 Chapter 3 WEIGHT LIMITATIONS

GENERAL

This chapter describes the many individual weight restrictions or limitations, that when
combined, may affect the payload/range characteristics, and therefore the flight planning
requirements, of any public transport aeroplane.

AEROPLANE WEIGHT

As we should already know from our studies as aircraft dispatcher student, the main force
created to counteract the weight and allow the aeroplane to be maneuvered is lift. In straight-
and-level flight, lift will be approximately equal to the weight, In certain maneuvers, lift may
considerably exceed the weight – increased lift means an increase in wing loading and
therefore an increased load factor. The heavier an aeroplane is, the poorer its performance
will be.

BASIC AEROPLANE WEIGHT

Basic Aeroplane Weight known also as Aeroplane Empty Weight which consisting of the total
weight of the aeroplane structure, power plants and all permanent fixtures and equipment plus
the weight of any unusable fuel, undrainable oil, the hydraulic system, any other undrainable
fluids (water injection, anti-ice) and any undrainable water systems.

In the above configuration the aeroplane must be weighed by the manufacturer before initial
delivery to any operator. Under certification requirements it must be re-weighed at regular
intervals and a revised Basic Aeroplane Weight Schedule must be published, normally in the
operator’s Operations or weight and balance manuals. Any modification or installation of
additional permanent equipment in an aeroplane require the immediate re-issue of a revised
Basic Aeroplane Weight schedule.

DRY OPERATING WEIGHT (DOW)

Known also as Aeroplane Prepared for Service Weight (APSW). In addition to know the
aeroplane’s basic weight, it is also necessary to calculate the total weight of the many variable
items that are necessary to be carried on any public transport aeroplane for any particular
flight. Such items are collectively known as OPERATING ITEMS, and may vary between
individual operators and may also vary for each individual flight. OPERATING ITEMS include
the total weight of technical and cabin crew with their baggage, food and drink, oil, all full fluid
systems, water and all other removable equipment (spare parts, emergency equipment, life
rafts and ballast).

DOW or APSW = BASIC AEROPLANE WEIGHT + OPERATING ITEMS

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TRAFFIC LOAD or PAYLOAD

This is the total weight of all passengers, passenger baggage and cargo (freight) that may be
carried on an aeroplane; and is also the difference in weight between the DOW/APSW and
the ZFW. As the DOW/APSW is fixed for each and every flight, the actual traffic load may be
limited by any, or either of :-

 MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED ZERO FUEL WEIGHT

 TOTAL FUEL REQUIREMENT
 AEROPLANE COMPARTMENT FLOOR LOADING LIMITATIONS

ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (ZFW)

Also known as DRY TANK WEIGHT (DTW). This is the combined weight of :

ZFW = DOW/APSW + TRAFFIC LOAD or TAKEOFF WEIGHT – TAKEOFF FUEL

It is a certification structural design requirement for all public transport aeroplanes to publish a
MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (MCZFW). MCZFW is the maximum
weight at which an aeroplane may be operated without accounting for any usable fuel, i.e. It is
the weight beyond which, any increase in either aeroplane weight or load must consist of
usable fuel.

THE ACTUAL ZFW MUST NEVER EXCEED MCZFW

All large aeroplanes have a structurally limited Zero Fuel Weight. This limit is imposed to
ensure that stresses on the wing caused by the upward lift forces in flight are not excessive.
The fuel load carried in the wing tanks exerts a downward force which helps to relieve these
stresses. Any load above MCZFW must be usable fuel in the wing.

Takeoff Fuel

Also known as load sheet fuel. This is the total weight of fuel required for any flight, less that
needed for starting the power units, running any auxiliary power unit (APU) and taxiing out to
the takeoff position.

