Solution-3681 Environmental Control Systems 1st Assignment

Department of Home & Health Sciences
Block No. 06, Sector H-8,

Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad.
Environmental Control Systems (3681)

Assignment No. 01
Submitted to:
Ar. Nazia Iftikhar
Block No: 6
Dept. of Home & Health Sciences,
Allama Iqbal Open University, Sector H-8,
ISLAMABAD, (051-9057744)
Submitted by:
Muhammad Hammad Manzoor
3rd Semester, Roll No. BN-523998
M. Sc Sustainable Environmental Design
OGIL, # 514, 5th Floor, Continental Trade Centre (CTC)
Block – 08, Clifton, KARACHI
explorationist@gmail.com / (0332-527 2364)
Q. No. 1: What is the history of Passive Solar Movement? How bioclimatic

approach helps in energy conservation in buildings? (15 Marks)
Answer)
HISTORY OF PASSIVE SOLAR MOVEMENT:
Historical Appearances Of Passive Solar: Solar power has benefited civilizations for
centuries, and the knowledge from our past provides foundational understanding of the
sun’s energy to bring about our current understanding of solar power. The earliest known
application of solar energy arose during the 15th century B.C. by the Egyptian ruler
Amenkotep III, who “supposedly possessed ‘sounding statues’ that operated when the air in
their base pedestals expanded after exposure to sunlight”. Though this was merely an
accomplishment of aesthetic value, solar energy has also been used to distill water as well
as dehydrate agricultural plants. Solar energy has been used in even more advanced,
practical ways by many civilizations to provide heat for homes, light fires, and even
cauterize wounds.
In the 5th century A.D., Socrates realized that “in houses that look toward the south, the sun
penetrates the portico in winter, while in summer the path of the sun is right over our heads
and above the roof so that there is shade”, and that initiated the use of solar energy to heat
homes. Though the first recorded application of solar energy is in the 15th century B.C., the
next appearance wasn’t for several hundred years, where the historian, Plutarch,
documented that virgins used cone-shaped metal objects to start ritual fires during the 7th
and 8th centuries B.C.
During this time the sun was used to distill water and dehydrate agricultural plants. A
famous use of solar energy, while the event is still surrounded with reservations and
disbelief, occurred in 212 B.C., when Archimedes used a “burning mirror” to set invading
Roman ships on fire. A similar story was recorded in the 12th century, where Proclus, a
Greek, supposedly accomplished this achievement during the siege of Constantinople
when the Bitellius fleet was invading, using many mirrors. While there is no sure way to
know whether or not these feats happened, the recording of this event sparked much
curiosity, and soon more applications of the sun’s energy were being recorded in history.
For example, in 77 A.D. Romans used “burning glasses” to cauterize wounds and light fires.
Another one of the earliest applications of passive solar energy was in the Roman atrium
and heated bathhouses in the first through the fourth centuries, where large south facing
windows let in the sun’s warmth to heat the pool.
Solar energy became so well-known in the 6th century A.D., that the Justinian Code
commenced “sun rights” in order to guarantee everyone would have access to the sun. The
last known use of solar energy before the 1700s appears in North America. The Anasazi
Native Americans built their homes in the side of the cliffs in what is now known as the
Colorado Plateau, where Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico meet. These south-
facing buildings were placed within the side of the cliff to avoid the sun in the summer, but
make use of the sun during the winter. It is clear that there was an early understanding of
using the sun for energy, and this knowledge and technology surrounding it increased
significantly beginning in the seventeenth century. Up to that point in history, through the
1200s, passive solar energy was used by Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Hindus, and the
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By: M. Hammad Manzoor, M.Sc Sus. Env. Design, 514, 5th Floor, Continental Trade Centre (CTC), Clifton – 08, Karachi. (Roll No. BN-523998)
Native Americans, following ancient architectural teachings of Aristotle, Xenophon, and

Vitruvius.
In the ancient historical appearances of passive solar energy uses, the architecture was
geared towards using the sun and wind to alleviate the extremes of the climate, but due to a
lack of glass, they were unable to utilize the sun to the extent we can today. However,
though most ancient civilizations lacked glass and other technology that we use today, they
still made significant progress and provided understanding and a good foundation for future
developments regarding the use of solar energy. Beginning in the 17th century, interest
grew in regards to using the sun as an energy source, and though there was not a large
amount of development within passive solar techniques, significant progress was made in
active solar systems.
The increased awareness of solar energy brought about by the experimentation with solar
energy served also to make people conscious of the use of solar energy passively, as well,
though there isn’t as much historical recording of passive solar energy during this time. In
regards to active solar energy systems, the first “solar engine” was invented in 1615 by
Salomon de Caux. This engine used glass lenses to heat up an airtight metal vessel with
water and air to produce a small water fountain. Though this lacked practical use, it is
significant because it was the first published documentation of solar energy after the fall of
the Roman Empire. Also in the 17th century, physicist Athanasius Kirchas experimented
with starting fire with mirrors, and German mathematician Tschirnhaus worked with lens-
type items to concentrate solar energy to melt various materials.
Overall, the 17th century included various experiments from different specialists who sought
practical applications of solar energy. In the 18th century, there was more experimentation
from many various professionals around the world. French scientist George Buffon worked
to determine whether or not the Archimedean feat could have been accomplished, and
determined that setting ships on fire was possible, but not very probable considering the
lack of technology in 212 B.C. Another Frenchman, Claude Poillet, provided significant
information that would assist in the development and application of both active and passive
solar energy. He determined the intensity of the sun in reference to the geographical
position, and it is this association which has been regarded “at least as important in solar
utilization as the hardware itself”.
It was in 1767, just a few decades later, that the first solar collector was invented, built by
Horace de Saussure, a Swiss scientist. This collector was used to heat food, and was used
by Sir John Herschel in the 1830s, during his expedition in South Africa. There continued to
be a variety of research and investigation in regards to solar energy during this time, all
providing more information that would serve useful in years to come. It was in the late 19th
century that passive solar energy began appearing more often and in more noteworthy
means. In 1880, theories surrounding solar houses began to appear, and it was in Salem,
Massachusetts that the idea of a glazed, south-facing wall, as well as incorporating the
requirements for air flow between the glazing and the wall first arose. Not only that, but
professor E.L. Morse was approved for a patent “for the combination of a dark colored
massive wall, an air space, glazing…and adjustable dampers by which the flow of air could
be controlled”.
A few years later, in 1896, the thermosyphon water heater was invented, the oldest and
most widely used passive solar device in the world, which was utilized in World War I in
Southern California to provide hot water to army camps. Many other southern states
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adopted this technology, as well as Japan and Australia, but the extension of natural gas
lines and the cheap availability of electricity resulted in a nearly complete elimination of its
use. However, due to increased prices in other energy sources for providing hot water, this
device and its “active but similar offspring," and the forced circulation solar water heater, are
beginning to be used more[9]. These new developments provided more information, but
also created specific ways that passive solar energy could be implemented into people’s
daily lives. For example, a home built in Massachusetts was one of the greatest steps in
passive solar design during the last few centuries, providing a concrete and successful use
of passive solar energy. Overall, the 1800s provided more research in solar energy than
perhaps any other time in history. However, the following centuries resulted in a greater
diversification of the applications and uses of solar energy.
BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN
Bioclimatic design is based on analysis of the climate, including ambient energy of sun,
wind, temperature and humidity. Bioclimatic design utilizes passive and ambient energy
sources to achieve human comfort through building design and construction, including
heating, cooling and day lighting techniques. Derived from regional and local conditions and
opportunities, bioclimatic analysis and design provide both a knowledge base and an
inspiration for architecture and sustainable design. A present day challenge is
climate change, which portends to increase the severity and period of warming, or
overheated, conditions. Climate and weather uncertainty and warming trends should be
anticipated in building design to be adaptive by a balance of techniques for heating and for
cooling.
The challenge to reduce and eliminate where possible the use of fossil fuels for carbon
reduction further supports the passive design strategies of bioclimatic design, for its
combined advantages of comfort and health, environmental well-being, and resilience to
extreme weather. The enlargement of bioclimatic design to design for resilience is a
necessary response to the increased severity of natural disaster. The science of building
and urban climatology can fully inform steps to remediate flooding and other risks, so that
the natural ecology of regions is returned to its role in moderating extremes and sustaining
the diversity of species.
Overview Bioclimatic design had been part of practical knowledge of indigenous building
throughout historical periods, including early modern architecture. When air-conditioning
systems became widely available at the end of the 1950s, interest in bioclimatic design
became less evident in professional and popular literature and in built work.
With emergence of global environmental concerns of the 1990s—recognizing that energy

conservation has “cascading” effects and benefits in reducing pollution and in mitigating
global warming—the scope of bioclimatic design was enlarged to include landscape, water,
and waste nutrient recovery. Some bioclimatic design techniques—earth sheltering is an
example—can contribute to comfort and reduce both heating and cooling loads year-round.
Other techniques are useful only part of the year.
The effectiveness of passive solar heating, for example, is very specific to the need for
heating and otherwise needs to be tempered by sun shading and thermal mass. Natural
ventilation can provide comfort in all seasons, especially in summer when it can reduce or
eliminate the need for air conditioning in some climates. All buildings experience
interruptions of conventional energy availability, often coincident with weather extremes and
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natural disasters. A precautionary approach to design is to provide bioclimatic means to

insure subsistence levels of heating, cooling, and day lighting for comfort, health and safety
in case all power sources are interrupted.
For the longer term, in which conventional energy shortages and emergencies are
unpredictable, buildings without natural heating, cooling and lighting impose serious
liabilities on occupants and owners.
PRINCIPLES OF BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN
Bioclimatic design strategies are effective for “envelope-dominated” structures—such as

homes and one- or two-story facilities—to provide a large portion if not all of the energy
required to maintain comfort conditions. “Internal load dominated” buildings—such as
hospitals, offices, commercial kitchens, windowless stores—experience high internal gains
imposed by the heat of occupancy, lights, and equipment. In such cases, the external
climatic conditions may have less influence on achieving comfort and low energy utilization.
However, as internal loads are reduced through energy-efficient design—such as low-

wattage lighting, energy-efficient equipment, occupancy scheduling and zoning—the effects
of climate become more obvious and immediate. All buildings can benefit from available
day lighting, but large glazed areas require careful shading control, glazing selection, and
possibly night insulation.
The “resources” of bioclimatic design are the natural flows of energy in and around a
building—created by the interaction of sun, wind, precipitation, vegetation, temperature and
humidity in the air and in the ground. In some instances, this “ambient energy” is useful
immediately or can be stored for later use. There are definable “pathways” by which heat is
gained or lost between the interior and the external climate in terms of the classic
definitions of heating energy transfer mechanics.
From these, the resulting bioclimatic design strategies can be defined. (Figure 1 and Table
1)
• Conduction—from hotter object to cooler object by direct contact.
• Convection—by flow of air between warmer objects and cooler objects.
• Radiation—from hotter object to cooler object within the direct view of each other
regardless of the temperature of air between, including radiation from sun to
earth.
• Evaporation—the change of phase from liquid to gaseous state: The sensible
heat (dry bulb temperature) in the air is lowered by the latent heat absorbed from
air when moisture is evaporated.
• Thermal storage—from heat charge and discharge both diurnally and seasonally,
as a function of its specific heat, mass, and conductivity. Although not usually
listed alongside the four classic means of heat transport, this role of thermal
storage is helpful in understanding the heat transfer physics of building
climatology.
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Figure 1. Paths of energy exchange at the building microclimate scale.
Table 1: Strategies of bioclimatic design
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BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN STRATEGIES

