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Submitted By
MUNEEB ADIL
ROLL NO: 41596402816
Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
1
Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology
Date: 29-8-2018
Place: Delhi
MUNEEB ADIL
Enrollment No: 41596402816
Electronics and Communication Engineering
7E789
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I wish to express my profound gratitude to Varuna Iyer, Deputy Manager HR,
ELIN ELECTRONICS for giving me the opportunity to carry out my training at ELIN
ELECTRONICS. I find great pleasure to express my unfeigned thanks to our group head Mr.
Deepak Singh, for his invaluable guidance, support and useful suggestions at every stage of this
project work.
No words can express my deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Deepak Singh, without whom this
training would not have turned up this way. My heartfelt thanks to him for his immense help and
support, useful discussions and valuable recommendations throughout the course of my project
work.
I wish to thank my respected trainers and my batch mates for their support Last but not the least I
thank the almighty for enlightening me with his blessings.
MUNEEB ADIL
Enrollment Number: 41596402816
7E789/E9
3
ABOUT THE COMPANY
Elin, an ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and TS 16949 certified company is a flagship company promoted
by Sethia family. Elin Group was established in 1969 in Ghaziabad in the National Capital Region
of Delhi.The Elin Group of Companies are in the business of Designing & Manufacturing of
Tools, Metal Parts, Plastic Parts, Motors as well as Domestic home appliances for OEMs.
Elin has a capability of handling precious metals and manufacturing precision components.
Components are made in Stainless Steel, CRCA, CRNGO, Copper, Brass, Aluminum
etc.Supplying near ZERO Defects (below 10 PPM) components to customers assembly lines and
maintaining components dimensional tolerances up to 10 microns as per customers standards.
Elin has been manufacturing Plastic Components for Lighting, Automobile, Appliances,
Telecommunication and Consumer Electronics industries.
All our units have been processing majority of engineering plastics like Nylon, PP, POM, ABS,
PC, PBT, PMMA, etc.Insert moulding components like Coil overmoulding, Automotive cluster
parts & Parts for Relays are our strengths.
Company Introduction
4
ABSTRACT
An LED lamp is a light-emitting diode (LED) product that is assembled into a lamp (or light
bulb)) for use in lighting fixtures. LED lamps offer comparatively long life compared to
incandescent lamps and some fluorescent, although at a higher initial expense. Degradation of
LED die and packaging materials reduces output over time.
Research into organic LEDs (OLED) and polymer light-emitting diodes (PLED) is aimed
at reducing the production cost of lighting products.
Some LED lamps are made to be a directly compatible drop-in replacement for incandescent
or fluorescent lamps. An LED lamp packaging may show the lumen output, power
consumption in watts, color temperature and sometimes an equivalent wattage of
an incandescent lamp it will replace.
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving light,
and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an
incandescent lamp; some types fit into light fixtures formerly used for incandescent lamps. The
lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a
compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.
An electrical ballast is a device intended to limit the amount of current in an electric circuit. A
familiar and widely used example is the inductive ballast used in fluorescent lamps, to limit the
current through the tube, which would otherwise rise to destructive levels due to the tube's
negative resistance characteristic.
1
TABLE OF CONTENT
2 LED Lamp 10
4 Ballast 26
5 References 34
2
LIST OF FIGURES
2 Led display 8
4 Application of Led 12
5 Speciality uses 14
6 Tubular cfl 17
7 Helical cfl 17
9 Ballast 19
10 Energy usages 21
3
LIST OF TABLES
1 Wavelengths of colors 9
4 Comparisons 24
4
CHAPTER 1
ABOUT THE COMPANY
1.2 Vision:-
To meet and exceed customer’s expectation by offering high quality product & services at
competitive prices, in time all the time.
To be recognized as the largest & most efficient manufacturer in our product line in the
Nation.
To be a responsible corporate entity which recognizes and insures that its activities
are sustainable and have a positive impact on its employees and society?
5
1.4 Engineering Manufacturing Services(EMS)
A world class complete in-house facility is available to take up Contract Manufacturing for
Electronic & Electro-Mechanical Components and Sets, with backward integration of
Dies and Mould making, Metal Pressing, Plastic molding, SMD PCB Assembly & complete
Set Assembly with particular specialty in assembling of Tape Recorders, Radio,
Cassette Recorders, CD sets, Car Stereos, Head Phone Stereos, Portable & Pocket
Radios, Electric Irons, Toasters, Ovens, Juicer Mixer Grinders, Hand Blenders, etc.