TAKEOFF FUEL = TRIP FUEL + TOTAL RESERVE FUEL

TAKEOFF WEIGHT (TOW)

Also known as TAKEOFF GROSS WEIGHT. The TOW of any aeroplane is therefore :

It is a legal requirement that no public transport aeroplane may takeoff at a weight in excess
of the Regulated Takeoff Weight (RTOW) for the departure aerodrome, Furthermore the
RTOW may be a lower weight than MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED TAKEOFF WEIGHT
(MCTOW) for the aeroplane.
Sometimes a performance limitation (short runway, high obstacle in the take off path,
unfavorable wind or slope, high temperature and low atmospheric pressure, i.e. high density
height) will limit that particular take off to a weight less than the max structure take off weight.

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Thus on occasions it may be necessary to reassess the original desired Takeoff fuel and or
desire traffic load in order to ensure the aeroplane complies with the certification and
operating regulations. In such cases it is normal to first try to reduce the total takeoff fuel
requirement (by adopting a different legal operating/cruise procedure) and then, generally only
as a last resort is any reduction of traffic load considered.

TAKEOFF WEIGHT = ZFW + TAKEOFF FUEL

Start up, APU and Taxi out fuel

Most modern public transport aeroplanes are certificated with both a MAXIMUM
CERTIFICATED RAMP WEIGHT (MCRW) and a MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED TAKEOFF
WEIGHT (MCTOW) where the difference between these two weights is the normal maximum
weight of fuel that may be considered to be used for the starting of all aeroplane power units,
running the APU and ultimately taxiing out to the start of the takeoff position.

It is common airline operational practice to stipulate a specific standard weight of fuel for
normal “Start up” purposes, dependent on the amount of traffic and or average length of
taxiing time. However in extreme cases where delays may often occur or where the length of
taxiing is unusually long, it may be necessary to use more fuel than that allowed for by the
difference between MCRW and MCTOW. In such cases and because the MCRW cannot be
exceeded, the actual TOW must be reduced to a weight less than MCTOW.

MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED RAMP WEIGHT (MCRW)

Known also as MAXIMUM CERTIFICATED TAXI WEIGHT, Is a certificated design structure
weight that an aeroplane may be loaded to, at the start up of its power units and as such may
never be exceeded.

RAMP WEIGHT = TOW + TAXI FUEL or ZFW + RAMP FUEL

Trip Fuel
Trip fuel is the total weight of fuel expected to be consumed during a flight, from the start of
takeoff through all phases of the flight i.e. climb, cruise, descent to approach and landing at
planned destination.

Note: Trip fuel when plus with Taxi fuel is known as Burn-off fuel.

Reserve Fuel
Reserve fuel is that which is normally carried on an aeroplane for safety reasons, but is not
expected to be consumed during the planned flight. It s the total weight of fuel required for
diversion to an alternate, holding, operational reserves and any excess fuel etc.

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LANDING WEIGHT
It is a legal requirement that a public transport aeroplane will not normally take off at any
weight in excess of that, which will permit the aeroplane to land at either the planned
destination or alternate aerodromes, at a weight which is the lesser of either, MAXIMUM
CERTIFICATED LANDING WEIGHT (MCLW) or REGULATED LANDING WEIGHT (RLW).

MCLW is a certificated maximum structural weight at which an aeroplane may land during
normal operations, it is published in the Flight Manual, and cannot normally be exceeded.

Sometimes a performance limitation (short runway, high obstacle in the approach path making
a long touch down necessary, unfavorable wind or slope, high density height) may limit that
particular landing to a weight less than the max structure landing weight.

Thus any take-off weight may be restricted by the landing weight i.e.:-

LANDING WEIGHT = TOW - TRIP FUEL or ZFW + RESERVE FUEL

Total Fuel or Fuel Requirement

Total fuel is the combined weight of :

TAXI FUEL + TRIP FUEL + CONTINGENCY FUEL + ALTERNATE FUEL + HOLDING FUEL

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 Diagram of accumulative operating weights

47000 Weight of aeroplane Structure and power plants

+ Fixed equipment (radios, seats etc.)