In winter (or under heated periods), the objectives of bioclimatic design are to resist loss of
heat from the building envelope and to promote gain of solar heat. In summer (or
overheated periods), these objectives are the reverse, to resist solar gain and to promote
loss of heat from the building interior.
The strategies can be set forth as:

• Minimize conductive heat flow. This strategy is achieved by using insulation. It is effective
when the outdoor temperature is significantly different, either lower or higher, than the
interior comfort range. In summer, this strategy should be considered whenever ambient
temperatures are within or above the comfort range and where natural cooling strategies
cannot be relied upon to achieve comfort.
• Delay periodic heat flow. While the insulation value of building materials is well
understood, it is not as widely appreciated that building envelope materials also can delay
heat flows that can be used to improve comfort and to lower energy costs. Time lag through
masonry walls, for example, can delay the day’s thermal impact until evening and is a
particularly valuable technique in hot arid climates with wide day-night temperature
variations. Techniques of earth sheltering and berming also exploit the long-lag effect of
subsurface construction.
• Minimize infiltration. “Infiltration” refers to uncontrolled air leakage around doors and
windows and through joints, cracks, and faulty seals in the building envelope. Infiltration
(and the resulting “exfiltration” of heated or cooled air) is considered the largest and
potentially the most intractable source of energy loss in a building, once other practical
insulation measures have been taken.
• Provide thermal storage. Thermal mass inside of the insulated envelope is critical to
dampening the swings in air temperature and in storing heat in winter and as a heat sink in
summer.
• Promote solar gain. The sun can provide a substantial portion of winter heating energy
through elements such as equatorial-facing windows and greenhouses, and other passive
solar techniques which use spaces to collect, store, and transfer solar heat.
• Minimize external air flow. Winter winds increase the rate of heat loss from a building by
“washing away” heat and thus accelerating the cooling of the exterior envelope surfaces by
conduction, and also by increasing infiltration (or more properly, exfiltration) losses. Sitting
and shaping a building to minimize wind exposure or providing windbreaks can reduce the
impact of such winds.
• Promote ventilation. Cooling by air flow through an interior may be propelled by two
natural processes, cross-ventilation (wind driven) and stack-effect ventilation (driven by the
buoyancy of heated air even in the absence of external wind pressure). A fan (using
photovoltaic for fan power) can be an efficient way to augment natural ventilation cooling in
the absence of sufficient wind or stack-pressure differential.
• Minimize solar gain. The best means for ensuring comfort from the heat of summer is to
minimize the effects of the direct sun by shading windows from the sun, or otherwise
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minimizing the building surfaces exposed to summer sun, by use of radiant barriers, and by
insulation.
• Promote radiant cooling. A building can lose heat effectively if the mean radiant
temperature of the materials at its outer surface is greater than that of its surroundings,
principally the night sky. The mean radiant temperature of the building surface is
determined by the intensity of solar irradiation, the material surface (film coefficient) and by
the emissivity of its exterior surface (its ability to “emit” or re-radiate heat). This contributes
only marginally, if the building envelope is well insulated.
• Promote evaporative cooling. Sensible cooling of a building interior can be achieved by

evaporating moisture into the incoming air stream (or, if an existing roof has little insulation,
by evaporative cooling the exterior envelope such as by a roof spray.)
These simple and traditional techniques are most useful in hot-dry climates if water is
available for controlled usage. Mechanically assisted evaporative cooling is achieved with
an economizer-cycle evaporative cooling system, instead of, or in conjunction with,
refrigerant air conditioning.
BIOCLIMATIC ANALYSIS
Analysis of climatic data is a first step in bioclimatic design. Preliminary design direction and
rules of thumb can be determined by graphing bioclimatic data. While the method can be
done by hand, computer-assisted methods allow this approach to be increasingly accurate.
Humans are comfortable within a relatively small range of temperature and humidity
conditions, roughly between 68-80F (20-26.7°C) and 20-80% relative humidity (RH),
referred to on psychometric charts as the “comfort zone.”
These provide a partial description of conditions required for comfort. Other variables
include radiant temperature and rate of airflow, as well as clothing and activity (metabolic
rate).
Such criteria describe relatively universal requirements in which all humans are
“comfortable.” There are significant differences in and varying tolerance for discomfort
under conditions in which stress is felt, depending upon age, sex, health, cultural
conditioning and expectations. Givoni and Milne and Givoni proposed a design method
using the Building Bioclimatic Chart, modified by Arens. (Figure 2)
The chart adopts the psychometric format, overlaying it with parameters for the appropriate
bioclimatic design techniques to create human comfort in a building interior. If local outdoor
temperatures and humidity fall within specified zones, the designer is alerted to
opportunities to use specific bioclimatic design strategies to create effective interior comfort.
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Figure 2. Building Bioclimatic Chart, indicating parameters for bioclimatic design strategies.
Based on Givoni, 1976 and Arens, 1986.
Computer-based simulation and energy design tools make it possible to utilize site-specific
hourly weather data to analyze data for bioclimatic design. This makes it possible to
compare bioclimatic design strategies for a given climate, comparing a proposed design
with a “base case.” The base case is the same building without a proposed design feature,
such as south-facing glass, added insulation, shading, ventilation, and thermal mass, and
so forth.
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Q. No. 2: What are the microclimatic factors that affect the site planning?
Develop a site design guideline for a commercial building in your region that
improves the microclimate of your site? (20 Marks)
Answer)
MICROCLIMATE:
Microclimate, any climatic condition in a relatively small area, within a few metres or less
above and below the Earth’s surface and within canopies of vegetation. The term usually
applies to the surfaces of terrestrial and glaciated environments, but it could also pertain to
the surfaces of oceans and other bodies of water.
The strongest gradients of temperature and humidity occur just above and below the
terrestrial surface. Complexities of microclimate are necessary for the existence of a variety
of life forms because, although any single species may tolerate only a limited range
of climate, strongly contrasting microclimates in close proximity provide a
total environment in which many species of flora and fauna can coexist and interact.
The microclimates of a region are defined by the moisture, temperature, and winds of the
atmosphere near the ground, the vegetation, soil, and the latitude, elevation, and season.
Weather is also influenced by microclimatic conditions. Wet ground, for example, promotes
evaporation and increases atmospheric humidity.
The drying of bare soil, on the other hand, creates a surface crust that inhibits ground
moisture from diffusing upward, which promotes the persistence of the dry atmosphere.
Microclimates control evaporation and transpiration from surfaces and influence
precipitation, and so are important to the hydrologic cycle—i.e., the processes involved in
the circulation of the Earth’s waters.
Factors That Affect Microclimate of a site

