

(riverbank) habitats and is addressed using various aeration techniques, which

oxygenate the water. Maintaining minimum flows of water downstream of a

hydropower installation is also critical for the survival of riparian habitats.

Hydropower plants can be impacted by drought. When water is not available, the

hydropower plants can't produce electricity.

Electricity generation and energy prices are directly related to how much water is available. A
drought could potentially affect this.

Building power plants in general is expensive. Hydroelectric power plants are not an exception
to this. On the other hand, these plants do not require a lot of workers and maintenance costs are
usually low.
Reference

https://energyinformative.org/how-does-hydroelectric-power-work/.

https://www.usbr.gov/power/edu/pamphlet.pdf

https://www.envirothonpa.org/documents/19bHydropowerAdvantagesandDisadva
ntages.pdf

http://www.engineeringenotes.com/power-plants-2/hydroelectric-power-plant/12-
main-elements-of-hydroelectric-power-plant/29416

http://www.idc-
online.com/technical_references/pdfs/mechanical_engineering/Six_Important_Co
mponents_of_Hydroelectric_Power_Plants.pdf

https://www.need.org/files/curriculum/infobook/HydroS.pdf