As a leading EMS provider Elin offers a comprehensive range of supply-chain services that
simplify the product development process and provide meaningful time and cost savings to our
OEM customers. Our vertically-integrated services provide customers with a total design,
manufacturing, and logistics solution that move a product from its initial design
through volume production, test and distribution. These integrated services allow us to design,
build,
and ship a complete packaged product to our customers' end users.
Elin provides more value and innovation to customers by leveraging its global economies of
scale in manufacturing, logistics, procurement, design, engineering and ODM services across
a wide range of products and customer segments.
6
Fully equipped to produce most type of components in quality & quantity.
Infrastructure includes: Power Presses ( 5-300 Tons), Press Brakes (CNC & Manual) Molding
Machines (6-350 Tons), High Speed & Transfer Feed Presses Surface Finishing Equipment,
Phosphate & Conveyor zed Powder Coating & Painting Plants.
7
1.6.1 Tape Deck Mechanisms & DC Micro Motors
Elin Electronics Limited was the first manufacturer in India to manufacture the TDMs
indigenously. With the technical tie-up with Shinwa Industries of Japan, Elin is the
first choice of OEMs that includes MNCs like Philips, Sony, Panasonic, BPL and
Videocon to name few. Indigenous manufacturers like Truesound who are pioneers in
PA system have been using Elin mechanisms for more than two decades now. Elin has been
exporting these products for more than five years to various Asian countries.
Elin Electronics, largest manufacturer of micro motors in India, is known for its commitment
to add value to its customers, is well poised to add further value to its customers’
business through continuous improvement in the design and manufacture of micro motors.
With more than two decades of manufacturing experience behind us our products are being
used by all OEMs which are known nationally and internationally.
Elin specializes in the manufacturing of various kinds of motors. Our range of products also
includes Synchronous Motors which are widely used in air conditioners and microwave
ovens. Elin has been supplying these motors to leading customers for the past many years. All
the parts required for manufacturing are made in house using Special Purpose Machines. The
installed capacity is more than 1 million synchronous motors per year.
Elin is main supplier of submersible pumps to some of the prestigious OEMs in the cooler
business. These pumps are being manufactured under strict quality controls with most of the
critical parts being imported. There are three models with capacity to lift water to 42‖, 48‖
and 84‖ height.
Elin Electronics is a world class manufacturer and exporter of sheet metal components,
precision engineering components, and Deep Drawn Components in India with our
clients spread all across India and overseas. The unit is equipped with all necessary
production
8
machinery and various equipments for quality control. Presses available also include
high speed presses up to 600 spm.
Secondary operations like projections welding, liquid painting and powder coating are
also available in house that adds value to our supply portfolio. More than 60 stamping
machines from 10 tons to 300 tons give us flexibility to serve vast range of customers having
varied requirements. Our specialization in offering customized solutions as per clients’
specifications also helps us to add value to our customers’ product portfolio.
Leveraging on our state-of-the-art infrastructure equipped with more than 100 molding
machines equipped with the latest accessories, we have been able to offer
these components that conforms to various international standards. We are supported
by a dedicated team whose relentless effort helps us in offering qualitative
components in stipulated time frame. Our engineering team coordinates with customer
to offer valuable suggestions that immensely add value to the customer’s product portfolio.
9
1.7 AWARDS
10
1.8 PRODUCT RANGE
Audio Systems :
Complete Audio System as Tape Recorder, Two in One, Walkmanand Radio for
Philips at Elin, Goa
Home Appliances :
Electric light weight Irons, Toasters, Mixer/Juicer/Grinders forPhilips at Elin, Baddi.
CD Mechanism :
For Audio/Video Systems
Terminal Blocks :
For Refrigeration
Speakers :
For TVs, Audio Systems
11
FIGURE 1: Flow Diagram of Production
7
1.9 Commercial development
The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and
neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as
laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios,
telephones, calculators, and even watches. In the 1970s commercially successful LED devices
at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices
employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process . The
combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods
enabled to achieve the needed cost reductions. These methods continue to be used by LED
producers.
