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W H O W A N D W H Y W O N D E R BOOK OF

R O C K E T S A N D

M I S S I L E S

by Clayton Knight

E d i t e d u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of

Dr. Paul E. Blackwood

Washington, D. C.

T e x t a n d illustrations approved by

Oakes A. White
Brooklyn Children's M u s e u m
Brooklyn, New York

WONDER BOOKS . NEW YORK

A Division of GROSSET & DUNLAP, Inc.
 I N T R O D U C T I O N

T h i s b o o k is o n e i n a s e r i e s of How and Why Wonder Books for

y o u n g r e a d e r s d e a l i n g w i t h s u b j e c t s of c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e a n d
technology. Through authentic text and illustrations, it presents
brief a n s w e r s t o several d o z e n i m p o r t a n t questions a b o u t r o c k e t s a n d
missiles.
I t r e m i n d s u s t h a t m a n ' s k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e u n i v e r s e is v a s t . Y e t
n e w a n d exciting developments are a n n o u n c e d every day, evidence
t h a t s c i e n c e is m o v i n g a h e a d a t a r e m a r k a b l e p a c e . W e k n o w that
t h e r e i s still m u c h m o r e t o b e l e a r n e d . S c i e n t i s t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d
a r e seeking relentlessly for a n e w a n d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g about
things in n a t u r e , r a n g i n g in their s e a r c h from t h e tiniest a t o m t o t h e
l i m i t s of o u t e r s p a c e . A n d a s t h e a n s w e r s t o " h o w " a n d " w h y " q u e s -
t i o n s a r e f o u n d , t h e y p r o v i d e f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g k n o w l e d g e t h a t is
useful for controlling o u r e n v i r o n m e n t .
Children also ask " H o w ? " a n d " W h y ? " T h e y are curious to learn
m o r e a n d m o r e a b o u t t h e w o r l d . A n d p a r e n t s — t o satisfy their o w n
interest a n d to stimulate a n d keep u p with y o u t h — m u s t be informed
about modern advances of science as well. Fortunately, through
books, parents and children can read and study together.
L e a r n i n g t h e how's a n d why's i n o n e field of s c i e n t i f i c e x p l o r a t i o n
u s u a l l y l e a d s t o i n t e r e s t i n o t h e r fields. T h i s i s t o t h e g o o d b e c a u s e it
is i m p o r t a n t for y o u n g p e o p l e in m a k i n g c a r e e r c h o i c e s t o k n o w a b o u t
t h e m a n y opportunities in science. T h i s b o o k o n r o c k e t s a n d missiles
is o n e w h i c h will o p e n n e w h o r i z o n s f o r e v e r y r e a d e r a n d e n c o u r a g e
further r e a d i n g a n d e x p l o r a t i o n in related fields.

Paul E. Blackwood

Dr. Blackwood is a professional employee in the U. S. Office of Education.

This book was edited by him in his private capacity and no official support or
endorsement by the Office of Education is intended or should be inferred.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-24097

Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1967, 1969 by Grosset & Dunlap, Inc.
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published simultaneously in Canada. Printed in the United States of America.
 H O W O L D IS T H E ROCKET PRINCIPLE?

H I S T O R I C A L records show that as

early as 8 0 0 years before
t h e C h i n e s e — w h o w e r e t h e first
Christ,
to
r a t u s , h e w e n t o n t o a d d g u i d a n c e fea-
tures, an automatic p a r a c h u t e to bring
recording instruments back to earth
discover gunpowder — were shooting safely, a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y d e v e l o p e d t h e
powder-packed tubes on a stick into principle of the multi-stage rocket
the air to a m u s e their people. which, forty years later, was used to
T h e s e r o c k e t s f o l l o w e d a l l t h r e e of put both United States a n d Russian
S i r I s a a c N e w t o n ' s t h r e e l a w s of mo- spacecraft into orbit a r o u n d the earth.
tion. M a i n l y , h o w e v e r , it w a s N e w t o n ' s
t h i r d l a w w h i c h w a s in effect: F o r e v e r y
action, t h e r e is a n e q u a l a n d opposite
Goddard's first rocket
reaction. Thus, when the rocket's burn-
i n g g a s e s t h r u s t downward, the opposite
r e a c t i o n is a t h r u s t upward, sending the
r o c k e t i n a fiery a r c i n t o t h e n i g h t s k y .
I n the 1700's William Congreve, in
England, tested improved Chinese
rockets as weapons of war. They
a c h i e v e d l i t t l e s u c c e s s a t t h e t i m e , al-
though when Francis Scott K e y wrote
t h e Star Spangled Banner during the
W a r of 1 8 1 2 , t h e p h r a s e , " t h e r o c k e t s '
red glare" referred to Congreve mis-
siles fired b y t h e B r i t i s h a g a i n s t Fort
McHenry.
T h e r e a l f a t h e r of m o d e r n rocketry
was the American, Dr. Robert God-
d a r d , a p h y s i c s p r o f e s s o r w h o , in the
early 1900's, b e g a n experiments with
rockets to send weather-recording in-
struments higher than meteorological
balloons h a d ever gone.
H e tried b o t h solid fuel (powder)
a n d liquid fuel ( g a s o l i n e a n d o x y g e n ) ,
a n d i n 1 9 2 6 t h e w o r l d ' s first l i q u i d - p r o -
p e l l e d r o c k e t w a s successfully fired at
Auburn, Massachusetts.
S t a r t i n g w i t h h i s first crude appa-
 W H E N W E R E ROCKETS FIRST U S E D

IN M O D E R N W A R F A R E ?

T
would
HE
many,
FORMER

win World
d i c t a t o r of
A d o l p h Hitler, boasted
War II with
Ger-
he
his
Soon after, these weapons — giant
G e r m a n V-2 rockets — began hurtling
across the English channel into Lon-
"secret weapons." In the summer of d o n , t h e c a p i t a l of E n g l a n d .
1 9 4 4 , u n u s u a l l a u n c h i n g sites w e r e ob- This ushered in an age of long-
served along the Belgian and Dutch distance rocket-powered missiles that
coasts by British airmen. could carry nuclear warheads.

V-2 LAUNCHING
 W H A T ARE T H E DIFFERENT K I N D S

OF ROCKET FUELS?

T H E o n l y e n g i n e c a p a b l e of o p e r a t -
i n g i n a i r l e s s s p a c e is t h e
which needs n o outside air for combus-
rocket
l e s s c a r e , b u t t h e fuel
m o r e difficult t o c o n t r o l .
combustion

T h e first r o c k e t e n g i n e s h a d m o d e r -
is

t i o n . I n p l a c e of a t m o s p h e r e , t h e r o c k e t
m u s t h a v e a n o x i d i z e r t o m a k e t h e fuel
burn — usually liquid oxygen, which
must be kept at 2 7 2 degrees below zero,
F., a n d m u s t b e h a n d l e d carefully.
R o c k e t s b u r n i n g solid fuels demand
a t e t h r u s t — t h e o n e in t h e X - l deliv-
e r e d 6 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s — b u t t h e Apollo 8
astronauts began their m o o n journey on
a S a t u r n 5 r o c k e t w h i c h h a s a 7 _ -mil-
l i o n - p o u n d t h r u s t ! N u c l e a r r o c k e t s will
be even m o r e powerful.