Across a permaculture site, there are few things that are uniform. With biodiversity and the
maximization of edge key principles in permaculture gardening, you site is unlikely to look
very uniform, not to mention that each individual plant grows in its own unique way. But
also, your site is unlikely to feel uniform. Across a single location, there can be a significant
number of different microclimates. These microclimates have different atmospheric
conditions from the areas they are next to, with variations in temperature, light and water all
likely to be present.
The good news is that once you understand how different factors affect microclimates, you
can modify those factors through your design to create, change and improve the
microclimates on your property.
There are five main factors that affect microclimates.
 Topography
The shape of the land is a significant influence on microclimates. While on a large scale,
weather systems have a certain predictability (related to the rotation of the earth and the
interplay between ocean and land), these patterns can get disrupted at the local level by
topographical features such as aspect and slope.
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Aspect refers to the direction that a slope faces. This will determine how much solar
radiation it receives, which in turn impacts upon temperature and shading. In the northern
hemisphere south-facing slopes are exposed to more direct sunlight than opposite slopes,
as are north-facing slopes in the southern hemisphere.
This will cast longer shadows on the opposite side of the slope, which must be taken into
account when deciding which species of plant to place there. (This is also the case on
flatter ground where trees, hedges, fences and walls cast shadows.) Even small dips and
indentations on your property can affect the microclimate, as they can form collection points
for cold air and as a result sometimes form frost pockets.
The angle of slope on a geological feature is a major factor in determining the influence of
wind and water on a site. The steeper the slope the faster wind will move uphill. This can
impact not only on vegetation on the windward side, but also cause increased turbulence
on the leeward slope as the wind falls back down on the other side of the slope. The
appropriate placement of windbreaks can help to alleviate these effects, while if you do
have steep slopes on your site that create a lot of wind, you may wish to investigate
harnessing this energy with turbines.
In terms of water, a steeper slope means that water runs off the slope more quickly,
meaning not only that it has less time to percolate into the soil and so be made available to
plants growing there, but also is more likely to cause erosion of the soil on the slope,
particularly in areas of heavy rainfall. Furthermore, the position of your property in the
landscape will affect temperature, with locations higher above sea level being colder than
those lower down.
 Soil
The composition of the soil affects microclimates primarily through how much water it
retains or which evaporates from it. A soil that has a large proportion of clay retains more
moisture than one that is predominantly sand. The degree to which a soil retains moisture
affects the humidity and temperature of the air above it. After heavy rains, the soil can
contain a lot of water and modify microclimates much like a body of water such as a lake.
Besides the mineral composition of the soil, the degree of coverage it has will affect
temperature and moisture evaporation. Bare soils reflect more light and heat than those
covered by plants or mulch.
 Water
It is not just the moisture level within the soil that can affect a microclimate, the water stored
on the surface of the land is also important. Over a region, the presence of lakes and
reservoirs can create a more moderate climate, while ponds, streams and other bodies of
water on your site will impact upon the temperature of the surrounding areas in your
garden. These effects are due to the fact that water gains and loses heat more slowly than
the land.
The water body also sends moisture into the air through evaporation. This atmospheric
moisture captures heat from the sun, making the air around a pond warmer than areas
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further away. The moisture in the air around ponds can also influence the plants your place
there, with species favoring a more humid microclimate likely to thrive.
 Vegetation
The vegetation on a permaculture site interacts with the soil and water to affect the
microclimate. Not only does it cover the soil and prevent heat loss and radiation from it, it
also regulates the temperature of the soil, filters dust and other particles from the air, and
can act as a windbreak or suntrap.
Vegetation is naturally adapted to make the most of its climate of origin. So, for instance,
plants that originate in tropical areas tend to have broad, dark leaves that allow for the
maximum absorption of sunlight, and the effective transpiration of moisture back into the air
– which will in turn influence the microclimate in the immediate vicinity. Use native plants in
your permaculture design to make the most of these adaptations.
 Artificial Structures
Your house can impact upon microclimates by absorbing heat during the day and releasing
it at night, by deflecting wind and creating sheltered spots, and reflecting sunlight. But other
artificial structures can also play a part in modifying microclimates. For instance, patios and
other paved surfaces like driveways moderate temperature by absorbing and releasing
heat, while fences and walls can give plants protection from wind, shade and shelter from
wind. Even rocks in the garden will have an impact by storing and releasing heat. You can
judiciously place rocks to modify microclimates.
Microclimates are dynamic things. As your site changes through maturation of planting,
siting of artificial structures, and even contouring of the land, so the microclimates will alter.
The good thing is that you can directly influence how this happens by your design choices,
and so make the maximum use of every microclimate niche on your property.
IMPACT OF RAPID URBANIZATION ON MICROCLIMATE OF URBAN AREAS OF

PAKISTAN
Urbanization is the process by which a large number of people become permanently

concentrated in relatively small areas, forming cities. A country is called more urbanized as
its cities grow in number, its urban population increases in size, and the proportion of its
population living in urban areas rises.
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Rapid urbanization can be determined as rapid increase in the number of urban dwellers
who need civic amenities at the cost of social, economic, and environmental degradations.
It has been hypothesized that climate change and urbanization may cause shifts in
hydrological, geomorphologic, and thermal characteristics of various ecosystems which
consequently may induce undesirable effects (Nelson et al. 2009). The concentrations of
unplanned growth in cities are generally overwhelmed by problems such as the
deterioration of infrastructure and subsequently pose immense environmental problems. As
a consequence, far-reaching impacts are expected on streams due to altering temperature
and runoff regimes, increasing the frequency and intensity of droughts and floods in other
areas (Milly et al. 2005; Alcamo et al. 2007).
Anticipating the combined environmental impacts of anthropogenic changes due to

urbanization is critical to develop proactive strategies for protecting ecosystems and the
services they provide (Clark et al. 2001; Walsh et al. 2005; Palmer et al. 2008a, b). As a
direct result of urbanization, great threat to health and safety in cities comes from water and
air pollution. Uncollected and improperly handled solid waste can have serious health
consequences. Natural land areas like forests and wetlands are fast transforming into
urbanized areas wide across the globe. Regional or microclimatic changes in large cities
from their surroundings are now more noticeable to the scientists (Ichimura 2003). The
populations of cities in the developing world have been growing rapidly. The rapid growth of
cities is a widespread and continuous demographic phenomenon in most of the developing
nations including Pakistan. Both the natural increase (population growth) and net migration
are the major contributory factors to urban growth. The urban sprawl in Pakistan is mainly
dominated by the natural increase; however, internal migration cannot be overlooked. In
addition, there is concentration of urban population in the large cities. Seven largest cities of
the country (Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Multan, Hyderabad, and Gujranwala)
had a population greater than one million in 1998; moreover, the total urban population of
these cities increased from 40 % in 1981 to 50 % in 1998 (Arif and Hamid 2009). Migration
has played a major role in the rapid growth of these large cities.
Poverty in Pakistan is largely a rural phenomenon at present, and lack of a stable source of
income, landlessness, skewed distribution of land, droughts, and low human capital are the
main causes of rural poverty. More than half of the rural households in Pakistan are
landless (Haider 2006; World Bank 2006). Thus, rural to urban migration has a very close
association with economic transformation and with the transfer of the country’s labor force
from agriculture to non-agriculture (Memon and Rashid 2006). Its contribution in the growth
of cities is beyond any doubt. Urban growth in Pakistan has not limited itself to the seven
urban agglomerations mentioned above. Medium- and smallsized cities, which are many in
numbers, have grown even at a higher rate. Because of the rapid growth of cities (small,
medium, and large), half of the total population of Pakistan is projected to live in urban
areas by 2030 (Arif and Hamid 2009).
The urbanization in Pakistan is likely to pose new challenges in governance and urban
service delivery and mainly compounded environmental issues. The current appalling state
of most urban centers coupled with environmental concerns may worsen with time if
correction measures are not adopted in a systematic manner (Haider 2006). It is widely
accepted that economic activities and urbanization go hand in hand; however, the impact of
urbanization on climate change has adverse effects and is yet to be acknowledged by
many. Urbanization is an extreme way that human activities have changed the land cover
according to their needs and desire. Urbanization shapes the urban canopy, modifies the
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radiation, develops layers of buildings, changes the local land cover and thermal and
dynamic characteristics of the underlying surface, and transforms the land cover in the
urban area, making it quite different from surrounding areas.
The conversion of rural land to urban also results in statistically significant changes in
precipitation, near surface humidity, and wind speed in urbanized regions. Urbanization
replaces the natural land surface with a built-up surface that has little available soil moisture
and may cause an “urban dry island” over the urbanized area. Therefore, it is necessary to
study the impacts of rapid urbanization on microclimate to make the public aware about its
consequences.
The main factors that can be discussed are as follows;

(i) To analyze the urbanization trend in a city,
(ii) To analyze the microclimate (temperature and rainfall trends) of the same region, and
(iii) To evaluate the association of microclimatic change to rapid urbanization.
Material and methods

Projected area (the study map should be included with the DEM and location of the weather
station, etc.) The focus area for study was Abbottabad City (Figs. 1), located in the southern
foothills of Himalaya in northern Pakistan. Abbottabad City is situated between 34° 09′ N
and 73°13′ E, the headquarters of Hazara Division.
It is situated at a mean elevation of 1,225 m above sea level (AMSL) along the Karakoram
Highway (KKH) formerly known as the Silk Route to China, 120 km north of Islamabad (the
capital of Pakistan).
Fig. 1 Location of Abbotabad
Climatic features
A comprehensive climatic face of Abbottabad can be judged through mean temperatures
and precipitation, which was observed at the Kakul Weather Station (Abbottabad) during
1991–2010 (Table 1). The average maximum temperature is 22.76 °C while the minimum
temperature is 11.41 °C. Annually, the total precipitation is 1,366.18 mm, with an average of
113.84 mm per month.
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Data sets
 Population
Urbanization on the basis of population was used as the criterion in this study. Quantitative
secondary data of population were used in this study. The population data of this area were
obtained from the census of Pakistan from 1951 to 1998. However, the projected population
was depicted through analysis in this study based on official figures and ensuing growth
rates.
 Temperature
Temperature data sets are considered as the mainstay for the analysis of climate
change. The 50 years of data records of maximum temperature (TMax), minimum
temperature (TMin), and mean temperatures (TMean) were obtained from the Pakistan
Meteorological Department, Lahore, for the climate station of Kakul. The temperature
data were harmonized and utilized for subsequent treatment. The temperature data
obtained were based on mean monthly air temperatures for 12 months of each year.
The measurement method remained unchanged from 1961 to 2010.
 Rainfall
The data records of rainfall (RFall) were obtained for 50 years (1961–2010), measured at
Kakul. The rainfall has been the dominant factor to regulate the climate of the area. RFall
data were based on monthly total rain in millimeters (mm) for each year. Kakul and
surrounding areas experience four distinct seasons, insofar as the RFall is considered:
winter (December–January), pre-monsoon (March–May), monsoon (June– September),
and post-monsoon (October–November) (Ghaffar and Javid 2011). Generally, a set pattern
of RFall was observed in the area. The data of RFall were harmonized and subjected to
further analysis. Variations in RFall were assessed with the help of these data. Seasonal
and overall trend analysis was carried out for RFall data.
Digital elevation model of Abbotabad
16
The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER), Global
Digital Elevation Model (GDEM) was used to analyze the elevation change in the study
area. The GDEM for Abbottabad district was extracted from the original scene by using the
administrational boundary shape file. The ASTER GDEM based on ASTER images is
available for high-latitude and steep mountainous areas not covered by SRTM3 (METI
2009). The GDEM of Abbottabad with contour lines, slope (in degrees), and location of the
surrounding climate stations is presented in Fig. 2.
Methodology
The analysis was carried out through single urban parameterization to stimulate effects of
urbanization on the microclimate (especially temperature and RFall) of the city. The nearest
weather stations around Abbottabad are Balakot in the north, Garhi Dupatta (Muzaffarabad)
in the east, and Murree (Fig. 2) that is located slightly in the southeast direction. The radius
of these stations is between 20 and 30mi; therefore, this approach was observed to
determine the influence of the regional climate of this area.
In
order to get a comprehensive understanding, the analysis was carried out in two phases, as
follows:
(1) The trend analysis of population: This trend was analyzed based on different
censuses (1951–1998) in Pakistan. The trend analysis of population increase helped to
understand the climatic change in the context of decadal statistics.
(2) The climatic data trend analysis: The climatic data of Abbotabad for the last 50 years
(1961–2010) were used for TMean in winters and summers. In order to see the
interdecadal variability of temperature during summer and winter, the warmest and the
coldest decades were highlighted. The contribution of urban warming to the total annual
TMean was assessed in percentage. The statistical analysis of RFall was carried out to
assess the trend of RFall in either cases of decrease or increase. Being located within the
active monsoon zone, the study area was classified into four seasons based upon the
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annual RFall: winter (December–February), premonsoon (March–May), monsoon (June–