Fig 1.LED display of a TI-30 scientific calculator (ca. 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase
the visible digit size
As LED materials technology grew more advanced, light output rose, while
maintaining efficiency and reliability at acceptable levels. The invention and
development of the high- power white-light LED led to use for illumination, and is slowly
replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting.
Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–60 milliwatts (mW) of
electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of
continuous use at one watt. These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle
the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow
for heat removal from the LED die. LED power densities up to 300 W/cm2 have been
achieved.
One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting sources is high luminous efficacy. White
LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficacy of standard incandescent lighting systems. In
2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a luminous efficacy of 18–22 lumens per
watt (lm/W). For comparison, a conventional incandescent light bulb of 60–100 watts
emits around 15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights emit up to 100 lm/W. A
recurring problem is that efficacy falls sharply with rising current. This effect is known as
droop and effectively limits the light output of a given LED, raising heating more than light
output for higher current.
The mechanism behind droop efficiency loss was identified in 2013 as Auger recombination.
8
The Lumiled catalog gives the following as the best efficacy for each color:
TABLE 1
Solid-state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low
currents and at low temperatures. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours, but
heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly.
The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light
output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. The
development of high-power LEDs the devices are subjected to higher junction
temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices. This causes stress on
the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To quantitatively classify
useful lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use the terms L70 and L50,
which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 70% and 50% light output respectively.
LED performance is temperature dependent. Most manufacturers' published ratings of LEDs
are for an operating temperature of 25 °C. LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-
pavement signal lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the light
fixture gets very hot, could result in low signal intensities or even failure.
9
CHAPTER 2
LED Lamp
10
General-purpose lighting needs white light. LEDs emit light in a very small band of
wavelengths, emitting light of a color characteristic of the energy bandgap of the
semiconductor material used to make the LED. To emit white light from LEDs
requires mixing light from red, green, and blue LEDs, or using a phosphor to convert some of
the light to other colors.
One method (RGB- or trichromatic white LEDs) uses multiple LED chips, each
emitting a different wavelength, in close proximity to generate white light. This arrangement
allows for the adjustment of the intensity of each LED to "tune" the apparent color of the final
color.
The second method uses LEDs in conjunction with a phosphor. The CRI (color
rendering index) value can range from less than 70 to over 90, and color temperatures in the
range of
2700 K (matching incandescent lamps) up to 7000 K are available.
11
2.2 Application
The main difference from other light sources is the directed light. LED lamps are used for
both general and special-purpose lighting. Where colored light is needed, LEDs
that inherently emit single colored light require no energy-absorbing filters.
FIGURE 3:
BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir AtlantaIllumination with color mixing LED fixtures.
White-light light-emitting diode lamps have longer life expectancy and higher output
(the same light with less electricity) than most other lighting. LED sources are
compact, which gives flexibility in designing lighting fixtures and good control over the
distribution of light with small reflectors or lenses. Because of the small size of LEDs,
control of the spatial distribution of illumination is extremely flexible, and the light output
and spatial distribution of a LED array can be controlled with no efficiency loss.
LEDs using the color-mixing principle can emit a wide range of colors by changing
the proportions of light generated in each primary color. This allows full color mixing in
lamps with LEDs of different colors.In contrast to other lighting technologies, LED emission
tends to be directional (or at least lambertian). This can be either an advantage or a
disadvantage, depending on requirements. For applications where non-directional light is
required, either a diffuser is used, or multiple individual LED emitters are used to emit in
differentdirections.
12
2.3 Household LED Lamps
FIGURE 4
13
2.3.3 LED tube lamps
LED tube lights are designed to physically fit in fixtures intended for fluorescent tubes. Some
LED tube lamps are intended to be a drop-in replacement into existing fixtures. Others require
rewiring of the fixtures to remove the ballast. An LED tube lamp generally uses many
individual LEDs and maybe directional. Fluorescent lamps emit light all the way around the
lamp. Most LED tube lights available can be used in place of T8, T10, or T12 tube
designations, in lengths of 2, 4, and 8 feet.