Rubber-base Liquid Aluminum

Gasoline Fuel Hydrogen floating
in kerosene

Fluorine Liquid
Ignition Oxidizer Oxygen

Combustion Combustion
Chamber
Chamber

LIQUID FUEL SOLID FUEL EXOTIC FUEL METAL FUEL

Specific Thrust: 264.
The liquid fuel flow is easy to
control. The rocket design is
complicated, and mechanical
failures are apt to occur.
Specific Thrust: Above 250.
Solid fuel is easily stored and
handled, but fuel combustion is
hard to control.
Specific Thrust; 373.
Exotic fuel gives the rocket
greater speed and larger load-
carrying capacity, but is difficult
to store and handle.
Specific Thrust: 325.
!t is easily made and stored,
but metal fuel is apt to clog
pipelines. It is also hard to keep
aluminum in suspension.
 H O W DOES T H E M O D E R N A R M Y U S E ROCKETS?

T O B E r e a d y for battle u n d e r a t o m i c
war conditions,
must have massive striking
the modern army
firepower
that can be moved to the threatened
areas with great rapidity.
The U. S. A r m y has developed a
whole family of solid-fueled rockets
mounted on mobile-launchers which
have taken the place and exceeded the
firepower of c o n v e n t i o n a l artillery.
Their range varies from rockets which
can stop a t a n k at 2 , 0 0 0 yards, to 27-
foot missiles that, g u i d e d by radio, c a n
blast a target twenty miles a w a y with a
1 5 0 0 - p o u n d w a r h e a d . B e c a u s e of the
solid fuel, A r m y r o c k e t m i s s i l e s are
m o r e n e a r l y trouble-free t h a n t h o s e us-
ing liquid propellant a n d are easier for
the crews to handle.

LACROSSE • Mounted on a mobile-

launcher, the Lacrosse can hit and
destroy enemy strong points up to
20 miles away. It is a solid-propel-
lant missile easily handled by in-
fantrymen, and can be guided
accurately to its target by radio.

DART • This small but effective

anti-tank rocket, with a range of
over 2,000 yards, is used by infan-
try and armored combat units.
 T h e change-over from the early days
of h o r s e - d r a w n g u n s u s e d in World
W a r I t o t h e m e c h a n i z e d a r t i l l e r y of
W o r l d W a r I I is n o w b e i n g c a r r i e d for-
w a r d b y t h e r e - e q u i p m e n t of o u r m o d -
e r n a r m i e s with r o c k e t missiles.
N o t only are the short-range missiles
more accurate and m u c h more destruc-
tive, b u t r o c k e t p r o p u l s i o n h a s e x t e n d e d
t h e r a n g e of w e a p o n s f a r b e y o n d that
reached by old-time cannon.

HONEST JOHN • Honest John is a

3-ton, 27-foot, solid-propellant mis-
sile with a range of about 30 miles.
 W E R E M A N Y ROCKETS FIRED IN W O R L D WAR II?

A L T H O U G H the G e r m a n s h a d built
{ a n d fired h u g e r o c k e t missiles i n t o
E n g l a n d , t h e y s p e n t l i t t l e t i m e o r effort
G e r m a n y a n d desperate for
firepower, perfected several
increased
effective
t y p e s of r o c k e t b a t t e r i e s . T h e y w e r e al-
o n smaller artillery-type rockets. m o s t t h e o n l y n a t i o n fighting in W o r l d
However, the Russians, invaded by W a r II to use rockets on land.

v ('

The United States N a v y was also L a t e r , i n t h e i s l a n d b a t t l e s of the

q u i c k t o t e s t t h e v a l u e of r o c k e t s and P a c i f i c , w h e n U . S. M a r i n e s h a d gone
first u s e d t h e m i n t h e i n v a s i o n of N o r t h ashore and the big guns and the air
Africa in 1942 t o give s u p p o r t to land- b o m b i n g h a d c e a s e d , it w a s t h e r o c k e t s
ing craft storming the beaches. t h a t gave s u p p o r t to the l a n d forces.
 IS T H E ROCKET MISSILE REPLACING ARTILLERY?

D E F E N S E against low-
flying planes has been
stepped u p by the A r m y ' s
HAWK, a quick-firing,
solid-propellant missile.
It c a n b e fired e a s i l y a n y -
w h e r e in t h e field f r o m a
mobile launcher or from
small aircraft a n d helicop-
ters. A sister w e a p o n t o t h e
high-altitude Nike ZEUS
a n d N i k e S P R I N T , it is di-
rected by low-altitude ra-
dar which can respond
instantly to the swiftest
enemy plan's attempts to
escape.
 W H A T TYPES OF ROCKETS ARE S H O T

F R O M P L A N E S ?

W HEN jet planes b e g a n flying

t w i c e t h e s p e e d of s o u n d , t h e r e w a s
insistent n e e d for faster-firing a n d m o r e
at

destructive weapons.
In contrast to the 50-caliber bullet or
t h e c a n n o n s h e l l , t h e r o c k e t w i t h i t s in-
credible velocity and destructive p o w e r
was a partial answer to the problem.
T h e e l e c t r o n i c b r a i n t h a t is b u i l t i n t o a
r o c k e t can easily outwit b o m b e r s and
f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t t r y i n g t o e s c a p e it. T h u s
t h e r o c k e t is r e g a r d e d a s a p e r f e c t a i r -
borne weapon.

The FALCON, a 6V 2 -foot, 112-pound

rocket, can outmaneuver and destroy air-
craft at any altitude.

The SIDEWINDER, a solid-propellant rocket, is named after a fast and deadly rattlesnake.
This rocket strikes fast and is infrared-guided to its target.
•

The SPARROW III is a 1 2-foot rocket which

rides a radar beam to the target. Used by
both the U.S Navy and the Marine Corps, it
attains a speed of more than 1,500 mph
within seconds after being fired from its fit-
ting beneath a supersonic plane.

The ZUNI, a slim solid-propellant rocket

whose guidance fins are folded until the
rocket is launched from its carrier, can be
fired singly or in salvos at supersonic speeds.
 ARE ROCKETS S U P E R I O R TO G U N S

AS A N T I A I R C R A F T W E A P O N S ?

R I N G I N G all t h e i m p o r t a n t U . S. g o v -
ernmental and industrial centers
a r e b a t t e r i e s of N i k e S P R I N T m i s s i l e s
w h i c h h a v e t a k e n t h e p l a c e of c o n v e n -
tional antiaircraft artillery.
K e p t in u n d e r g r o u n d concrete pits
u n t i l t h e m o m e n t of firing, t h e i r m e c h a n -
ical launchers point t h e m into the sky
a n d w i t h i n a m a t t e r of s e c o n d s t h e t w o -
stage rocket, with an atomic warhead,
c a n speed aloft at 2 , 2 0 0 m p h .
The first s t a g e of t h e m i s s i l e — a
solid-propellant booster — thrusts the
SPRINT t h r o u g h its first s e c o n d s of
v e r t i c a l flight a n d t h e n d r o p s a w a y a s
the second stage turns a n d heads for the
target.
The elaborate control equipment
w i t h i n i t s s e c o n d s t a g e c o n s i s t s of r a d a r ,
an electronic computer, and directional
guidance systems — m u c h m o r e com-
plex t h a n a n y artillery shell — which
take into account the speed and course
of a n e n e m y a i r c r a f t a n d i n t e r c e p t it a t
distances u p to 75 miles away.

A Nike HERCULES stands

ready for firing.

12
 A R E R O C K E T S U S E D TO DRIVE TARGET D R O N E S ?

W ITH the speeds

b o m b e r aircraft increasing
of fighter and
every
y e a r a n d t h e a l t i t u d e a t w h i c h t h e y fly
Some are guided and put through their
paces by radio-control from a
plane.
mother

increasing, the fighter pilot's need to T h e s e drones — unless they are hit
perfect his air-to-air a i m also increases. during practice — are recoverable by
T o fulfill t h i s n e e d , u n m a n n e d target parachute. O n e type — the F I R E B E E ,
drones have been perfected — small is d r i v e n b y a s m a l l j e t e n g i n e a f t e r it
r e p l i c a s of f u l l - s c a l e p l a n e s w h i c h c a n has been boosted to top speed by a
reach the same altitudes and speeds. rocket.