September), and post-monsoon (October–November). The impact in terms of any change
in RFall was evaluated while keeping in view the abovementioned seasons, and statistically
significant changes in RFall were highlighted. The decadal RFall statistics in terms of
decadal means were depicted and the trend was highlighted. The analyses were
quantitative in description, and for the most part, correlation techniques and trend analysis
were used for various physical factors of climate.
Conclusion
Investigating the influence of urbanization on the microclimate of any city or urbanized area
is a complex procedure as many effects are intertwined in the creation of climatic change.
The present study has made an endeavor to provide evidence that there is a relationship
between urbanization and microclimatic change in terms of TMean and RFall at different
periods of time. The climatic condition of Abbottabad is a mainstay for dwelling and
economic activities of the people. The city region and adjoining areas need better prediction
about temperature and RFall not only to fulfill their needs depending on nature but also to
take proactive measures in order to avoid drastic climatic and environmental change in the
near future.
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Q. No. 3: What are the factors that affect thermal comfort? How radiation,
convection and evaporation effect the human body? (15 Marks)
Answer)
THERMAL COMFORT:
Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55).
The human body can be viewed as a heat engine where food is the input energy. The
human body will generate excess heat into the environment, so the body can continue to
operate. The heat transfer is proportional to temperature difference. In cold environments,
the body loses more heat to the environment and in hot environments the body does not
exert enough heat. Both the hot and cold scenarios lead to discomfort.
Maintaining this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures
is one of the important goals of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design
engineers. Most people will feel comfortable at room temperature, colloquially a range of
temperatures around 20 to 22 °C (68 to 72 °F),[ but this may vary greatly between
individuals and depending on factors such as activity level, clothing, and humidity.
Thermal neutrality is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed
to dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. The main factors
that influence thermal comfort are those that determine heat gain and loss,
namely metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air
speed and relative humidity. Psychological parameters, such as individual expectations,
also affect thermal comfort.
Influencing factors
Since there are large variations from person to person in terms

of physiological and psychological satisfaction, it is hard to find an optimal temperature for
everyone in a given space. Laboratory and field data have been collected to define
conditions that will be found comfortable for a specified percentage of occupants.
There are six primary factors that directly affect thermal comfort that can be grouped in two
categories: personal factors - because they are characteristics of the occupants -
and environmental factors - which are conditions of the thermal environment. The former
are metabolic rate and clothing level, the latter are air temperature, mean radiant
temperature, air speed and humidity. Even if all these factors may vary with time, standards
usually refer to a steady state to study thermal comfort, just allowing limited temperature
variations.
Metabolic rate
People have different metabolic rates that can fluctuate due to activity level and
environmental conditions. The ASHRAE 55-2010 Standard defines metabolic rate as the
level of transformation of chemical energy into heat and mechanical work by metabolic
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activities within an organism, usually expressed in terms of unit area of the total body
surface. Metabolic rate is expressed in met units, which are defined as follows:
1 met = 58.2 W/m² (18.4 Btu/h·ft²), which is equal to the energy produced per unit surface
area of an average person seated at rest. The surface area of an average person is 1.8 m²
(19 ft²).
ASHRAE Standard 55 provides a table of met rates for a variety of activities. Some
common values are 0.7 met for sleeping, 1.0 met for a seated and quiet position, 1.2-1.4
met for light activities standing, 2.0 met or more for activities that involve movement,
walking, lifting heavy loads or operating machinery. For intermittent activity, the Standard
states that is permissible to use a time-weighted average metabolic rate if individuals are
performing activities that vary over a period of one hour or less. For longer periods, different
metabolic rates must be considered.
According to ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, estimating metabolic rates is complex,

and for levels above 2 or 3 met – especially if there are various ways of performing such
activities – the accuracy is low. Therefore, the Standard is not applicable for activities with
an average level higher than 2 met. Met values can also be determined more accurately
than the tabulated ones, using an empirical equation that takes into account the rate of
respiratory oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. Another physiological yet
less accurate method is related to the heart rate, since there is a relationship between the
latter and oxygen production.
The Compendium of Physical Activities is used by physicians to record physical activities. It

has a different definition of met that is the ratio of the metabolic rate of the activity in
question to a resting metabolic rate. As the formulation of the concept is different from the
one that ASHRAE uses, these met values cannot be used directly in PMV calculations, but
it opens up a new way of quantifying physical activities.
Food and drink habits may have an influence on metabolic rates, which indirectly influences
thermal preferences. These effects may change depending on food and drink intake. Body
shape is another factor that affects thermal comfort. Heat dissipation depends on body
surface area. A tall and skinny person has a larger surface-to-volume ratio, can dissipate
heat more easily, and can tolerate higher temperatures more than a person with a rounded
body shape.
Clothing insulation
The amount of thermal insulation worn by a person has a substantial impact on thermal
comfort, because it influences the heat loss and consequently the thermal balance. Layers
of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and can either help keep a person warm or lead to
overheating. Generally, the thicker the garment is, the greater insulating ability it has.
Depending on the type of material the clothing is made out of, air movement and relative
humidity can decrease the insulating ability of the material.
Air temperature
The air temperature is the average temperature of the air surrounding the occupant, with
respect to location and time. According to ASHRAE 55 standard, the spatial average takes
20
into account the ankle, waist and head levels, which vary for seated or standing occupants.
The temporal average is based on three-minute intervals with at least 18 equally spaced
points in time. Air temperature is measured with a dry-bulb thermometer and for this reason
it is also known as dry-bulb temperature.
Mean radiant temperature
The radiant temperature is related to the amount of radiant heat transferred from a surface,
and it depends on the material’s ability to absorb or emit heat, or its emissivity. The mean
radiant temperature depends on the temperatures and emissivities of the surrounding
surfaces as well as the view factor, or the amount of the surface that is “seen” by the object.
So the mean radiant temperature experienced by a person in a room with the sunlight
streaming in varies based on how much of his/her body is in the sun.
Air speed
air speed is defined as the rate of air movement at a point, without regard to direction.
According to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55, it is the average speed of the air to which the
body is exposed, with respect to location and time.
The temporal average is the same as the air temperature, while the spatial average is
based on the assumption that the body is exposed to a uniform air speed, according to the
SET thermo-physiological model. However, some spaces might provide strongly
nonuniform air velocity fields and consequent skin heat losses that cannot be considered
uniform. Therefore, the designer shall decide the proper averaging, especially including air
speeds incident on unclothed body parts, that have greater cooling effect and potential for
local discomfort.
Relative humidity
Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air to the amount of
water vapor that the air could hold at the specific temperature and pressure. While the
human body has sensors within the skin that are fairly efficient at feeling heat and cold,
relative humidity is detected indirectly. Sweating is an effective heat loss mechanism that
relies on evaporation from the skin. However at high RH, the air has close to the maximum
water vapor that it can hold, so evaporation, and therefore heat loss, is decreased.
On the other hand, very dry environments (RH < 20-30%) are also uncomfortable because
of their effect on the mucous membranes. The recommended level of indoor humidity is in
the range of 30-60% in air conditioned buildings, but new standards such as the adaptive
model allow lower and higher humidities, depending on the other factors involved in thermal
comfort.
Recently, the effects of low relative humidity and high air velocity were tested on humans
after bathing. Researchers found that low relative humidity engendered thermal discomfort
as well as the sensation of dryness and itching. It is recommended to keep relative humidity
levels higher in a bathroom than other rooms in the house for optimal conditions.
Interplay of temperature and humidity

Various types of apparent temperature have been developed to combine air temperature
and air humidity. For higher temperatures, there are quantitative scales, such as the heat
index. For lower temperatures, a related interplay was identified only qualitatively:
21
High humidity and low temperatures cause the air to feel chilly. Cold air with high relative
humidity "feels" colder than dry air of the same temperature because high humidity in cold
weather increases the conduction of heat from the body.
There has been controversy over why damp cold air feels colder than dry cold air. Some
believe it is because when the humidity is high, our skin and clothing become moist and are
better conductors of heat, so there is more cooling by conduction.
Natural ventilation
Many buildings use an HVAC unit to control their thermal environment. Other buildings
are naturally ventilated and do not rely on mechanical systems to provide thermal comfort.
Depending on the climate, this can drastically reduce energy consumption. It is sometimes
seen as a risk, though, since indoor temperatures can be too extreme if the building is
poorly designed. Properly designed, naturally ventilated buildings keep indoor conditions
within the range where opening windows and using fans in the summer, and wearing extra
clothing in the winter, can keep people thermally comfortable.
Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort of human body