14
Cost Comparison
Comparison based on 6 hours use per day (21,900 hours over 10 yrs)
15
2.4 Limitations
Color rendition is not identical to incandescent lamps. A measurement unit called CRI is used
to express how the light source's ability to render the eight color sample chips compare to a
reference on a scale from 0 to 100. LEDs with CRI below 75 are not recommended for use in
indoor lighting.
LEDs are also sensitive to heat and increase in temperature causes efficacy drop. This limits
the practical power that can be used in lamps that physically replace existing filament
and compact fluorescent types. Thermal management of high-power LEDs is a significant
factor in design of solid state lighting equipment.
The long life of solid-state lighting products, expected to be about 50 times the most common
incandescent bulbs, poses a problem for bulb makers, whose current customers buy frequent
replacements.
16
CHAPTER 3
COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS
3.1 Introduction
"Low-energy light-bulb"
FIGURE 6
The tubular-type compact fluorescent lamp is one of the most popular types in Europe
FIGURE 7
A helical integrated CFL, one of the most popular designs in North America, since
1995, when a Chinese firm, Shanghai Xiangshan, marketed the first successful design.
17
FIGURE 8:
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving
light, and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace
an incandescent lamp; some types fit into light fixtures formerly used for incandescent lamps.
The lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb,
and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.
CFLs radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps.
Improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived color of the light emitted by
CFLs, such that some sources rate the best "soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in color.
18
3.2 Design
There are two types of CFLs: integrated and non-integrated lamps. Integrated lamps combine
the tube and ballast in a single unit. These lamps allow consumers to replace
incandescent lamps easily with CFLs. Integrated CFLs work well in many standard
incandescent light fixtures, reducing the cost of converting to fluorescent. 3-way lamp
bulbs and dimmable models with standard bases are available.
Non-integrated CFLs have the ballast permanently installed in the luminaire, and only
the lamp bulb is usually changed at its end of life. Since the ballasts are placed in the light
fixture, they are larger and last longer compared to the integrated ones, and they don't
need to be replaced when the bulb reaches its end-of-life. Non-integrated CFL housings
can be both more expensive and sophisticated. They have two types of tubes: a bi-pin tube
designed for conventional ballast, and a quad-pin tube designed for an electronic ballast or a
conventional ballast with an external starter. A bi-pin tube contains an integrated starter, which
obviates the need for external heating pins but causes incompatibility with electronic ballasts.
FIGURE 9:
FIGURE 10:
An electronic ballast and permanently attached tube in an integrated CFL
CFLs have two main components: a magnetic or electronic ballast and a gas-filled tube (also
called bulb or burner). Replacement of magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts has removed
most of the flickering and slow starting traditionally associated with fluorescent lighting, and
has allowed the development of smaller lamps directly interchangeable with more sizes.
19
Electronic ballasts contain a small circuit board with rectifiers, a filter capacitor and usually
two switching transistors. The incoming AC current is first rectified to DC, then converted to
high frequency AC by the transistors, connected as a resonant series DC to AC inverter. The
resulting high frequency is applied to the lamp tube. Since the resonant converter
tends to stabilize lamp current (and light produced) over a range of input voltages, standard
CFLs do not respond well in dimming applications and special lamps are required for
dimming service.
Standard shapes of CFL tube are single-turn double helix, double-turn, triple-turn, quad-turn,
circular, and butterfly.
CFL light output is roughly proportional to phosphor surface area, and high output CFLs are
often larger than their incandescent equivalents. This means that the CFL may not fit well in
existing light fixtures.
Some CFLs are labeled not to be run base up, since heat will shorten the ballast's life. Such
CFLs are unsuitable for use in pendant lamps and especially unsuitable for
recessed light fixtures. CFLs for use in such fixtures are available.Current recommendations
for fully enclosed, unventilated light fixtures (such as those recessed into insulated ceilings),
are either to use "reflector CFLs" (R-CFL), cold-cathode CFLs or to replace such
fixtures with those designed for CFLs.A CFL will thrive in areas that have good airflow, such
as in a table lamp.
3.3 Lifespan
CFLs typically have a rated service life of 6,000 to 15,000 hours, whereas
standard incandescent lamps have a service life of 750 or 1,000 hours. However, the
actual lifetime of any lamp depends on many factors, including operating voltage,
manufacturing defects, exposure to voltage spikes, mechanical shock, frequency of cycling on
and off, lamp orientation, and ambient operating temperature, among other factors.