This rocket-powered drone is used for target practice.

THE XKD4R N a v y d r o n e is w h o l l y d i r e c t i o n of a flight-control package put

rocket-powered. T h e body and wings in p l a c e in t h e fuselage b e f o r e l e a v i n g
a r e m a d e of m o l d e d p l a s t i c , a n d i t c a n the ground.
be l a u n c h e d from a fighter aircraft. It can duplicate a n y of t h e flying
I t flies itself, u n d e r t h e mechanical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a full-size p l a n e .

13
 H O W DO ROCKETS " B O O S T " JET-PROPELLED

MISSILES O N THEIR WAY TO A TARGET?

Air Force combat teams are ready Europe, or on tropical coral headlands
to send the M A C E , a pilotless jet-pro- in t h e Pacific. G u i d e d after l a u n c h i n g ,
pelled missile with a n u c l e a r w a r h e a d , the missile w i t h its f e a r s o m e warhead
to a target over 6 0 0 miles away. T h e s e flies t o its d i s t a n t e n e m y t a r g e t with
missiles are l a u n c h e d from specially- unerring accuracy.
built powerful vehicles called zero- I n p a r t s , t h e M A C E a n d all equip-
length-launchers. Near danger points ment can be loaded aboard a cargo
around the world the deadly weapons plane, flown t o a n y p a r t of t h e w o r l d ,
a r e h i d d e n along w o o d e d hillsides in a n d b e r e a d y for firing within hours.

14
 T o assist the M A C E ' s jet engine o n
t h e t a k e - o f f , a R A T O u n i t is a t t a c h e d
t o t h e t a i l of t h e m i s s i l e . T h i s solid-
p r o p e l l a n t r o c k e t b o o s t e r g i v e s it t h e
n e c e s s a r y a c c e l e r a t i o n t o w a r d full fly-
ing speed. When this has
been achieved and the
b o o s t e r is n o l o n g e r n e e d e d ,
it falls away, while the
M A C E goes on alone.

15
 H O W DOES T H E U N I T E D STATES NAVY

U S E R O C K E T S ?

The TERRIER,
a two-stage missile,
is taking the place
of naval artillery.

A F T E R t h e u s e of r o c k e t s
# \ t o w a r d t h e e n d of W o r l d
W a r I I , t h e U . S. N a v y d e -
veloped shipboard rocket
w e a p o n s for shore s u p p o r t a n d as anti-
aircraft missiles. B o t h t h e TERRIER,
a needle-nose missile, a n d t h e T A L O S ,
a l o n g - r a n g e r a m j e t w e a p o n w h i c h is
b o o s t e d into the skies b y a r o c k e t , h a v e
g u i d a n c e systems so u n c a n n i l y a c c u r a t e
that targets can be spotted beyond the
r a n g e of h u m a n v i s i o n a n d destroyed.

The TALOS is a two-stage missile

with a rocket booster that drops
off after sufficient speed has been
attained by the missile.

16
 H O W DOES T H E U N I T E D STATES NAVY PLAN

TO USE ROCKETS IN U N D E R S E A WARFARE?

W
a RAT
H E N a lurking enemy submarine
is l o c a t e d , s u r f a c e s h i p s c a n
(rocket-assisted torpedo)
fire
to-
Rocket falls away
Parachute opens
ward the suspected area. T h e rocket
h u r l s t h e t o r p e d o i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e

target, a p a r a c h u t e l o w e r s it i n t o t h e
water close by, a n d a h o m i n g device
g u i d e s it t o t h e k i l l . Homing device finds target
• ^
T h e U . S. N a v y is b u i l d i n g a fleet of
a t o m i c s u b m a r i n e s c a p a b l e of launch-
i n g a s a l v o of P O L A R I S m i s s i l e s w h i c h T h e first s u c c e s s f u l firing of a b a l l i s -
c a n fly s u p e r s o n i c a l l y t o a t a r g e t 1 , 5 0 0 tic missile f r o m u n d e r w a t e r t o o k p l a c e
miles away. on July 20, 1960, w h e n a POLARIS
The submarines can remain sub- m i s s i l e w a s fired f r o m t h e n u c l e a r s u b -
m e r g e d far from land for weeks and, marine George Washington. At the
w h e n the time c o m e s to strike, c a n fire t i m e of t h e firing, t h e George Washing-
their missiles from t h e d e p t h s of the ton w a s s u b m e r g e d i n 5 0 t o 6 0 f e e t of
sea o r f r o m t h e surface. water.
 IN W H A T N E W WAYS WILL ROCKETS BE U S E D ?

T O B E sure that atomic battlefields

a r e swiftly o c c u p i e d a f t e r a d e t o n a -
tion, new, fast-moving weapons must be
i n g b a n k s of r o c k e t s t h a t c a n b e
singly o r in salvos t o give s u p p o r t
advancing battle groups.
fired
to

devised. K e p t i n h i d i n g b e h i n d a r a m p a r t of
The experimental vertical-rising mountains, the rocket launchers can
r o c k e t l a u n c h e r is d e s i g n e d t o fit t h a t p r o c e e d t o t h e a t o m i c b l a s t site a s s o o n
need. P o w e r e d b y t w o jet engines w h i c h a s r a d i a t i o n lifts, i n o r d e r t o c o v e r t h e
also drive four d u c t e d fans for vertical o c c u p a t i o n of t h e b a t t l e f i e l d b y g r o u n d
lift, t h i s v e h i c l e is fitted w i t h t w o r e v o l v - forces without delay.

18
 H O W IS FUEL C O N S E R V E D IN L A U N C H I N G

P R O B E ROCKETS?

I N S T E A D of firing r o c k e t s f r o m p a d s
a t g r o u n d l e v e l , t h e U . S. A i r F o r c e ,
in "Project F a r s i d e , " sent a multi-stage
that point the rockets were
L a u n c h i n g the rockets from
triggered.
t h i s alti-
t u d e i n s t e a d of f r o m t h e g r o u n d , con-
missile to 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 feet altitude, sus- s e r v e d fuel. S o m e of t h e m h a v e s o a r e d
pended by a polyethylene balloon. At 4 , 0 0 0 miles into space, sending back
data on micro-meteorites, temperature
and radiation.

The rocket frame (on a truck) awaits inflation of the plastic balloon.
19
H O W WILL P E R M A N E N T MISSILE BASES BE

C O N S T R U C T E D FOR I N S T A N T USE A G A I N S T

E N E M Y ATTACK?
H I D D E N d e e p b e l o w the g r o u n d in
concrete silos, intercontinental
missiles s t a n d r e a d y for q u i c k firing in
facilities, a n d s u p p l y a n d living q u a r -
t e r s . W h e n t h e a l a r m is s o u n d e d , c o n -
crete t r a p d o o r s o p e n a n d the missiles
t h e c a s e of a t t a c k . W i t h i n a n under- are brought above ground, their aim
g r o u n d labyrinth, the missile battery a n d r a n g e d a t a a l r e a d y set. T h e L a u n c h
control center has computers, fueling Officer c a n fire t h e m s i n g l y o r i n s a l v o s .

21
 H O W A R E MISSILES L A U N C H E D W H E R E

T H E R E A R E NO P E R M A N E N T B A S E S ?