Personal
1. Activity level
2. Clothing
Individual Characteristics
3. Expectation
Environmental Conditions and Architectural Effects
4. Air temperature
5. Radiant temperature
6. Humidity
7. Air speed
1. Activity Level
The human body continuously produces heat through a process call “metabolism.” This
heat must be emitted from the body to maintain a fairly constant core temperature, and
ideally, a comfortable skin temperature. We produce heat at a minimum rate when asleep.
As activity increases, from sitting to walking to running, so the metabolic heat produced
increases.
The standard measure of activity level is the “met.” One met is the metabolic rate (heat
output per unit area of skin) for an individual who is seated and at rest. Typical activity
levels and the corresponding met values are shown below.
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2. Clothing
In occupied spaces, clothing acts as an insulator, slowing the heat loss from the body. As
you know from experience, if you are wearing clothing that is an effective insulator, you can
withstand, and feel comfortable in lower temperatures.
To predict thermal comfort we must have an idea of the clothing that will be worn by the
occupants.
Due to the large variety of materials, weights, and weave of fabrics, clothing estimates are
just rough estimates. Each article has an insulating value, unit “clo.” For example: a long-
sleeved sweat shirt is 0.34 clo, straight trousers (thin) are 0.15 clo, light underwear is 0.04
clo, ankle-length athletic socks are 0.02 clo, and sandals are 0.02 clo. These clo values can
be added to give an overall clothing insulation value. In this case, the preceding set of
clothes has an overall clothing insulation value of 0.57 clo.
Typical values for clothing ensembles are shown in Figure 3.2. All include shoes, socks,
and light underwear.
3. Occupants’ Expectations
People’s expectations affect their perception of comfort in a building. Consider the following
three scenarios that all occur on a very hot day:
 A person walks into an air-conditioned office building. The person expects the
building to be thermally comfortable.
 A person walks into a prestigious hotel. The person expects it to be cool, regardless
of the outside temperature.
 A person walks into an economical apartment building with obvious natural
ventilation and open windows. The person has lower expectations for a cool
environment. The person anticipates, even hopes, that it will be cooler inside, but not
to the same extent as the air-conditioned office building or the hotel.
Standard 55 recognizes that the expectations for thermal comfort are significantly different
in buildings where the occupants control opening windows, as compared to a mechanically
cooled building. To address this difference, Standard 55 provides different criteria for
naturally ventilated buildings, as compared to the criteria for mechanically cooled, air-
conditioned buildings.
This difference in expectations also shows up in buildings where occupants have a

thermostat to control their zone. In general, if occupants have a thermostat in their space,
they are more satisfied with their space, even when the performance of the thermostat is
very restricted or non-existent (dummy thermostat).
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4. Air Temperature
When we are referring to air temperature in the context of thermal comfort, we are talking
about the temperature in the space where the person is located. This temperature can vary
from head to toe and can vary with time.
5. Radiant Temperature
Radiant heat is heat that is transmitted from a hotter body to a cooler body with no effect
on the intervening space. An example of radiant heat transfer occurs when the sun is
shining on you. The radiant temperature is the temperature at which a black sphere would
emit as much radiant heat as it received from its surroundings.
In an occupied space, the floor, walls and ceiling may be at a temperature that is very close
to the air temperature. For internal spaces, where the temperature of the walls, floor and
ceiling are almost the same as the air temperature, the radiant temperature will be constant
in all directions and virtually the same as the air temperature.
When a person is sitting close to a large window on a cold, cloudy, winter day, the average
radiant temperature may be significantly lower than the air temperature. Similarly, in spaces
with radiant floors or other forms of radiant heating, the average radiant temperature will be
above the air temperature during the heating season.
6. Humidity
Low humidity: We know that, for some people, low humidity can cause specific problems,
like dry skin, dry eyes and static electricity. However, low humidity does not generally cause
thermal discomfort. Standard 55 does not define minimum humidity as an issue of thermal
discomfort, nor does it address those individuals who have severe responses to low
humidity.
High humidity: Standard 55 does define the maximum humidity ratio for comfort at 0.012
lb/lb. This level of moisture in the air can also cause serious mold problems in the building
and to its contents, since it is equivalent to 100% relative humidity at 62°F.
7. Air Speed
The higher the air speed over a person’s body, the greater the cooling effect. Air velocity
that exceeds 40 feet per minute (fpm), or cool temperatures combined with any air
movement, may cause discomfort —a draft. Drafts are most noticeable when they blow
across the feet and/or the head level, because individuals tend to have less protection from
clothing in these areas of their body.
Convection
The body regulates temperature like a furnace. It is constantly producing heat and then
dispersing it through various processes. Heat can be lost through the processes of
conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation. Conduction is the process of losing heat
through physical contact with another object or body.
24
For example, if you were to sit on a metal chair, the heat from your body would transfer to
the cold metal chair. Convection is the process of losing heat through the movement of air
or water molecules across the skin. The use of a fan to cool off the body is one example of
convection. The amount of heat loss from convection is dependent upon the airflow or in
aquatic exercise, the water flow over the skin. Radiation is a form of heat loss through
infrared rays. This involves the transfer of heat from one object to another, with no physical
contact involved.
For example, the sun transfers heat to the earth through radiation. The last process of heat
loss is evaporation. Evaporation is the process of losing heat through the conversion of
water to gas (evaporation of sweat). The primary heat loss process for aqua enthusiasts is
convection, however, in an outdoor pool on hot day evaporation will also play a primary role
in heat loss.
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25
Q. No. 4: Describe the key design elements affecting the thermal performance of
passive solar buildings. (10 Marks)
Answer)
PASSIVE BUILDING DESIGN:
In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store,
reflect, and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in
the summer. This is called passive solar design because, unlike active solar
heating systems, it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.
The key to design a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the
local climate performing an accurate site analysis. Elements to be considered include
window placement and size, and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and
shading. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but
existing buildings can be adapted or "retrofitted".
Passive Solar Design - Basic Considerations
Top photo shows windows admitting morning solar gain in a nearly-balanced-energy

passive solar home in San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato, Mexico. The windows in this
east-facing room receive morning sunlight (when the home and air are cool, and is shaded
in the afternoon. This is a direct gain of passive solar energy.
The concrete and adobe walls form a significant thermal mass. Although the building has no
central heating, temperatures remain comfortable year round, with only modest use of a
small electric heater during the chilly months of December and January.
Passive solar illustration
The five elements of passive solar design:

 Passive solar aperture (admitting sunlight/solar energy)
 Passive solar energy control (seasonal needs)
 Passive solar heat/energy distribution through the building
 Passive solar absorber to surface absorption of energy for later release
 Passive solar thermal mass providing heat storage
26
Five Elements of Passive Solar Home Design

The following five elements constitute a complete passive solar home design. Each
performs a separate function, but all five must work together for the design to be
successful.
Aperture (Collector)
The large glass (window) area through which sunlight enters the building. Typically, the
aperture(s) should face within 30 degrees of true south and should not be shaded by other
buildings or trees from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. each day during the heating season.
Absorber
The hard, darkened surface of the storage element. This surface—which could be that of a
masonry wall, floor, or partition (phase change material), or that of a water container—sits
in the direct path of sunlight. Sunlight hits the surface and is absorbed as heat.
Thermal mass
The materials that retain or store the heat produced by sunlight. The difference between the
absorber and thermal mass, although they often form the same wall or floor, is that the
absorber is an exposed surface whereas thermal mass is the material below or behind that
surface.
Distribution
The method by which solar heat circulates from the collection and storage points to different
areas of the house. A strictly passive design will use the three natural heat transfer modes
— conduction, convection, and radiation—exclusively. In some applications, however, fans,
ducts, and blowers may help with the distribution of heat through the house.
Control
Roof overhangs can be used to shade the aperture area during summer months. Other
elements that control under- and/or overheating include electronic sensing devices, such as
a differential thermostat that signals a fan to turn on; operable vents and dampers that allow
or restrict heat flow; low-emissivity blinds ; and awnings.
How a Passive Solar Home Design Works
To understand how a passive solar home design works, you need to understand how heat
moves and how it can be stored.
27
As a fundamental law, heat moves from warmer materials to cooler ones until there is no
longer a temperature difference between the two. To distribute heat throughout the living
space, a passive solar home design makes use of this law through the following heat-
movement and heat-storage mechanisms:
 Conduction
Conduction is the way heat moves through materials, traveling from molecule to
molecule. Heat causes molecules close to the heat source to vibrate vigorously, and
these vibrations spread to neighboring molecules, thus transferring heat energy. For
example, a spoon placed into a hot cup of coffee conducts heat through its handle
and into the hand that grasps it.
 Convection
Convection is the way heat circulates through liquids and gases. Lighter, warmer
fluid rises, and cooler, denser fluid sinks. For instance, warm air rises because it is
lighter than cold air, which sinks. This is why warmer air accumulates on the second
floor of a house, while the basement stays cool. Some passive solar homes use air
convection to carry solar heat from a south wall into the building's interior.
 Radiation
Radiant heat moves through the air from warmer objects to cooler ones. There are
two types of radiation important to passive solar design: solar radiation and infrared
radiation. When radiation strikes an object, it is absorbed, reflected, or transmitted,
depending on certain properties of that object.
Opaque objects absorb 40%–95% of incoming solar radiation from the sun,
depending on their color—darker colors typically absorb a greater percentage than
lighter colors. This is why solar-absorber surfaces tend to be dark colored. Bright-
white materials or objects reflect 80%–98% of incoming solar energy.
Thermal capacitance
Thermal capacitance refers to the ability of materials to store heat. Thermal mass refers to
the materials that store heat. Thermal mass stores heat by changing its temperature, which
can be done by storing heat from a warm room or by converting direct solar radiation into
heat. The more thermal mass, the more heat can be stored for each degree rise in
temperature. Masonry materials, like concrete, stones, brick, and tile, are commonly used
as thermal mass in passive solar homes. Water also has been successfully used.
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Q. No. 5: What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct gain in

comparison with other passive solar systems? (10 Marks)
Answer)
COMPARE AND CONTRAST ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY:
Solar energy might be used for heating not only water, but space as well. There are two
types of solar-heating systems.
Active and Passive, which can also be combined. In general active systems are more
expensive and complex to be build, but for retrofitting a building active systems are the only
source of solar energy.
Passive solar space heating systems are based on special design features, like for
example very big windows from the south side and special materials used for floors and
walls for absorbing the warmth during the day and giving it out during the night (Baker,
2003). Very often passive solar systems are used for greenhouses.
There are three main types of passive solar systems: direct gain, indirect gain, an isolated
gain.
 The first one is the simplest, as it just stores and releases the energy for heating.
 The second one is also based on the usage of stored sun energy but by the material,
which is usually between the sun and the space for heating, for example walls.
 Finally the third type collects the sun energy, isolated from the living space, for
example in a separate room, then heated air naturally goes to the rest of the rooms.
In comparison to active solar systems, passive systems need much less costs for
maintenance and operating, certainly under the conditions of their constant
optimization for better performance.
Active solar heating systems are built with the help of collectors for absorption of solar
radiation and electric pumps for later distribution of the heat. The energy-storage systems
allow them to produce heat even when the sun is not shining.
There are two major types of active systems, based either on liquid or air heat transfer
medium in their collectors (Swartman, 2005). Air based systems are often used for heating
the water at homes during summertime.
Active solar systems have their advantages over the passive ones. Due to their pumps or
fans they have sufficiently higher solar savings, but as it was already mentioned these
systems are more expensive. There is also the so-called hybrid approache developed,
which allows to use photovoltaics for producing power for fans and pumps.
Pros and Cons of Direct Gain