The life of a CFL is significantly shorter if it is turned on and off frequently. In the case of a
5-minute on/off cycle the lifespan of some CFLs may be reduced to that of incandescent light
bulbs. CFLs produce less light later in their lives than when they are new. The light output
decay is exponential, with the fastest losses being soon after the lamp is first used. By the end
of their lives, CFLs can be expected to produce 70–80% of their original light output. A 20–
30% reduction over many thousands of hours represents a change of about half an f-stop. So,
presuming the illumination provided by the lamp was ample at the beginning of its life.
20
3.4 Energy efficiency
FIGURE 11
Energy usage for different types of light bulbs operating at different light outputs.
Points lower on the graph correspond to lower energy use
Because the eye's sensitivity changes with the wavelength, the output of lamps is commonly
measured in lumens, a measure of the power of light as perceived by the human eye.
The luminous efficacy of lamps is the number of lumens produced for each watt of
electrical power used. The luminous efficacy of a typical CFL is 50–70 lumens per watt
(lm/W) and that of a typical incandescent lamp is 10–17 lm/W. Compared to a theoretical
100%-efficient lamp (680 lm/W), these lamps have lighting efficiency ranges of 7–10% for
CFLs and 1.5–
2.5% for incandescents.
Because of their higher efficacy , CFLs use between one-seventh and one-third of the power of
equivalent incandescent lamps. Fifty to seventy percent of the world's total lighting market
sales were incandescent in 2010. Replacing all inefficient lighting with CFLs would
save
409 terawatt hours (TWh) per year, 2.5% of the world's electricity consumption.
Since CFLs use much less energy than incandescent lamps (ILs), a phase-out of ILs would
result in less carbon dioxide (CO2) being emitted into the atmosphere.
21
3.5 Electrical power equivalents for differing lamps
1,100 75 18–25 17
TABLE 3
3.6 Cost
While the purchase price of a CFL is typically 3–10 times greater than that of an equivalent
incandescent lamp, a CFL lasts 8–15 times longer and uses two-thirds to three-quarters less
energy.
CFLs are extremely cost-effective in commercial buildings when used to replace incandescent
lamps. Replacing each 75 W incandescent lamp with a CFL resulted in yearly savings of $22
in energy usage, reduced HVAC cost, and reduced labour to change lamps.
However, frequent on-off cycling (turning on and off) of CFLs greatly reduces their lifespan.
CFLs should be avoided in places where lights are frequently turned on and off, as it would
increase costs and add to e-waste generation.
22
3.7 Recycling
Health and environmental concerns about mercury have prompted many jurisdictions to
require spent lamps to be properly disposed of or recycled, rather than being included in the
general waste stream sent to landfills. Safe disposal requires storing the bulbs unbroken until
they can be processed.
The processing CFLs involve crushing the bulbs in a machine that uses negative
pressure ventilation and a mercury-absorbing filter or cold trap to contain mercury vapor.
Many municipalities are purchasing such machines. The crushed glass and metal is stored in
drums, ready for shipping to recycling factories.
23
Comparison
LED
LED LED
Incandescent Halogen Fluorescent (Philips L
(Generic) (Philips) Prize)[102]
Color
2700 3100[104] 2700 3000 2700 2727
Temperature Kelvin
TABLE 4
24
3.9 VCD Axial Lead Inserters
FIGURE 12
In many applications axial insertion remains stable, reliable method for building boards. The
proven performance, process stability and cost efficiency of automated axial component
assembly make it the ideal solution for many circuit design challenges. At the same time, the
market demands ever-increasing reliability, better price/performance and reduced cost
per insertion.
In anticipation of future customer requirements Universal continues to invest in our
axial insertion equipment. The combination of our customer oriented, price/performance
analysis and continuous machine performance evaluation has resulted in additional
improvements to Universal's axial inserters.
Increased insertion speeds of up to 34,000 components per hour make the Model 6292 Dual
Head Axial Inserter the fastest axial inserter on the market. Overall machine performance has
also been improved as a result of several targeted enhancements. New component
guides improve component feeding and tape scrap removal, while a new scrap removal
system effectively removes cut leads.