T HE UNITED STATES ARMY'S

C O R P O R A L m i s s i l e is d e l i v e r e d t o
t h e m e n i n t h e field e n c a s e d i n a p r e s -
are secured in place a n d a giant trans-
p o r t e r vehicle t a k e s t h e missile to the
fueling station where chemicals are
surized cylinder 5 0 feet long, to g u a r d p u m p e d i n t o it f r o m s t e e l f u e l t a n k s .
its d e l i c a t e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n f r o m dam- W i t h o u t t h e l a u n c h i n g facilities to
a g e . A f t e r i t is r e m o v e d f r o m t h i s p r o - b e f o u n d at a p e r m a n e n t missile base,
t e c t i v e t u b e , t h e n o s e c o n e a n d t a i l fins a l l s o r t s of s t r a n g e v e h i c l e s a r e n e e d e d .

Missile being removed from shipping case

Vans which house radar tracking

These tanks contain aniline, a fuel
used in the launching of missiles.
instruments and electronic computers
m u s t b e p l a c e d in position. T h e trans-
porter slowly points t h e missile u p w a r d
a n d s e t s it u p o n a p o r t a b l e s t e e l p l a t -
form on the ground. T o enable m e n to
r e a c h a n y p a r t of t h e v e r t i c a l m i s s i l e ,
a p o r t a b l e c r a n e is u s e d f o r t h e l a s t -
m i n u t e a d j u s t m e n t s . A fire t r u c k s t a n d s
b y i n c a s e of a n a c c i d e n t . E l e c t r i c c a b l e s
a n d h o s e s m a y b e seen everywhere, sup-
plying fuel, power and data for the
launching.

22
 As the firing moment approaches,
hoses and wires are reeled in — all
except o n e t o the missile. F i n a l p r e p a r a -
tions are c o m p l e t e d , the p o r t a b l e gen-
erator h u m s and the countdown begins:
" s e v e n . . . six . . . five . . . f o u r . . . t h r e e
. . . two . . . one . . . F I R E ! " Inside the
CORPORAL, valves open a n d com-
p r e s s e d a i r b l a s t s t h e fuel m i x t u r e i n t o
the rocket engine.

A r o a r is h e a r d , d u s t s c a t t e r s i n a n e x p l o s i v e c l o u d
a r o u n d t h e b a s e of t h e m i s s i l e a n d — e v e r s o s l o w l y
a t first — the C O R P O R A L b e g i n s its fire-trailing
a s c e n t i n t o t h e s k y . T w o m i l e s u p , it t i l t s a n d s c r e a m s
off t o w a r d a t a r g e t 6 0 t o 7 0 m i l e s a w a y .

23
 W H A T R E C O R D S W E R E M A D E W I T H AMERICA'S

FIRST ROCKET PLANES?

p o i n t a t w h i c h it w a s f e a r e d t h e t e r r i f i c
s p e e d s m i g h t m e l t t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e
c r a f t . B u i l t of t i t a n i u m (lighter than
s t e e l ) , i t flew o v e r 2 , 1 0 0 m p h a n d i n
1 9 5 6 it c l i m b e d t o 2 5 m i l e s a b o v e t h e
s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . I t s r o c k e t e n g i n e s
burned an alcohol-water mixture and
used liquid oxygen as a n oxidizer.

T HE BELL
Charles E. Yeager
X - l , piloted by

States Air Force, was the world's

of t h e
Capt.
United
first
m a n n e d a i r c r a f t t o fly f a s t e r t h a n the
s p e e d of s o u n d . I t t r a v e l e d a t 1 , 6 5 0 m p h
a n d i n 1 9 5 4 r e a c h e d a n a l t i t u d e of 17
miles.

T h e " X " s e r i e s of r o c k e t p l a n e s a r e
b u i l t f o r r e s e a r c h a n d c a r r y fuel f o r n o
more than five minutes of powered
flight. C a r r i e d a l o f t u n d e r t h e w i n g of
Rocket-driven planes having broken a m o t h e r plane, they are released above
the sound barrier, the X-2 was designed 3 5 , 0 0 0 feet, w h e r e t h e r o c k e t engines
to probe the thermal barrier — that are ignited.

24
 WHAT DOES THE X-15 ACCOMPLISH?

T H E X-15, an experimental
plane, was developed for
rocket research at the very edge
rocket
manned
of
space, above 99.99 per cent of the
earth's atmosphere. T h e X-15 carries
o u t its r e s e a r c h a b o v e t h e d e s e r t n e a r

1 , 5 0 0 f e e t , a n d t h e n its 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 - h o r s e -
p o w e r engine ignites a n d b u r n s for 9 0
seconds. T h e rocket plane flashes up-
ward toward cislunar space. After the
rocket has burned out, the X-15 still
c o n t i n u e s u p w a r d f o r t h o u s a n d s of feet
and then arches downward, reentering
the thicker a t m o s p h e r e . It glides b a c k
to earth and, using skis instead of
wheels, lands on the desert.
The X-15 has soared to 67 miles
E d w a r d s A i r F o r c e B a s e in California. above the earth a n d has reached speeds
T h e X - 1 5 is c a r r i e d b e n e a t h t h e w i n g of 4 , 5 3 4 m i l e s p e r h o u r , n i n e t i m e s t h e
of a B - 5 2 b o m b e r t o a n a l t i t u d e of b e - speed of sound. The newest X-15
tween 40,000 to 50,000 feet, from p l a n e s a r e d e s i g n e d t o fly e v e n h i g h e r ,
w h e r e it is r e l e a s e d . I t p l u m m e t s for at speeds u p to 5,300 miles per hour.

25
 W H I C H ARE T H E U N I T E D STATES

L O N G - R A N G E MISSILES?

M I S S I L E e x p e r i m e n t s in t h e U n i t e d
States A r m y , N a v y a n d A i r F o r c e
b e g a n s o o n a f t e r t h e e n d of W o r l d W a r
I I , w h e n a q u a n t i t y of c a p t u r e d Ger-
m a n V - 2 missiles, t o g e t h e r w i t h G e r m a n
r o c k e t specialists, w e r e b r o u g h t from
Europe.
R o c k e t building, almost abandoned
since R o b e r t G o d d a r d ' s e x p e r i m e n t s in
t h e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 ' s , w e n t i n t o h i g h g e a r in
order to perfect missiles capable of
carrying a nuclear warhead to an enemy
t a r g e t . W i t h t h e i n c r e a s e i n p o w e r of
r o c k e t e n g i n e s a n d t h e u s e of multi-
stage missiles, their r a n g e w a s i n c r e a s e d
to over 5,000 miles.
A m i s s i l e , i n t h e m i l i t a r y s e n s e , is a
rocket carrying an explosive warhead.
T h u s , n o t all r o c k e t s a r e missiles.

Larger and more powerful than any mis-

sile booster is the Saturn 5 rocket. It is
278 feet tall and weighs 3,000 tons. Its
five 1,500,000-pound-thrust engines give
it a total thrust of 7,500,000 pounds,
making it the world's most powerful
rocket. The first launching of a Saturn 5
took place November 9, 1967. A little
more than a year later, a Saturn 5 boosted
the Apollo 8 spacecraft on man's first
journey to the moon.

JUPITER THOR

Service Branch U.S. Army U.S. Air Force

Height (feet) 58 62
Weight (pounds) 105,000 110,000
Range (miles) 1,50Q 1,500
Contractor Chrysler Douglas

26
 £

^W

REDSTONE VANGUARD ATLAS

U.S. Army U.S. Navy U.S. Air Force

69 72 75
22,000 243,000
200+ 300 Mi. Alt. 9,000
Chrysler Martin Convair

27
 HOW FAST MUST A ROCKET TRAVEL TO

ESCAPE EARTH'S GRAVITATIONAL PULL?