Direct gain passive solar homes have many advantages and disadvantages compared to
other approaches. Historically, the first direct gain homes were often a complete mess,
because the designers had little understanding of the need to balance things like solar
29
glazing and thermal mass. Modern designs are much better, especially since analysis
software is now available to help make the tough decisions.
THE ADVANTAGES
 Direct gain passive solar homes are the easiest to implement.
 The basic approach is extremely simple: orient south, add windows, insulate and tweak.
 The gains in comfort and heating cost reduction are immediate.
 The designs have low environmental impact, especially if the greenest materials are
used.
 The direct gain requirements fit well into a multitude of architectural styles.
 Direct gain passive solar homes are aesthetically pleasing.
 Solar glazing can go on the front, sides or back of the house, whichever faces the sun.
 Passive solar homes tend to have light, airy interiors which are bright and cheerful.
 Direct gain designs get a lot of daylighting, reducing electrical bills and giving a pleasant
living and working environment.
 Direct gain homes with open plan designs can be smaller than traditional houses.
 The extra solar glazing often gives exceptional views of natural beauty.
 The reduced air infiltration in passive solar homes means they are never drafty.
 With appropriate thermal mass, solar homes are comfortable and warm, maintaining
stable temperatures throughout the year with little additional heating.
THE DISADVANTAGES
 Direct gain passive solar home designs are the easiest to completely mess up.
 The basic approach hides a lot of complexities and a great deal of careful balancing –
there's a lot you can get very wrong, very easily.
 Overglazing causes the home to overheat.
 Too little thermal mass also causes the home to overheat.
 Too much solar glazing can make the home very cold at night and on cloudy days.
30
 All the extra daylighting can cause serious glare issues unless care is taken to create
sun-free zones.
 The extra light can also cause furnishings to fade, though modern advances in UV
protection reduce the effect.
 The large amount of solar glazing can give rise to privacy problems unless the windows
are carefully shaded.
 The solar glazing can turn into a heat sink if it is not properly insulated, or if the insulated
shutters are a hassle to operate every night.
 House plants – particularly tropicals – can suffer badly with too much sun in winter and
not enough light in summer.
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Q. No. 6: Explain the concept of sunspace. What are the difference between an
indirect-gain and isolated gain sunspace system? Explain with the help of sketches.
(15 Marks)
Answer)
SUNSPACE
a room or area in a building having a glass roof and walls and intended to maximize the
power of the sun's rays.
A sunspace is a room which is designed to collect sunlight and heat. Sunspaces are also
known as solar rooms, solars, solariums, and sunrooms, and they are classically included
in the designs of homes, although commercial structures can have sunspaces as well.
Having a sunspace can cut down substantially on heating bills; it can also make a house
more enjoyable to live in and increase the resale price of a home, for people who are
concerned with property values.
People have been including sunspaces in architecture for centuries. Medieval solars, for
example, were used to collect sunlight and warmth to keep structures warm, and to create a
pleasant place for people to work. The sunspace is a natural outgrowth of the tradition of
designing homes which face the sun to collect maximum warmth and light. In the northern
hemisphere, sunspaces are typically located on the south side of a structure, so that they
will collect lots of sunlight over the course of the day, while structures in the southern
hemisphere have sunspaces on the north side.
32
A typical sunspace is glassed in, so that as much light as possible will flood the room. Some
have ceramic tile or concrete to increase the thermal mass of the room. Over the course of
the day, the flooring gathers warmth from the sun, and at night, it releases it, warming the
sunspace and the attached house. Sunspaces also have doors and windows for ventilation,
as they can become suffocatingly hot on warm days.
From an energy efficient design perspective, including a sunspace is a very good idea. The
structure can bring warmth and light into a house, cutting down on energy use. Solar panels
can be installed on the roofing over the sunspace to gather energy and cut down on heat
loss through the roof. Sunspaces can also be used to grow ornamental and edible plants,
with the structure acting as a greenhouse. The plants will scrub the air, making the house
feel fresher, and in the case of edible plants, they can be used to supplement an outdoor
garden and trips to the grocery store.
Passive Solar Design

Passive solar design refers to the use of the sun’s energy for the heating and cooling of
living spaces. In this approach, the building itself or some element of it takes advantage of
natural energy characteristics in materials and air created by exposure to the sun. Passive
systems are simple, have few moving parts, and require minimal maintenance and require
no mechanical systems.
Operable windows, thermal mass, and thermal chimneys are common elements found in
passive design. Operable windows are simply windows that can be opened. Thermal mass
refers to materials such as masonry and water that can store heat energy for extended
time. Thermal mass will prevent rapid temperature fluctuations. Thermal chimneys create or
reinforce the effect hot air rising to induce air movement for cooling purposes.
Wing walls are vertical exterior wall partitions placed perpendicular to adjoining windows to
enhance ventilation through windows.
Solar energy is a radiant heat source that causes natural processes upon which all life
depends. Some of the natural processes can be managed through building design in a
manner that helps heat and cool the building. The basic natural processes that are used in
passive solar energy are the thermal energy flows associated with radiation, conduction,
and natural convection. When sunlight strikes a building, the building materials can reflect,
transmit, or absorb the solar radiation. Additionally, the heat produced by the sun causes air
movement that can be predictable in designed spaces. These basic responses to solar heat
lead to design elements, material choices and placements that can provide heating and
cooling effects in a home.
Passive solar energy means that mechanical means are not employed to utilize solar
energy.
Passive solar systems rules of thumb

 The building should be elongated on an east-west axis.
 The building’s south face should receive sunlight between the hours of 9:00 A.M. and
3:00 P.M. (sun time) during the heating season.
 Interior spaces requiring the most light and heating and cooling should be along the
south face of the building. Less used spaces should be located on the north.
 An open floor plan optimizes passive system operation.
33
 Use shading to prevent summer sun entering the interior. Sustainable By Design has
an online calculator for Sun Angles and from that you can figure the overhang
calculations.

Passive Solar Heating
Two primary elements of passive solar heating are required:

 South facing glass
 Thermal mass to absorb, store, and distribute heat
There are three approaches to passive systems – direct gain, indirect gain, and isolated
gain. The goal of all passive solar heating systems is to capture the sun’s heat within the
building’s elements and release that heat during periods when the sun is not shining. At the
same time that the building’s elements (or materials) is absorbing heat for later use, solar
heat is available for keeping the space comfortable (not overheated).
Direct Gain
In this system, the actual living space is a solar collector, heat absorber and distribution
system. South facing glass admits solar energy into the house where it strikes directly and
indirectly thermal mass materials in the house such as masonry floors and walls. The direct
gain system will utilize 60 – 75% of the sun’s energy striking the windows.
In a direct gain system, the thermal mass floors and walls are functional parts of the house.
It is also possible to use water containers inside the house to store heat. However, it is
more difficult to integrate water storage containers in the design of the house.
The thermal mass will temper the intensity of the heat during the day by absorbing the heat.
At night, the thermal mass radiates heat into the living space.
Indirect Gain
In an indirect gain system, thermal mass is located between the sun and the living space.
The thermal mass absorbs the sunlight that strikes it and transfers it to the living space by
conduction. The indirect gain system will utilize 30 – 45% of the sun’s energy striking the
glass adjoining the thermal mass.
There are two types of indirect gain systems:
 Thermal storage wall systems (Trombe Walls)
 Roof pond systems
34
Thermal storage wall systems
The thermal mass is located immediately behind south facing glass in this system.
Operable vents at the top and bottom of a thermal storage wall permit heat to convect from
between the wall and the glass into the living space. When the vents are closed at night
radiant heat from the wall heats the living space.
Roof pond systems

Six to twelve inches of water are contained on a flat roof.
This system is best for cooling in low humidity climates but can be modified to work in high
humidity climates. (Effectively provides heat in southern U.S. latitudes during the heating
season for one story or upper stories of buildings.)
Water is usually stored in large plastic or fiberglass containers covered by glazing and the
space below is warmed by radiant heat from the warm water above.
These require somewhat elaborate drainage systems, movable insulation to cover and
uncover the water at appropriate times, and a structural system to support up to 65 lbs/sq ft
dead load.
Indirect gain system rules of thumb for thermal storage walls