The compatibility of the Model 6292 with Universal's Dual Head Board Handling
option provides a highly efficient automatic system for processing printed circuit boards. In
addition, the overall size of the machine has been reduced to consume less manufacturing floor
space. The Model 6267 Single Head Axial Lead Inserter provides insertion rates up to
15,000 components per hour with either standard, 5mm or high-density tooling
configurations at a low initial cost. Features such as Board Error Correction and Bad
Board Sensing increase insertion reliability and increase machine uptime, while the
machine's low profile provides total accessibility for operators.
25
CHAPTER 4
BALLAST
Ballasts can also be used simply to deliberately reduce the current in an ordinary, positive-
resistance circuit.
Prior to the advent of solid-state ignition, automobile ignition systems commonly included a
ballast resistor to regulate the voltage applied to the ignition system.
Series resistors are used as ballasts to control the current through LEDs.
26
FIGURE 13:
A ballast resistor is a series resistor placed in line with the load and may be a fixed
or variable resistor.
The term also refers to an automobile engine component that lowers the supply voltage
to the ignition system after the engine has been started. Because cranking the engine
causes a very heavy load on the battery, the system voltage can drop quite low during
cranking. To allow the engine to start, the ignition system must be designed to operate
on this lower voltage. But once cranking is completed, the normal operating voltage is
regained; this voltage would overload the ignition system. To avoid this problem, a
ballast resistor is inserted in series with the supply voltage feeding the ignition system.
Occasionally, this ballast resistor will fail and the classic symptom of this failure is that the
engine runs while being cranked (while the resistor is bypassed) but stalls immediately when
cranking ceases (and the resistor is re-connected in the circuit).
Another common use of a ballast resistor in the automotive industry, is adjusting the
ventilation fan speed. The ballast is a fixed resistor with usually two center taps, and the fan
speed selector switch is used to bypass portions of the ballast - all of them for full speed, and
none for the low speed setting. A very common failure occurs when the fan is being
constantly run at the next-to-full speed setting (usually 3 out of 4). This will cause a
very short piece of resistor coil to be operated with a relatively high current (up to 10
A), eventually burning it out. This will render the fan unable to run at the reduced speed
settings.
In some audio equipment, the vacuum tube heaters are connected in series. Since the voltage
drop across all the filaments in series is sometimes less than the full mains voltage, it was
often necessary to get rid of the excess voltage. A ballast resistor was often used for
this purpose, as it was cheap and worked with both AC and DC.
27
4.4 Self-variable resistors
Some ballast resistors have the property of increasing in resistance as current through
them increases, and decreasing in resistance as current decreases. Physically, some such
devices are often built quite like incandescent lamps. Like the tungsten filament of
an ordinary incandescent lamp, if current increases, the ballast resistor gets hotter, its
resistance goes up, and its voltage drop increases. If current decreases, the ballast resistor
gets colder, its resistance drops, and the voltage drop decreases. Therefore the ballast
resistor reduces variations in current, despite variations in applied voltage or changes in the
rest of an electric circuit.
This property can lead to more precise current control than merely choosing an appropriate
fixed resistor. The power lost in the resistive ballast is also reduced because a smaller portion
of the overall power is dropped in the ballast compared to what might be required with a fixed
resistor.
Reactive Ballast
FIGURE 14
Several typical magnetic ballasts for fluorescent lamps. The top is a high-power factor rapid
start series ballast for two 30-40 W lamps. The middle is a low power factor preheat ballast for
a single 30-40 W lamp while the bottom ballast is a simple inductor used with a 15 W
preheat lamp.
Because of the power that would be lost, resistors are not used as ballasts for lamps of more
than about two watts. Instead, a reactance is used. Losses in the ballast due to its resistance
and losses in its magnetic core may be significant, on the order of 5 to 25% of the lamp input
electric power. Practical lighting design calculations must allow for ballast loss in estimating
the running cost of a lighting installation.
28
"Choke ballast" (inductor) used in older lighting. This example is from a tanning bed.
Requires a lamp starter (below) and capacitor.
FIGURE 15
Lamp starter, required with some inductor type ballasts. Connects both ends of the
lamp together to "preheat" the lamp ends for 1 second before lighting.