T O G O to the m o o n — our only nat-

ural s a t e l l i t e — a r o c k e t missile m u s t
a t t a i n a s p e e d of 2 5 , 0 0 0 m p h t o e s c a p e
W h e n t h e l a s t s t a g e is fired, t h e m i s s i l e
m u s t be traveling at seven miles
s e c o n d . A t this p o i n t it will c o n t i n u e t o
per

from the earth's pull. T h i s m u s t b e d o n e coast, w i t h o u t p o w e r , a n d scientists be-

with multi-stage rockets, e a c h individ- lieve t h a t a s it c o m e s w i t h i n 30,000
ual stage sending t h e missile farther m i l e s of t h e m o o n , t h e m i s s i l e w i l l b e g i n
into space and at increasing speed. to orbit a r o u n d that body.

28
29
 HOW DOES A ROCKET WORK?

T HE MIGHTY
Fourth of July
Saturn 5 and
skyrocket
m u c h in c o m m o n . T h e y b o t h w o r k on
have
the and give
p o u n d thrust.
the rocket i t s 7 Vi - m i l l i o n -

T h e b u r n i n g g a s is p r o d u c e d b y ig-
t h e s a m e principle, relying for success n i t e d r o c k e t fuel. T h e r e a r e t w o m a i n
o n a l a w of m o t i o n d i s c o v e r e d b y S i r t y p e s of r o c k e t f u e l : s o l i d a n d l i q u i d .
Isaac Newton, a brilliant mathemati- S o m e solid fuels a r e b l a c k g u n p o w d e r ,
cian and scientist. It states t h a t for smokeless powder, and a chemical that
every action, there is an equal and op- is p r i n c i p a l l y r u b b e r . A m o n g t h e l i q u i d
posite reaction. In other words, when-
ever a force exerts a p u s h or a pull on
a n object in o n e direction ( a n a c t i o n ) ,
t h e o b j e c t itself e x e r t s a n e q u a l p u s h
or pull in t h e opposite direction (a
r e a c t i o n ) . If y o u fire a g u n , i t m o v e s
backward — it recoils, o r " k i c k s " —
against your shoulder with a force PROPELLANT
e q u a l t o t h a t of t h e b u l l e t m o v i n g f o r -
Components (and their distri-
w a r d o u t of t h e g u n b a r r e l . T h e b u l l e t bution) in a typical rocket.
m o v i n g f o r w a r d is a n a c t i o n , a n d t h e
g u n m o v i n g b a c k w a r d is a r e a c t i o n . A s
a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of N e w t o n ' s r e a c t i o n
p r i n c i p l e , if y o u j u m p f o r w a r d off a
s c o o t e r , t h e s c o o t e r itself m o v e s b a c k -
w a r d . Y o u r f o r w a r d j u m p is t h e a c t i o n ;
fuels in u s e a r e h y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e ( t h e
t h e s c o o t e r ' s m o v e b a c k w a r d is t h e re-
s a m e l i q u i d t h a t is a h o u s e h o l d anti-
a c t i o n . W h e n b u r n i n g g a s r u s h e s o u t of
septic, only m u c h m o r e concentrated
t h e r e a r of a r o c k e t , it is a n action
a n d p u r e r ) , alcohol, gasoline, hydro-
w h o s e r e a c t i o n is t h e f o r w a r d m o t i o n of
gen, fluorine, a n d liquid oxygen. Roc-
t h e r o c k e t . T o n s of b u r n i n g g a s r u s h
k e t fuels a r e b e t t e r t e r m e d r o c k e t pro-
o u t of t h e r e a r of Saturn 5 every second
pellants.

THRUST CHAMBER
TURBNIE
PAMAO —
, GUD
IANCE PRESSURZ
IN
I G TANKS EXHAUST

CHEMICAL ROCKET
LIQUID PROPELLANT
HEAT-SN
IK -OXD
IZ
I ER FUEL7 TURBOPUMP VERNE
IR
NOSE CONE ROCKETS
PROPELLANT PUMPS

30
 A s o l i d p r o p e l l a n t is e a s i e s t t o u s e .
T h e solid-propellant rocket engine need
c o n s i s t o n l y of a p l a c e t o b u r n t h e p r o -
pellant (a combustion chamber), an
exhaust nozzle at the rocket's rear, a n d
a device to ignite the propellant. L i q u i d
propellants are much more compli-
cated to use t h a n solid ones. T h e liquid-
p r o p e l l a n t r o c k e t e n g i n e c o n s i s t s of a t
least two storage tanks, and pumps
force the propellant t h r o u g h pipes to
t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . A p o w e r sys-
t e m f o r t h e p u m p s a n d m a n y k i n d s of
c o n t r o l s a r e a l s o n e c e s s a r y p a r t s of t h e
liquid-propellant rocket. To compen-
sate for a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d combus-
tion system, though, a liquid-propellant
r o c k e t h a s c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s : it c a n
be made more powerful than a solid
p r o p e l l a n t e n g i n e ; t h e t h r u s t of t h e e n -
gine can b e varied ( a solid-propellant
engine's thrust cannot); some liquid
propellant engines can b e stopped a n d
r e s t a r t e d w h i l e t h e r o c k e t is i n flight,
whereas solid propellants c a n only b e
stopped and not restarted; and finally,
liquid p r o p e l l a n t s cost less t h a n solid
propellants.

A large m o d e r n rocket with hun-

d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s of p a r t s a n d r e q u i r -
i n g d o z e n s of m e n t o l a u n c h it is n o t v e r y
m u c h l i k e a F o u r t h of J u l y s k y r o c k e t
. . . y e t t h e r e is n o d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p r i n -
ciple t h a t m o v e s either t h e h u g e r o c k e t
o r t h e s m a l l o n e . I t is N e w t o n ' s f u n d a -
mental reaction law that drives all
rockets on their flights.

For every action, there is an

equal and opposite reaction.

31
 W H Y M U S T R O C K E T S BE U S E D FOR T R A V E L

IN O U T E R S P A C E ?

W H E N m a n flies t h r o u g h t h e i o n o -
sphere — extending
5 0 0 miles above the earth — a n d con-
from 50 to
It w a s t h e A m e r i c a n r o c k e t scientist,
Robbert Goddard who first proved,
b o t h m a t h e m a t i c a l l y a n d b y a c t u a l test,
t i n u e s i n t o t h e e x o s p h e r e , h e will be t h a t a r o c k e t will w o r k in a v a c u u m .
arriving in o u t e r space w h e r e n o atmos- Its fuel, w h e n m i x e d w i t h liquid oxy-
p h e r e e x i s t s . L o n g b e f o r e t h i s p o i n t is gen (often called L O X ) in the firing
r e a c h e d , piston a n d jet engines w o u l d c h a m b e r , will e x p l o d e a n d b u r n , creat-
h a v e stopped r u n n i n g because, to con- i n g thrust. Therefore, the rocket engine
t i n u e t o o p e r a t e , t h e y m u s t d r a w in air is u n l i k e a n y o t h e r i n t h a t it c a r r i e s its
( o x y g e n ) t o m i x w i t h t h e fuel t h e y use. o w n " a i r " w i t h it.
Another of its advantages for
m a n n e d s p a c e t r a v e l is t h a t i t s s p e e d of
acceleration c a n b e so c o n t r o l l e d by
t h e flow of f u e l , t h a t t h e i n i t i a l " b l a s t -
from the ground can be kept at
m a n can stand.

This f o u r - b a r r e l e d rocket
engine, weighing only 210
pounds, produced 6,000
pounds of ihrust. It pushed the
X-l through the sonic barrier
to a height of 90,000 feet.