 The exterior of the mass wall (toward the sun) should be a dark color.
 Use a minimum space of 4 inches between the thermal mass wall and the glass.
 Vents used in a thermal mass wall must be closed at night.
 A well insulated home (7-9 BTU/day-sq. ft.-degree F) will require approximately 0.20
square feet of thermal mass wall per square foot of floor area or 0.15 square foot of
water wall.
 If movable night insulation will be used in the thermal wall system, reduce the
thermal mass wall area by 15%.
35
 Thermal wall thickness should be approximately 10-14 inches for brick, 12-18 inches
for concrete, 8-12 inches for adobe or other earth material and at least 6 inches for
water.
Isolated Gain
An isolated gain system has its integral parts separate from the main living area of a house.
Examples are a sunroom and a convective loop through an air collector to a storage system
in the house. The ability to isolate the system from the primary living areas is the point of
distinction for this type of system. (See Figure 3)
The isolated gain system will utilize 15 – 30% of the sunlight striking the glazing toward
heating the adjoining living areas. Solar energy is also retained in the sunroom itself.
Sunrooms (or solar greenhouses) employ a combination of direct gain and indirect gain
system features. Sunlight entering the sunroom is retained in the thermal mass and air of
the room. Sunlight is brought into the house by means of conduction through a shared
mass wall in the rear of the sunroom, or by vents that permit the air between the sunroom
and living space to be exchanged by convection.
The use of a south facing air collector to naturally convect air into a storage area is a
variation on the active solar system air collector. These are passive collectors. Convective
air collectors are located lower than the storage area so that the heated air generated in the
collector naturally rises into the storage area and is replaced by return air from the lower
cooler section of the storage area. Heat can be released from the storage area either by
opening vents that access the storage by mechanical means (fans), or by conduction if the
storage is built into the house.
The sunroom has some advantages as an isolated gain approach in that it can provide
additional usable space to the house and plants can be grown in it quite effectively.
The convective air collector by comparison becomes more complex in trying to achieve
additional functions from the system. This is a drawback in this area where space heating is
less of a concern than in colder regions where the system would be used longer. It is best
to use a system that provides more than one function if the system is not an integral part of
the building. The sunroom approach will be emphasized in this information since it can
provide multiple functions.
36
Sunrooms
Sunrooms can feature sloped and/or overhead glass, but is not recommended for the
Austin area. A sunroom will function adequately without overhead or sloped glazing. Due to
long hot summers in this area, it is important to use adequate ventilation to let the heat out.
Sloped or overhead glazing is also a maintenance concern. Due to the intensity of weather
conditions for glazing facing the full .i.ventilation: passive design and brunt of the sun and
rain, seals between the gazing panels need to be of extremely high material and installation
quality.
A thermal wall on the back of the sunroom against the living space will function like the
indirect gain thermal mass wall. With a thermal wall in the sunroom, the extra heat during
the day can be brought into the living space via high and low vents like in the indirect gain
thermal wall.
More elaborate uses of the heated air generated in the sunspace can be designed into this
system, such as transferring the hot air into thermal mass located in another part of the
house.
Isolated Gain rules of thumb for sunrooms:

Use a dark color for the thermal wall in a sunspace.
The thickness of the thermal wall should be 8-12 inches for adobe or earth materials, 10-14
inches for brick, 12-18 inches for (dense) concrete.
Withdraw excess heat in the sunroom (if not used for warm weather plants) until the room
reaches 45 degrees and put the excess heat into thermal mass materials in other parts of
the house.
For a sunroom with a masonry thermal wall, use 0.30 square feet of south glazing for each
square foot of living space floor area. If a water wall is used between the sunroom and
living space instead of masonry, use 0.20 square feet of south facing glass for each square
foot of living area.
Have a ventilation system for summer months.

If overhead glass is used in a sunroom, use heat reflecting glass and or shading systems in
the overhead areas.
****************************************************************************************
37
Q. No. 7: Ventilation is an essential element of passive cooling; Support the

statement with the help of examples and case studies. (15 Marks)
Answer)
Passive cooling
Passive cooling is a building design approach that focuses on heat gain control and heat
dissipation in a building in order to improve the indoor thermal comfort with low or no
energy consumption. This approach works either by preventing heat from entering the
interior (heat gain prevention) or by removing heat from the building (natural cooling).
Natural cooling utilizes on-site energy, available from the natural environment, combined
with the architectural design of building components (e.g. building envelope), rather than
mechanical systems to dissipate heat. Therefore, natural cooling depends not only on the
architectural design of the building but on how the site's natural resources are used as heat
sinks (i.e. everything that absorbs or dissipates heat). Examples of on-site heat sinks are
the upper atmosphere (night sky), the outdoor air (wind), and the earth/soil.
Ventilation & Operable Windows

A primary strategy for cooling buildings without mechanical assistance (passive cooling) in
hot humid climates is to employ natural ventilation. (The Fan and Landscape sections also
address ventilation strategies.) In the Austin area, prevailing summer breezes are from the
south and southeast. This matches nicely with the increased glazing on the south side
needed for passive heating, making it possible to achieve helpful solar gain and ventilation
with the following strategies:
 Place operable windows on the south exposure.

 Casement windows offer the best airflow. Awning (or hopper) windows should be
fully opened or air will be directed to ceiling. Awning windows offer the best rain
protection and perform better than double hung windows.
 If a room can have windows on only one side, use two widely spaced windows
instead of one window.

Night-time Ventilation for Passive Cooling of Dwellings: A case study for Cyprus
Introduction
Night ventilation (NV) is a well established technique for passive cooling. Lower external
temperatures that usually prevail at summer nights may assist to the release of heat that is
stored in the building mass during the day, and decrease accordingly the internal
temperatures, provided however that sufficient air change rate, heat exchange area and
thermal storage capacity are available in the building . NV can be applied either naturally or
forced. For the natural application there should be provision for openings of appropriate
size, orientation and sides of the building; natural ventilation can be further investigated with
several techniques as wind stimulated ventilation, stack effect ventilation and operation of a
solar chimney.
Evaluation criteria for Night Ventilation

Various criteria are applicable for the evaluation of a NV system, depending on the
operation of the building, the presence or not of air conditioning in the building, and the
priorities set by the user e.g. energetic, environmental and economic.
38
Criterion 1: Effect of ventilation rate on the reduction of the maximum indoor-temperature

(expressed in o C). This criterion is useful to check if NV can be used instead of air
conditioning (AC) and the results can be presented in the form of the indoor temperature
variation during a typical summer day.
Criterion 2: Annual cooling reduction due to the use of NV (expressed in kWh/year), for
maintaining the temperature in the building between 21 and 25o C. This criterion should be
used in cases where by applying criterion 1 it is observed that in spite of the fact that NV
was applied the maximum indoor temperature still exceeds 26o C, for more than an
acceptable time period.
Criterion 3: Reduction in required peak plant capacity . In the same context, the time that
power is required, distinguishing between the times that peak power, usual power and low
power occurs, is useful when comparing normal AC with combined NV and AC .
Criterion 4: Indoor temperature just after night cooling was applied by Thomas et al to
determine a suitable night cooling schedule. This criterion however is quite similar to
criterion 1.
Climate of Cyprus
The island of Cyprus is located on the eastern Mediterranean Sea on an average north
longitude of 35o and east latitude of 33o. The climate of Cyprus is characterized as a
standard
Mediterranean climate and it is mainly affected by the fact that it is surrounded by the
Mediterranean Sea. The main characteristics of this kind of climate is that it has a hot, with
low rainfall but high humidity summer from the mid-May until mid-September, while winter is
mild and lasts from the mid-November until mid-March. During the summer period Cyprus
and in general the whole eastern Mediterranean territory is affected by the fact that it is
under the effect of a seasonal low barometric which has its center at the northwest Asia and
causes high level of temperatures.
The climatic data that are used in this work were taken from the Meteorological Service of
Cyprus . More specifically, the weather data used were the monthly statistical values of
temperature, relative humidity (RH) and global radiation for the time period of 2002-2007.
Detailed hourly values of temperature and relative humidity for the various months are
calculated according to appropriate models, and respectively.
In Fig. 1 we can observe that the actual and theoretical values of both relative humidity
(RH) and temperature are in good agreement so it can be concluded that this model gives
reliable results and it can be used for the calculation of hourly daily temperatures and RH.
39
Data and assumptions for the case study

The case study is conducted for a typical dwelling in Cyprus according to the data
published by Florides et al. . The building plan and orientation is illustrated in Fig. 2. The
typical house has a floor area of 196m2 and consists of four identical external walls, 14 m in
length by 3 m in high, with a total window opening of 5.2 m on each wall. It is considered
that four people live in the house which is used for 16 hours a day. The typical house is
further divided into four identical zones and the partition walls are considered as walls
separating the four zones. Each partition wall has a window opening with a total area equal
to the area of all actual window openings of each zone.
In this study two separate cases are going to be examined. In both cases the basic
dimensions of the house are identical with the difference being that in Case 1 the house is
assumed to be non-insulated, while in Case 2 the house will be constructed from higher
quality materials with good insulating properties.
Estimation of Climatic Cooling Potential (CCP)

Artmann et al. define the Climatic Cooling Potential (CCP) during a time period of N
nights as the summation of products between building/external air temperature-difference,
Tb-Te, and time interval:
40
Where parameter h stands for the time of the day, h∈{0,…,24h}, hi and hf denote the initial
and the final time of night-time ventilation, and ΔTcrit is the threshold value of the
temperature difference when night-time ventilation is applied. In the numerical analysis, it
was assumed that night-time ventilation starts at hi = 19h and ends at hf = 7h. The units of
CCP are Kelvin hours per day (Kh/day). As a certain temperature-difference is needed for
effective convection, NV is only applied if the difference between building and ambient
temperature is greater than ΔTcrit= 3K .
The present method is valuable in order to estimate the CCP for a given climate and might
be rather helpful in the initial design phase of a building at a given location. In Figs. 3 and 4
the CCP data, calculated in the present work, according to the hourly temperature of a
typical day of each month for the worst and best case of the five locations examined are
presented. It should be noted that due to space limitations only the worst (Nicosia) and best
(Paphos) cases are presented.
As can be observed in Fig.3 the CCP for the city of Nicosia has its maximum value (306
Kh/day) in February and minimum value (0 Kh/day) in July and August, as expected. As for
the city of Paralimni, according to the calculation results, the CCP value is 0 Kh/day during
July and August. The results for the cities of Limassol, Larnaca and Pafos are more
promising since for the city of Limassol the CCP is zero only during August while in Pafos
and Larnaca the CCP is positive for all summer months.
Consequently, it can be concluded that the most appropriate areas to apply NV is Larnaca
and Paphos. In these areas the CCP during the summer months reaches rather high levels.
On the other hand at Paralimni, Limassol and Nicosia the application of a NV system is not
excluded but it needs a specific strategic plan of use in order to be efficient.
41
In spite of the fact that during the preliminary calculations the CCP was found to be zero,
this is not completely correct or representative due to the fact that mean monthly values of
temperature were used for a typical hour of the day of each month and not actual hourly
value.
Detailed calculations
Operation strategy
Various operation strategies have been studied for the NV system in order to choose the
one with optimum results. Among the parameters examined were the desired inside
temperature (for the air-conditioned buildings), the air change rate during NV and the hours
of operation of the NV system or alternatively the minimum difference between
inside/outside temperatures to set the NV system into operation.
In this frame several cases were examined, according to the inside temperature, ranging
from 26 to 28oC, NV air change rates from 1 up to 20 ACH and temperature difference to
start NV from 0oC up to 5oC. Two main categories of buildings were distinguished, namely
buildings with air-conditioning system and without air-conditioning system. In the first
category the percentage of the cooling load that is covered with the NV system (decrease
of mechanical cooling needs) and the coefficient of performance of the NV system in
comparison with the COP of the competing AC system were estimated. It should be noted
that the coefficient of performance of NV system should exceed the mean value that is
achieved by typical AC units, e.g. COPNV > 3. In the second category the decrease of the
maximum day temperature and the decrease of the mean temperature within the building,
were calculated.
From the results of the calculation process it is clear that at 26 oC and by altering the ACH
the COP is much lower than the typical COP of an air conditioning unit. Additionally, the
percentage of cooling load coverage is low. The results for 27 oC proved to be better both for
the COP and the percentage of cooling load coverage. At 28 oC the percentage of cooling
load coverage is relatively high while COP is also quite higher. It could be noticed that the
most advantageous scenario would be at 28 oC with 3 ACH. Such a scenario however is not
suggested due to the fact that 28 oC is not within the comfort criteria zone. So, a first
conclusion is that the more detailed calculations should be made for 27 oC and 5 ACH.
Simulation for non-conditioned building