1. Its reactance limits the power available to the lamp with only minimal power losses in
the inductor
2. The voltage spike produced when current through the inductor is rapidly interrupted is
used in some circuits to first strike the arc in the lamp.
A disadvantage of the inductor is that current is shifted out of phase with the voltage,
producing a poor power factor. In more expensive ballasts, a capacitor is often paired with the
inductor to correct the power factor. In ballasts that control two or more lamps, line-frequency
ballasts commonly use different phase relationships between the multiple lamps. This
not only mitigates the flicker of the individual lamps, it also helps maintain a high power
factor. These ballasts are often called lead-lag ballasts because the current in one lamp
leads the mains phase and the current in the other lamp lags the mains phase.For large
lamps, line voltage may not be sufficient to start the lamp, so an autotransformer winding is
included in the ballast to step up the voltage. The autotransformer is designed with
enough leakage inductance so that the current is appropriately limited.
Because of the large inductors and capacitors that must be used, reactive ballasts operated at
line frequency tend to be large and heavy. They commonly also produce acoustic noise (line-
frequency hum).
Prior to 1980 in the United States, PCB-based oils were used as an insulating oil in
many ballasts to provide cooling and electrical isolation (see transformer oil).
29
4.5 Electronic ballast
An electronic ballast uses solid state electronic circuitry to provide the proper starting
and operating electrical conditions to power discharge lamps. An electronic ballast can be
smaller and lighter than a comparably-rated magnetic one. The ballast may be "potted" (filled)
with a resin to protect the circuit boards and components from moisture and vibration. An
electronic ballast is usually quieter than a magnetic one, which produces a line-
frequency hum by vibration of the transformer laminations.
Electronic ballasts are often based on the SMPS topology, first rectifying the input power and
then chopping it at a high frequency. Advanced electronic ballasts may allow dimming
via pulse-width modulation or via changing the frequency to a higher value.
Ballasts incorporating a microcontroller (digital ballasts) may offer remote control and
monitoring via networks such as LonWorks, DALI,DMX512, DSI or simple analog
control using a 0-
10 V DC brightness control signal. Systems with remote control of light level via awireless
mesh network have been introduced.
FIGURE 16:
Electronic ballasts usually supply power to the lamp at a frequency of 20,000 Hz or higher,
rather than the mains frequency of 50 - 60 Hz; this substantially eliminates the stroboscopic
effect of flicker, a product of the line frequency associated with fluorescent
lighting (see photosensitive epilepsy). The high output frequency of an electronic ballast
refreshes the phosphors in a fluorescent lamp so rapidly that there is no perceptible
flicker. The flicker index is used for measuring perceptible light modulation ranges from 0-1,
with 0 indicating lower possibility of flickering and 1 indicating the highest. Lamps
operated on magnetic ballasts have a flicker index between 0.04-0.07 while digital ballasts
have a flicker index of below 0.01.
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With the higher efficiency of the ballast itself and the higher lamp efficacy at higher
frequency, electronic ballasts offer higher system efficacy for low pressure lamps like
the fluorescent lamp. For HID lamps there is no improvement of the lamp efficacy in using
higher frequency, but for these lamps the ballast losses are lower at higher frequencies and
also the light depreciation is lower, meaning the lamp produces more light over its
entire lifespan.
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4.6 Instant start
An instant start ballast does not preheat the electrodes, instead using a relatively high voltage
(~600 V) to initiate the discharge arc. It is the most energy efficient type, but yields the fewest
lamp-start cycles, as material is blasted from the surface of the cold electrodes each time the
lamp is turned on. Instant-start ballasts are best suited to applications with long duty cycles,
where the lamps are not frequently turned on and off.
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4.9 Hybrid
A hybrid ballast has a magnetic core-and-coil transformer and an electronic switch for
the electrode-heating circuit. Like a magnetic ballast, a hybrid unit operates at line
power frequency—60 Hz in North America, for example. These types of ballasts, which
are also referred to as ―cathode-disconnect ballasts‖, disconnect the electrode-heating
circuit after they start the lamps.
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REFERENCES
http://www.elinindia.com/home.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED_lamps
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamp
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_ballast
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