32
 H O W IS A MULTI-STAGE

' Satellite MISSILE C O N S T R U C T E D ?

is mounted
above

"" Fuel
I T W A S America's own Dr. Goddard
w h o first d i s c o v e r e d t h a t b y m o u n t -
ing one rocket atop another — auto-
matically firing the next stage above
LOX w h e n t h e first h a d b u r n e d o u t — s p e e d s
and distances could be achieved that
Fuel
were impossible with a single-stage
Pumps
r o c k e t . I n s o m e i n s t a n c e s , t h e instru-
Rocket ment-carrying satellite has its own
r Motor r o c k e t e n g i n e w h i c h g o e s i n t o orbit, t o o .

Fuel

Second EXPLORER I SATELLITE

Stage

11,000 Outside and

Interior
Temperature
Pumps Recorders
Rocket
Motor

Cosmic
Ray
Recorder

AMERICA'S
Antenna
Wires VANGUARD I

Released from a
protective nose
cone, this instru-
mented satellite
Micrometeorite goes into orbit.
Rocket Erosion Gauges
Motor

33
 H O W DID PROJECT A R G U S CREATE

A MISSILE S H I E L D A R O U N D T H E EARTH?

Three small atomic warheads were

exploded at high altitudes in the
fall of 1958.

The Explorer IV satellite, which was

launched earlier in July, 1958, and
in a polar orbit, reported results of
the high blasts.

I N t h e a u t u m n of 1 9 5 8 , t h r e e r o c k e t s

fired
with nuclear w a r h e a d s w e r e secretly
above the South Atlantic Ocean
where the warheads
T h e o r b i t i n g Explorer
were exploded.
4 satellite radi-
o e d b a c k t o e a r t h t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e
t o a n a l t i t u d e of t h r e e h u n d r e d m i l e s , c l o u d of r a d i a t i o n left b y t h e e x p l o s i o n .

The converted missile ship Norton Sound,

in the South Atlantic, from which the
atomic warheads were fired.

34
 <*«=*;. r . . » • • - • - - - - ** •- • »

Areas marked A and B are cross sections of the doughnut-shaped Van Allen
radiation belts that surround the earth, The white cross marks the site of
the Project Argus experiment.

T h e o b j e c t of Project Argus was to e x p l o d e supersonic missiles harmlessly

find o u t if n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n s i n s p a c e h i g h i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e is t o explode
could be used to disrupt an enemy's neutron-releasing nuclear bombs.
missile-guiding r a d a r a n d radio. W h e n T h e first U . S . s a t e l l i t e , Explorer 1,
the 300-mile-high explosions occurred, d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o b e l t s of
the released negatively charged elec- intense radiation which surround our
trons were caught up by the earth's planet — except for areas over the
i n v i s i b l e m a g n e t i c field a n d s w e p t e a s t - N o r t h a n d South Poles. These are the
w a r d . W i t h i n a n h o u r , they h a d envel- V a n A l l e n radiation belts. O n e (A)
oped our planet with a thin veil of exists a b o u t 3 , 5 0 0 miles b e y o n d o u r at-
r a d i a t i o n t h a t effectively d i s r u p t e d ra- mosphere. Another belt of radiation
dio and radar transmissions. ( B ) exists b e t w e e n 8 , 0 0 0 a n d 12,000
M a n y scientists believe t h a t a w a y t o miles b e y o n d o u r atmosphere.

35
 M U S T PILOTLESS MISSILES BE A S S I S T E D

OFF T H E G R O U N D ?

Until the jet-propulsion p o w e r plant t o flying s p e e d b y r o c k e t s . W h e n flying

of a n y l o n g - r a n g e p i l o t l e s s b o m b c a n speed has been attained, the booster
r e a c h i t s full thrust, i t m u s t b e b o o s t e d rockets can be dropped.

T h e S N A R K , w h i c h c a n fly 5 , 0 0 0
m i l e s a n d dive to its target f r o m 6 0 , 0 0 0
f e e t , is d r i v e n b y a jet e n g i n e after it is
h u r t l e d i n t o free flight b y t w o r o c k e t s . O n the other hand, the B O M A R C ,
a n antiaircraft a n d antimissile missile,
i s p r o p e l l e d at t w i c e t h e s p e e d of s o u n d
by t w o ramjet engines.

T h e ramjet is a simple tube with n o

moving parts. However, it d o e s not
begin to function until air i s driven
t h r o u g h it a t v e r y h i g h s p e e d . A p o w e r -

Fuel Spray ful r o c k e t is u s e d t o r e a c h t h i s s p e e d .

Flame Holder and Igniter Combustion Chamber

36
The tall structure at the left, used to fuel and service
each separate stage of the missile, is rolled back
before the firing takes place.

W H A T W A S T H E FIRST U N I T E D STATES SATELLITE

PUT INTO ORBIT A R O U N D T H E EARTH?

O N January 31, 1958, a Jupiter-C

missile w a s launched from
Canaveral, Florida. A n A r m y Redstone
Cape
tipped the vehicle to a course parallel
w i t h t h e earth.
Six seconds later the third-stage rock-
— t h e first s t a g e — s e n t it 6 0 m i l e s u p . e t s of t h e m i s s i l e r a m m e d t h e E x p l o r e r
At 212 miles the ground controller I satellite i n t o orbit a r o u n d t h e earth.

37
 W H A T WAS PROJECT MERCURY?

A MERICA'S PROJECT
C U R Y h a d three objectives:
study m a n ' s ability to travel in space;
MER-
to
A l a n B. Shepard, Jr., America's first
a s t r o n a u t , w a s l a u n c h e d i n t o space in
t h e M e r c u r y c a p s u l e Freedom 7 for a
to place manned satellites in orbit 15-minute, 115-mile-high suborbital
a r o u n d t h e e a r t h ; a n d t o r e t u r n t h e pi- flight. Another suborbital flight was
lot a n d his s p a c e c a p s u l e safely t o earth. m a d e i n Liberty Bell 7 by Marine Cap-
O n M a y 5, 1961, N a v y C o m m a n d e r t a i n V i r g i l I . G r i s s o m . T h e n t h e r e fol-

Artist's conception, cutaway view, of a space

capsule of a type to follow Project Mercury.
This larger capsule carries two astronauts.

Retro-rockets
to slow up re-entry
to earth's atmosphere

38
lowed four orbital flights by Project times in 34V^ h o u r s a n d traveled m o r e
Mercury astronauts, M a r i n e Lt. Colo- t h a n half a million miles.
n e l J o h n G l e n n i n Friendship 7, Lt. T h e Mercury capsules were 7 feet
C o m m a n d e r M . Scott C a r p e n t e r in Au- in d i a m e t e r a t t h e b a s e a n d 10 feet tall.
rora 7, C o m m a n d e r W a l t e r M . S c h i r r a , They orbited between 100 and 150
J r . i n Sigma 7, a n d finally Air Force miles above the earth. T h e capsule w a s
C o l o n e l L . G o r d o n C o o p e r , Jr. in Faith slowed at reentry time by firing retro-
7. C o l o n e l C o o p e r o r b i t e d t h e e a r t h 2 2 rockets.

e space vehicle prepares to land. Its

nose, triggered by the astronauts, is ejected
— loosing the parachute. At the same time,
the retro-rockets slow the capsule's earth-
ward descent.