+ Fixed ballast
+ Unusable fuel
+ Undrainable oil
+ Full hydraulic system fluid
+ Undrainable water system (washing and drinking)
+ Undrainable water injection fluid
+ Undrainable anti-icing system fluid

50000 = BASIC AEROPLANE WEIGHT

+ Technical flight crew and baggage

+ Cabin crew and baggage
+ Flight equipment (maps, charts, manuals)
+ Food and drink
+ Full oil system
+ Full water system/washing and drinking
OPERATING
+ Full water injection fluid
ITEMS
+ Full anti-icing system
+ Variable seating configuration
+ Spare parts
+ Emergency equipment (life rafts and Survival Kits)
+ Removable ballast

53000 = DRY OPERATING WEIGHT (DOW) or APSW

+ Total passengers
+ Total passengers baggage (hold + cabin) TRAFFIC
+ Cargo (freight) LOAD

71000 = ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (ZFW)

+ Total reserve fuel (alternate, holding, operations reserve etc)

77500 = LANDING WEIGHT (destination)

+ Trip fuel or burn off

89500 = TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (TOW)

+ Start up, APU, and taxi-out fuel

90000 = RAMP or TAXI WEIGHT

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 EXERCISE

RESERVE
FUEL

Complete question below using data from page 3-5

1. How much payload to be released on this flight ?

2. How much total reserve fuel to be on board ?

3. How much the amount of fuel to be consumed during flight ?

4. How much fuel being used to move aircraft to take-off position ?

5. What is the minimum fuel on board the aircraft ?

6. What is the take-off fuel on this flight ?

7. What shall be alternate fuel on this flight if holding fuel is 2000 kg ?

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PAYLOAD CALCULATION

Below is a diagram showing the general weight schedule for most transport aircraft.

Taxi Ramp Weight (RW)

Trip fuel Takeoff Weight (TOW)

Reserves Landing Weight (LDW)

Payload Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW)

Dry Operating Weight (DOW) Aircraft Prepared for

Service (APS)

Step 1

Calculate the MTOW for that particular flight, this will ensure other weight limitations i.e. Max
landing weight, max zero fuel weight etc. are not exceeded. Max takeoff weight permitted will
be the least of one of the following three situations.

I) MTOW (Chart or Structural)

II) MLW (Chart or Structural) + (Trip Fuel)
III) MZFW + (Takeoff Fuel)

Once the takeoff weight has been established from the above, this weight is used to calculate
the payload.

Step 2

MTOW (from above) : less all Fuel (Takeoff fuel) = ZFW

less APS weight (DOW) = Payload

Example

An aircraft is to fly from A to B and has the following limitations, calculate MTOW and payload:

a) MTOW 115,000 kg
b) MLW 90,000 kg
c) MZFW 87,000 kg
d) APS weight 75,000 kg
e) Flight A B (Trip Fuel) 20,000 kg
f) Reserved Fuel 4,000 kg
g) Taxi fuel 200 kg

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MAXIMUM TAKEOFF WEIGHT CALCULATION

Calculate the MTOW for that particular flight, this will ensure that other weight limitation i.e.,
MLW, MZFW etc., are not exceeded. MTOW permitted will be the least of one of the following
three situations.

MTOW MTOW (MLW) MTOW (MZFW)

Structural Structural + Trip fuel Structural +Takeoff fuel

(90,000 + 20,000) (87,000 + 24,000)

115,000 110,000 111,000

LEAST

PLANNED MTOW
This weight is used to
calculate the payload

110,000

MTOW (Structure or chart) = 115,000 kg

MLW (Structural or chart) + (Trip Fuel)

90,000 20,000 = 110,000 kg

MZFW (Structural) + (Takeoff Fuel)

87,000 20,000 + 4000 = 111,000 kg

Therefore from (1), (2) and (3) above, the least weight is 110,000 kg. Hence the MTOW
permitted for this flight is said to be MLW limited to 110,000 kg.