In non air conditioned dwellings it is important to estimate how much NV can reduce the
mean temperature, the maximum temperature and the overheating hours (temperature
floating case). Taking the most important energy fluxes into account, and assuming that all
boundary conditions oscillate regularly, Keller et al. developed a model to estimate the
variation of temperature with time.
Calculations were carried out for 5 ACH and 10 ACH during night-time for four successive
days in the mid July and the results for the city of Limassol are shown in Figs. 5 and 6
respectively. From these figures we observe that for both building cases the maximum
inside temperature without NV is around 31 οC. Then by applying NV with 5 ACH the
maximum inside temperature is decreased by 1 oC while when having 10 ACH it decreases
by 1.5oC. From this fact it becomes obvious that the effectiveness of NV decreases with the
increase of the ACH value, as it is expected.
42
Also, another interesting fact that can be observed is that in the case of the insulated
building the fluctuation of the inside temperature follows more closely the fluctuation of the
ambient temperature when compared with the non-insulated building due to the existence
of insulation. In the non-insulated building a large amount of heat is stored in the building
elements during the day which is later on slowly released into the building and this result to
a slower response of the building to the lower night temperature.
The decrease of the mean inside temperature for the non-insulated building ranges
between 1.3°C-1.9°C for the five cities examined, while for the insulated building ranges
between 1°C- 1.3°C. The highest decrease of the mean inside temperature is observed at
Larnaca and the lowest at Paralimni.
The decrease of the maximum inside temperature for the non-insulated building ranges
between 0.85οC to 1.3οC while for the insulated building ranges between 0.7οC-1.05οC.
The highest decrease is observed at Paphos and the lowest at Nicosia
Simulation for air-conditioned buildings
43
For an air-conditioned building (cooling energy floating case) it is important to calculate how
much NV can reduce the mechanical cooling load. Santamouris et al. developed an
integrated method to calculate the energy contribution of NV techniques to cover the
cooling load of a building. The basic assumptions of this model are:
• Maximum energy that can be removed from the fabric during the night should be greater
than the NV cooling capacity
• NV cooling capacity should not exceed the daily cooling needs.
In a thermostatically controlled building the inside temperature is assumed to be constant at

27οC for 5 ACH, according to the operation strategy suggested earlier. The calculations
concerning the ability of the system to cover the entire cooling load in order to maintain the
inside temperature constant are shown in Fig. 8.
From this we can observe that the percentage of cooling load coverage for non-insulated
building is in the range of 25-50% and for insulated building around 17-43%. Therefore, the
system can cover only a part of the cooling load.
Conclusion
In this paper the effectiveness of a NV system that could cover at least a part of the cooling
loads of domestic buildings in an environmental friendly way in Cyprus is investigated. The
demand for cooling during the summer period in Cyprus is very high due to the high levels
of temperature.
The CCP was found to be very low and in several areas in Cyprus was even zero. The most
appropriate areas to apply NV are Larnaca and Paphos. In these areas the CCP during the
summer months reaches rather high levels. On the other hand, at Paralimni, Limassol and
Nicosia the application of a NV system is not found to be efficient. In these cases, by using
a specific strategic plan of operation the efficiency could be satisfactorily improved.
The percentage decrease of the cooling load due to the application of NV does not in any
occasion exceed 50% while the coefficient of performance of the NV system does not
exceed the coefficient of the air conditioning units in any of the cities examined at summer.
The models used to study the applicability and effectiveness of the application of NV for
these specific areas lead to similarly discouraging results.
Therefore, NV systems can only be used during spring and autumn period and only as part
44
of another system and not as an autonomous solution. The case study was focused on
dwellings with relatively low thermal gains. In buildings with larger thermal mass, greater
exchange surfaces and higher heat gains (and consequently cooling loads) the advantages
of an NV system could be more important.
*****************************************************************************************
45
References & Researches Cited:
Question. 01
 http://californiasolarcenter.org/history-passive/
 https://uncw.edu/csurf/Explorations/documents/ScottBarber.pdf
 http://www.academia.edu/24461422/BIOCLIMATIC_DESIGN_Principles_and_Practi
ces_BIOCLIMATIC_DESIGN_Principles_and_Practices
Question.02
 https://www.britannica.com/science/microclimate
 http://mhathwar.tripod.com/thesis/climaticarch/microclimate_and_site_design.html
 https://www.journalagent.com/itujfa/pdfs/ITUJFA-51423-DOSSIER_ARTICLES-
IYENDO.pdf
 http://www.dnr.louisiana.gov/assets/TAD/education/ECEP/drafting/b/b.htm
 https://www.regenerative.com/magazine/five-factors-affect-microclimates
 https://sg.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100309133709AANXIGE
 file:///C:/Users/HP/Downloads/TahirAAetal.2014AQHImpactofurbanization.pdf
Question.03
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_comfort
 https://grantmechanicalinc.com/blog/basic-factors-influencing-thermal-comfort/
 http://machineryequipmentonline.com/hvac-machinery/thermal-comfortseven-factors-
influencing-thermal-comfort/
 Question.04
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_solar_building_design
 https://inspectapedia.com/Solar/Passive_Solar_Design_Elements.php
 Quesiton.05
 http://www.proessay.com/compare-and-contrast-active-and-passive-solar-energy-for-
space-heating/
 http://www.solar365.com/green-homes/heating-ac/pros-cons-direct-gain-passive-
solar-homes
Question.06
 https://www.buildinggreen.com/blog/sunspaces-solar-heat-and-place-grow-plants
 http://passivesolar.sustainablesources.com/
 https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-sunspace.htm
Question. 07
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_cooling
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297167862_PASSIVE_COOLING_TECHNI
QUES_DESIGN_CONCEPT_AND_VENTILATION_TECHNIQUES
 https://www.brikbase.org/sites/default/files/researchdesign_journal_1979_fall_passco
ol.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/Hammad/Downloads/C120-Eurosun-319-kalogirou.pdf
46

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Department of Home & Health Sciences

Block No. 06, Sector H-8,

Environmental Control Systems (3681)

Q. No. 1: What is the history of Passive Solar Movement? How bioclimatic

HISTORY OF PASSIVE SOLAR MOVEMENT:

Native Americans, following ancient architectural teachings of Aristotle, Xenophon, and

With emergence of global environmental concerns of the 1990s—recognizing that energy

natural disasters. A precautionary approach to design is to provide bioclimatic means to

PRINCIPLES OF BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN

Bioclimatic design strategies are effective for “envelope-dominated” structures—such as

However, as internal loads are reduced through energy-efficient design—such as low-

Figure 1. Paths of energy exchange at the building microclimate scale.

Table 1: Strategies of bioclimatic design

BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN STRATEGIES

The strategies can be set forth as:

• Promote evaporative cooling. Sensible cooling of a building interior can be achieved by

Factors That Affect Microclimate of a site

There are five main factors that affect microclimates.

IMPACT OF RAPID URBANIZATION ON MICROCLIMATE OF URBAN AREAS OF

Urbanization is the process by which a large number of people become permanently

Anticipating the combined environmental impacts of anthropogenic changes due to

The main factors that can be discussed are as follows;

Material and methods

Fig. 1 Location of Abbotabad

The measurement method remained unchanged from 1961 to 2010.

annual RFall: winter (December–February), premonsoon (March–May), monsoon (June–

Since there are large variations from person to person in terms

According to ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, estimating metabolic rates is complex,

The Compendium of Physical Activities is used by physicians to record physical activities. It

Mean radiant temperature

Interplay of temperature and humidity

Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort of human body

This difference in expectations also shows up in buildings where occupants have a

PASSIVE BUILDING DESIGN:

Passive Solar Design - Basic Considerations

Top photo shows windows admitting morning solar gain in a nearly-balanced-energy

The five elements of passive solar design:

Five Elements of Passive Solar Home Design

How a Passive Solar Home Design Works

Q. No. 5: What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct gain in

COMPARE AND CONTRAST ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY:

Pros and Cons of Direct Gain

 Direct gain passive solar homes are the easiest to implement.

 The gains in comfort and heating cost reduction are immediate.

 Direct gain passive solar homes are aesthetically pleasing.

 Overglazing causes the home to overheat.

 Too little thermal mass also causes the home to overheat.

Passive Solar Design

Passive solar systems rules of thumb

Two primary elements of passive solar heating are required:

Thermal storage wall systems

Roof pond systems

Indirect gain system rules of thumb for thermal storage walls

Isolated Gain rules of thumb for sunrooms:

Have a ventilation system for summer months.

Q. No. 7: Ventilation is an essential element of passive cooling; Support the

Ventilation & Operable Windows

 Place operable windows on the south exposure.

Evaluation criteria for Night Ventilation

Criterion 1: Effect of ventilation rate on the reduction of the maximum indoor-temperature

Data and assumptions for the case study

Estimation of Climatic Cooling Potential (CCP)

Simulation for non-conditioned building

Simulation for air-conditioned buildings