39
 WHAT DANGERS DOES MAN FACE IN OUTER SPACE?

Re-entry
into Earth's
Heavier
Atmosphere

lonospheric
Currents

F U T U R E astronauts will encounter

many hazards and problems as they
travel greater distances into outer space.
lites t h a t h a v e r a d i o e d b a c k i m p o r t a n t
information.
have already
Some
been
of these hazards
investigated by
Some of t h e s e h a z a r d s h a v e already American and Russian astronauts. So
b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d b y u n m a n n e d satel- f a r , n o ill effects h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d .
 H O W M U S T M A N BE PROTECTED

IN SPACE VEHICLES?

D URING journeys into space,

m a n s m u s t c a r r y w i t h t h e m a suffi-
hu-

c i e n t s u p p l y of o x y g e n , f o o d a n d l i q u i d
b a n d s a r o u n d t h e earth. M a n m u s t b e
held in place during rapid acceleration
a n d brutal d e c e l e r a t i o n w h i l e leaving
t o last u n t i l their r e t u r n t o e a r t h . T h e y a n d returning to our atmosphere. O n c e
must also be protected against searing in space, he m u s t learn to c o p e w i t h
h e a t , bitter c o l d , a n d s h i e l d e d a g a i n s t t h e p r o b l e m s of w e i g h t l e s s n e s s a n d pe-
intense radiation known to exist in r i o d s of c o m p l e t e i n a c t i v i t y .

41
 HOW CAN MAN'S SAFE RETURN

TO THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE BE SOLVED?

R E T U R N I N G t o e a r t h f r o m s p a c e is
as great a p r o b l e m as leaving for
space. F o r m a n y years, scientists h a v e
materials h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o over-
c o m e t h e h a z a r d s of r e - e n t r y , e n a b l i n g
the American and Russian astronauts
w o r k e d t o o v e r c o m e t h e difficulties of t o r e t u r n safely.
re-entry. T h e Project Mercury c a p s u l e h a s a spe-
W h e n a space ship, traveling at thou- c i a l s u r f a c e , s o m e of w h i c h b u r n s a w a y ,
s a n d s of m i l e s a n h o u r , d e s c e n d s t o w a r d thereby protecting the metal beneath.
earth, the atmosphere creates enough W h e n t h e r e t u r n i n g s h i p is c l o s e t o t h e
friction to melt the ship's m e t a l hull. earth's surface, a p a r a c h u t e opens to
Special metals a n d special insulating slow its d e s c e n t t o l a n d i n g s p e e d .

WHERE DO WE STAND IN SPACE ACCOMPLISHMENTS?

T h e Space Age opened when Russia tiny meteors that b o m b a r d the earth's
l a u n c h e d t h e first s a t e l l i t e , Sputnik I. a t m o s p h e r e by the billions every day.
S i n c e t h e n a b e w i l d e r i n g a m o u n t of ef- Spacecraft have gone to the moon, to
fort a n d m o n e y has been p u t into space Venus, and to M a r s to explore these
exploration by the United States and planets. Others have journeyed close to
Russia, a n d a smaller a m o u n t b y a few the sun to get information a b o u t that
other nations. huge astronomical body. T h e United
Well over a thousand spacecraft have S t a t e s s e n t Mariner II o n a m i s s i o n t o
b e e n l a u n c h e d . T h e y h a v e b e e n of m a n y V e n u s , our nearest neighbor in the solar
different kinds. M o s t have been arti- s y s t e m , a n d l e a r n e d t h a t it is t o o h o t
ficial satellites sent orbiting a r o u n d the for living things as w e k n o w t h e m on
earth. These satellites have carried e a r t h to exist there. T h e U n i t e d States
instruments that have measured the a l s o s e n t Mariner IV to photograph
e a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field, i t s r a d i a t i o n field, M a r s a n d l e a r n e d t h a t M a r s h a s a sur-
its s h a p e , a n d its size. O t h e r s a t e l l i t e s face pocked with craters, like the
have photographed clouds, sending m o o n ' s surface.
back to earth hundreds and hundreds I n 1967, both the United States and
of p i c t u r e s e v e r y d a y of t h e y e a r . T h e s e the U.S.S.R. sent space probes to the
p h o t o s h a v e e n a b l e d scientists t o pre- planet Venus which revealed that its
dict w e a t h e r m o r e accurately t h a n they s u r f a c e is t o o h o t — m o r e t h a n 5 0 0 ° F .
ever h a v e d o n e before. O t h e r satellites — t o s u p p o r t life a s w e k n o w it. T h e
h a v e sent o u t signals that help ocean- U. S. p r o b e Mariner II had found,
going vessels n a v i g a t e m o r e precisely. b a c k in 1962, that V e n u s rotates in a
Still o t h e r s a t e l l i t e s h a v e m e a s u r e d t h e d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t o t h a t of t h e e a r t h .
O n e rotation takes 2 2 5 earth days. T h e s u r f a c e b y m e a n s of t e l e v i s i o n c a m e r a s
long Venusian day, equal to m o r e t h a n c a l l e d Lunar Or biters. All this photog-
1 0 0 e a r t h d a y s , a l l o w s t h e s u r f a c e of raphy had one main purpose — to help
Venus to become very hot, and Venus' s c i e n t i s t s find a s u i t a b l e l a n d i n g s i t e o n
thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide t h e m o o n for a s t r o n a u t s .
holds in the heat. It will b e a l o n g t i m e T h e astronauts themselves trained at
b e f o r e m e n find a w a y t o e x p l o r e V e n u s . s p a c e v o y a g i n g i n Project Mercury and
T h e m o o n has been explored by un- Project Gemini. T h e n , in late 1968, t h e
m a n n e d spacecraft. In 1959, Russia's greatest a c h i e v e m e n t in m a n n e d space
Lunik III p h o t o g r a p h e d t h e f a r s i d e of flight so far was m a d e by the United
the moon. In 1964 and 1965, the States. T h i s w a s t h e m o o n - o r b i t i n g voy-
United States m a d e m o r e t h a n 17,000 a g e of t h e t h r e e Apollo 8 astronauts,
c l o s e - u p p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e m o o n w i t h F r a n k B o r m a n , James Lovell, a n d Wil-
television c a m e r a s a b o a r d three Rang- liam A n d e r s . H a v i n g m a d e this tech-
ers. R u s s i a s o f t - l a n d e d a c a m e r a o n t h e nically flawless v o y a g e , m a n is j u s t a
m o o n in early 1966 and the United step a w a y from setting foot on a n astro-
States followed w i t h similar feats, the nomical body other than the earth, the
Surveyor space probes. The United earth's moon.
States thoroughly mapped the lunar

PROTECTIVE NOSE CONE

ULTRA-VIOLET AND X-RAY

INSTRUMENTS
One of the first living space travellers was a dog; it
was a passenger in a Russian spacecraft, Sputnik II TRANSMITTERS AND
(October, 1957). RECORDING
INSTRUMENTS

DOG'S SEALED
COMPARTMENT
 H O W DOES M A N EXPECT TO LIVE IN OUTER SPACE?

S P A C E scientists h a v e p l a c e d into
orbit a r o u n d the earth permanent
satellites used as relay stations for ra-
dio a n d television broadcasts. T h e s e a r e
called c o m m u n i c a t i o n s satellites. O t h e r
long-term satellites observe the w e a t h e r
a n d aid navigation.
V a r i o u s t y p e s of s p a c e s t a t i o n s f o r
different uses will b e lofted i n t o o r b i t
in s e p a r a t e sections a n d a s s e m b l e d by
w o r k m e n i n s p a c e suits. A t r e g u l a r in-
t e r v a l s t h e satellites will b e r e s t o c k e d
w i t h p r o v i s i o n s , f u e l a n d relief crews
sent u p from the earth.