Calculation max payload using this weight:

PAYLOAD CALCULATION

a) MTOW (from step 1) 110,000 kg

b) Less all fuel (Trip Fuel + Reserve) -24,000 kg
c) ZFW = 86,000 kg
d) Less APS weight (DOW) -75,000 kg
e) Payload = 11,000 kg

Therefore MTOW for this flight is 110,000 kg

Payload is 11,000 kg

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SUMMARY OF WEIGHT CONTROL
In order to get the aircraft right weight at its most safety, the 4 values of weight, as stated
below, must be adhered to :

1. Maximum Zero Fuel Weight

It is the value of weight that must not be exceeded by the weight of the aircraft with all loads
except fuel. This is the weight beyond which any increase in load must consist entirely of fuel
to avoid undue stress on the wing structure. The Maximum Zero Fuel Weight is therefore
based upon the strength of the wing joint points (the points where the wings are connected to
the aircraft body).

2. Maximum Takeoff Weight

This is the maximum permitted weight at brake release at takeoff. It is the value of weight that
must not be exceeded by the weight of the aircraft with all loads and the amount of fuel at the
time of taking off.

3. Maximum Landing Weight

It is the value of weight that must not be exceeded by the weight of the aircraft with all loads
and the amount of fuel at the time of landing. The landing gear is required to cushion the
impact sufficiently at touchdown so as to prevent excessive loads being transmitted into the
aircraft structure. The force of impact can be kept within the capabilities of the landing gear if
the downward velocity is sufficiently reduced by the pilot and the weight of the aircraft is within
the permissible weight.

By its nature, an aircraft has its own weight as Basic Weight of Aircraft. The aircraft with only
its basic weight is inoperative and not ready to service yet unless it is equipped with crews
and pantry of food. The weight of crews and pantry are varied in accordance with the aircraft
type and flight routing. With the combination value of aircraft’s basic weight, we can have the
value of Dry Operating Weight which is the weight of the aircraft ready for service.

The next things that we are going to consider in each flight will be the kind of load on board
which is called traffic Loads such as

a) Passengers

The seat capacity of passengers will be varied in accordance with the cabin
configuration of each aircraft type.

b) Baggages

All passengers baggages of which the actual weight can be obtained from the check-in
counter, will be loaded onto the aircraft in accordance with the load plan.

c) Cargo

According to its nature, the goods accepted on board as cargo may be loaded with Unit
Load Devices (ULD) or in bulk of aircraft.

d) Mail

Most of mail or postal matter in a small number can be loaded in bulk compartment or
ULD in accordance with the load plan.

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e) Unit Load Devices (ULD)

ULD are aircraft equipment used to load baggage, cargo and mails. The weight of ULD
is considered as Traffic Load and must be loaded onto the aircraft in accordance with
compartment configuration.

By combining the weight value of passengers, baggages, cargo, mail and ULD together,
the Traffic Load or Payload can be obtained. If we add the weight of Traffic Load to the
Dry Operating Weight , we will get the value of Zero Fuel Weight which must not exceed
the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight . As Dry Operating Weight is fixed for each flight, the
actual traffic load may be limited by any or either of

 Maximum Zero Fuel Weight

 Maximum Takeoff Weight
 Maximum Landing Weight
 Maximum Tank Capacity

The Zero Fuel Weight is the weight of the aircraft with all loads except fuel. When the aircraft
is filled up with the Takeoff fuel, we will get the value of the Takeoff Weight which must not
exceed the Maximum Takeoff Weight.

To fly from one place to another, a certain amount of fuel call Trip Fuel will be used. To get the
value of Landing Weight, we have to subtract the Actual Takeoff Weight with the Trip Fuel.
From this calculation, the Actual Landing Weight obtained must not exceed the Maximum
Landing Weight.

All mentioned above is the Weight Control. For Balance Control, the concentrated area should
be in the lower part of the aircraft which is compartment area. Since all loads in the cabin
tends to be the same for every flights, therefore, we have to make pre-loading before so as to
gain the Balance Control of the aircraft before the departure time.

oOo

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