Interplanetary Space Stations

44
 A Manned Winged Rocket Plane

A s t r o n o m e r s will w e l c o m e t h e o p p o r -
t u n i t y t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r s t u d i e s of t h e
universe from a vantage point outside
t h e e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e . T h e y will be
equipped with unmanned "snooper
craft" to explore outer space a n d report
back by radio. T h e winged rocket plane
( s h o w n a b o v e , r i g h t ) is r e t u r n i n g a f t e r
c a r r y i n g supplies t o a satellite.

45
 W H E R E C A N M A N GO W H E N HE LEAVES

T H E EARTH?

T H E E A R T H is a s m a l l p l a n e t a m o n g
b i l l i o n s of s t a r s a n d o t h e r c e l e s t i a l
b o d i e s in a u n i v e r s e t h a t e x t e n d s be-
contain a hundred thousand
It seems likely t h a t s o m e w h e r e a m o n g
planets.

t h e s e b i l l i o n s of h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , l i v i n g
y o n d m a n ' s i m a g i n a t i o n . A t r u e s t a r is conditions suitable to m a n m a y b e pres-
a n y heavenly b o d y like o u r sun, w h i c h e n t . H e h a s t h r i v e d o n e a r t h b e c a u s e of
is s e l f - l u m i n o u s ; p l a n e t s a n d satellites a c o m b i n a t i o n of e l e m e n t s : a d e e p b a n d
s h i n e b y r e f l e c t e d l i g h t . T h e s o l a r sys- of a t m o s p h e r e , w a t e r t o d r i n k , a n d h e a t
t e m t o w h i c h t h e e a r t h b e l o n g s is m a d e for w a r m t h a n d cooking.
u p of n i n e p l a n e t s w h i c h r e v o l v e a r o u n d A m o n g t h e p l a n e t s a n d s a t e l l i t e s of
t h e sun. Satellites, like t h e m o o n w h i c h o u r solar system, m a n y a r e t o o h o t or
orbits a r o u n d the earth, circle a r o u n d t o o c o l d t o s u p p o r t h u m a n life, w h i l e
t h e p l a n e t s . O u r s o l a r s y s t e m is o n l y a others give off chemical fumes that
t i n y p a r t of a l a r g e r g a l a x y of s t a r s — w o u l d d e s t r o y it. A s t r o n o m e r s believe
the Milky Way — and astronomers t h a t of a l l t h e p l a n e t s i n o u r s o l a r sys-
h a v e d i s c o v e r e d a b o u t a h u n d r e d mil- tem, only M a r s might b e livable for
l i o n s u c h g a l a x i e s , e a c h of w h i c h m a y h u m a n beings.

H O W FAR AWAY ARE O T H E R PLANETS

IN OUR SOLAR S Y S T E M ?

Mean Distance Gravity

from Sun Length Period Diameter at Surface
Planet (Millions of Miles) of Year of Rotation (Miles) (Earth=l)

Mercury 36 88 days 88 days 3,000 0.27

Venus 67.2 225 days Unknown 7,600 0.85
Earth 93 365 days 1 day 7,920 1.00
Mars 141.5 687 days 24.6 hours 4,220 0.38
Jupiter 483.3 11.86 years 9.9 hours 89,000 2.64
Saturn 886 29.46 years 10.2 hours 75,000 1.17
Uranus 1,783 84 years 10.7 hours 31,000 0.92
Neptune 2,793 164.8 years 15.8 hours 28,000 1.12
Pluto 3,675 248.4 years Unknown 6,300 Unknown

46
 RELATIVE SIZES OF THE PLANETS

Mercury •

Mars •
Venus

Earth

Uranus

RELATIVE DISTANCES OF THE PLANETS

FROM THE SUN

Pluto

T H E SATELLITES OF T H E PLANETS

MARS: 2 satellites. Diameters: 5 and 1 miles. Orbits: 3,700 and 14,500 miles. Circuit time: Vi and 1 Vi days.

JUPITER: 12 satellites. Diameters: 20 to 3,200 miles. Orbits: 112,600 to 14,888,000 miles. Circuit time:
V2 to 760 days.
SATURN: 9 satellites. Diameters: 200 to 3,550 miles. Orbits: 115,000 to 8,034,000 miles. Circuit time:
1 to 550 days.
URANUS: 5 satellites. Diameters: 150 to 1,000 miles. Orbits: 80,800 to 364,000 miles. Circuit time: 1 Vi
to 1 3 V2 days.
NEPTUNE: 2 satellites. Diameters: 200 and 3,000 miles. Orbits: 220,000 and 5,000,000 miles. Circuit
time: 6 and 730 days.

47
 W H E N WILL T R U E S P A C E T R A V E L B E G I N ?

B E F O R E it is s a f e f o r m a n t o t r a v e l
in outer space, there
frightening h a z a r d s for w h i c h scientists
are many
the problem
ground-based
manned orbital
of re-entry.
experiments
and lunar
Only
and
flights
after
more
by
must find answers. Experts already a s t r o n a u t s i n t o t h e f r i n g e s of t h e e a r t h ' s
k n o w about the dangers from cosmic a t m o s p h e r e w i l l m a n feel s a f e t o j o u r n e y
r a y s , a b a n d of i n t e n s e r a d i a t i o n , w a n - to the other planets, with stopovers at
d e r i n g m e t e o r i t e s , blast-off s p e e d s a n d space stations orbiting the earth.

In the future, manned space stations orbiting around the earth may be
visited regularly by shuttle-craft with supplies and men.

48
 HOW AND WHY WONDER BOOKS
Produced and approved by noted authorities, these books
answer the questions most often asked about science, na-
ture and history. They are presented in a clear, readable
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trations. Readers will want to explore each of these
fascinating subjects and collect these volumes as
authentic, ready-reference, basic library.
5001 DINOSAURS 5035 WORLD WAR II
5002 WEATHER 5036 FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
5003 ELECTRICITY 5037 BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
5004 ROCKS AND MINERALS 5039 ROBOTS AND
5005 ROCKETS AND MISSILES ELECTRONIC BRAINS
5007 INSECTS 5040 LIGHT AND COLOR
5008 REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 5041 WINNING OF THE WEST
5009 BIRDS 5042 THE AMERICAN
5010 OUR EARTH REVOLUTION
5011 BEGINNING SCIENCE 5043 CAVES TO SKYSCRAPERS
5012. MACHINES 5045 TIME
5013 THE HUMAN BODY 5046 MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM
5014 SEA SHELLS 5047 GUNS
5015 ATOMIC ENERGY 5049 FAMOUS SCIENTISTS
5016 THE MICROSCOPE 5050 OLD TESTAMENT
5017 THE CIVIL WAR 5051 BUILDING
5018 MATHEMATICS 5053 TREES
5020 BALLET 5054 OCEANOGRAPHY
5021 CHEMISTRY 5055 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
5022 HORSES 5056 MUSHROOMS, FERNS AND
5023 EXPLORATIONS AND MOSSES
DISCOVERIES 5057 THE POLAR REGIONS
5024 PRIMITIVE MAN 5058 COINS AND CURRENCY
5025 NORTH AMERICA 5059 BASIC INVENTIONS
5026 PLANETS AND 5060 THE FIRST WORLD WAR
INTERPLANETARY TRAVEL 5061 ELECTRONICS
5027 WILD ANIMALS 5062 DESERTS
5028 SOUND 5063 AIR AND WATER
5029 5064 STARS
LOST CITIES 5065 AIRPLANES AND THE STORY
5030 ANTS AND BEES OF FLIGHT
5031 WILD FLOWERS 5066 FISH
5032 DOGS 5067 BOATS AND SHIPS
5033 PREHISTORIC MAMMALS 5068 THE MOON
5034 SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS 5069 TRAINS AND RAILROADS

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