Structure and Written Expression

1. Basic Grammar Terminologies

a. Pronoun and Noun : Kata Ganti Orang dan Kata Benda
b. Verb : Kata Kerja
c. Adjective : Kata Sifat
d. Adverb : Kata Keterangan
e. Article : Kata Sandang
f. Preposition : Kata Depan
Pronoun

S O Possessive Nominative Reflexive

I Me My Mine Myself
You You Your Yours Yourself/Yourselves
We Us Our Ours Ourselves
They Them Their Theirs Themselves
She Her Her Hers Herself
He Him His His Himself
It It Its Its Itself
Example:
- Animals like frogs have waterproof skin that prevents they from drying out
A B C
Quickly in air, sun, or wind.
D
The sentence should read: Animals like frogs have waterproof skin that prevents them from drying out
quickly in air, sun, and wind. Therefore the correct answer is (C)

- Because of its ability to survive close to human habitation, the Virginia deer has
A B C
actually increased their range and numbers.
D
The sentence should read: Because of its ability to survive close to human habitation, the Virginia deer
has actually increased its range and numbers. Therefore the correct answer is (D)

Noun
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 Clues to identify Noun from its position and pattern:
 After “article” [the / a / an]+ Noun
 Before and after “of” [N of N]
 And
Same structure But Same structure
Or

 Suffixes that form Noun

 -er (entertainer, presenter)
 -or (actor, director)
 -ist (scientist, psychologist)
 -ian (comedian, magician)
 -ee (interviewee, employee)
 -eer (engineer, volunteer)
 -ant (servant, consultant, informant)
 -ment (government, development)
 -ion (notification, production)
 -ry (recovery, injury)
 -ship (friendship, leadership)
 -ness (illness, brightness)
 -ty (responsibility, security)
 -nce (significance, influence)
 -cy (accuracy, fluency)
 -age/ge (marriage, knowledge)
 -dom (freedom, kingdom)
 -ism (patriotism, nationalism)
 -phy (philosophy, geography)
 -al (refusal, denial, arrival)
 -gy (biology, sociology)
 -hood (Brotherhood, Childhood)
 -ure (pressure,failure,departure)
 th (truth, youth)

Some Random Noun Formations:

1. Grow (V) : Growth (N) 9. Deep (Adj) : Depth (N)
2. Fly (V) : Flight (N) 10. High (Adj) : Height (N)
3. See (V) : Sight (N) 11. Strong (Adj) : Strength (N)
4. Live (V) : Life (N) 12. Long (Adj) : Length (N)
5. Die (V) : Death (N) 13. True (Adj) : Truth (N)
6. Weigh (V) : Weight (N) 14. Hot (Adj) : Heat (N)
7. Believe (V) : Belief (N) 15. Wide (Adj) : Width (N)
8. Speak (V) : Speech (N)

Samples :

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 1. The able of writers to precisely record observation made about others enables
B C
them to include in their work a great deal of materials outside their own
C D
experience.

The sentence should read: The ability of writers to precisely record observation made about others
enables them to include in their work a great deal of materials outside their own experience. Therefore,
the answer is (A).

2. Some of the earliest mechanical devices were designed to raise water from
A B C
streams for the irrigate of crops.
C
The sentence should read: Some of the earliest mechanical devices were designed to raise water from
streams for the irrigation of crops. Therefore, the answer is ( C )
3. Philosophy tries to discover the nature of true and knowledge and to find what is of the basic
A B C
value and importance in life.
D
The sentence should read: Philosophy tries to discover the nature of truth and knowledge and to find
what is of the basic value and importance in life. Therefore, the answer is (B)

Adjective
a. Suffixes that form Adjective
-ful (beautiful, useful)
-less (speechless, powerless)
-al (industrial, political)
-ive (creative, attractive)
-ble (comfortable, valuable)
-ous (dangerous, famous)
-ish (childish, selfish)
-y (healthy, salty)
-nt (different, significant)
-ic (Islamic, historic)
-an (Brazilian, European)
-ese (Chinese, Japanese)

b. Participial Adjective
 Present Participle Adjective (Ving)
Ex: a washing machine, Ex: the confusing lesson
Adj N Adj N
 Past Participle Adjective (V3)
Ex: a limited edition Ex: a written document
Adj N Adj N
 *) Another + Singular N

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 Adj N
*) Other + Plural N
Adj N
*) Others
N
Samples:
1. Video artist combine many different ways of using video equipment both to
A B
create and to record various types of expression artistic.
C D
The sentence should read: Video artist combine many different ways of using video equipment both to
create and to record various types of expression artistic.

2. The convention national of a United States political party nominates candidates

A B
for the presidency and vice presidency of the country and issues a declaration of
C
policy.
D
The sentence should read: The national convention of a United States political party nominates
candidates for the presidency and vice presidency of the country and issues a declaration of policy.

Verb
 Simple Present Tense [-s / -es] -> only for Singular or Uncountable Noun Subject in Present Tense
 Habitual/regular activity
Example:
She studies in ITI of Padang to increase her TOEFL score
She gets up at 5 A.M every morning
 General Truth/Fact,
Example:
The Earth revolves around the Sun
Water freezes at temperature below 00 C
A plant obtains energy from the Sunlight.
Plants obtain energy from the sunlight

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 Time signals:
- Today, recently, currently, nowadays,
- (every, each, any)+time.
- When the sentence discusses fact or general truth, time
signal is not necessary.

Example:
- According to a World Resources Institute Report, a significant part of forest
A B
acreage disappear each year.
C D
The sentence should read: According to a World Resources Institute Report, a significant part of forest
acreage disappears each year. Therefore the correct answer is (C).
- Variations in melody, rhythm and tone of voice becomes a major feature of child
A B C
speech toward the end of the first year.
D
The sentence should read: Variations in melody, rhythm and tone of voice becomes a major feature of
child speech toward the end of the first year. Therefore the correct answer is (B).

 Simple Past [-ed / irregular verb]

 Time Signals:
- ago
- last
- In 1972, in the eighteenth century, in the early 1800s
- First / early/ the earliest/ originally/ ancient/ prehistoric, etc
- When the subject is a historical figure / Fact (Albert Einstein, Civil War, World War II, etc)
Example:
- In the late 1800s, United States painter Thomas Eakins develop a broad,
A B
powerful Realist style that became almost expressionistic in his later years.
C D

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 The sentence should read: In the late 1800s, United States painter Thomas Eakins developed a broad,
powerful Realist Style that became almost expressionistic in his later years. Therefore, the correct
answer is (A).

 Continous/Progressive Tense [Tobe (am / is / are / was / were /be/been/being+ Ving)

Pay attention to these following Ving examples :
 The meeting was cancelled (Gerund)
 We are discussing grammar now (Present Continues Tense)
 Indonesia is a developing country (Present Participial Adjective)
 Passive Voice [Tobe + V3]
Example:
- Prof Smith writes many articles (A) Many articles are written by Prof. Smith (P)
- Prof Smith wrote an article (A) An article was written by Prof Smith (P)
Example:
- When a bone is broke into several pieces, doctors may pin the pieces together
A B C
for proper healing.
D
The sentence should read: When a bone is broken into several pieces, doctors may pin the pieces
together for proper healing. Therefore, the answer is (A)
- The one-fluid theory of electricity was proposing by Benjamin Franklin, a man famous for his
A B C D
wide interests and great attainments.

The sentence should read: The one-fluid theory of electricity was proposed by Benjamin Franklin, a
man famous for his wide interests and great attainments. Therefore, the answer is (B).
Note : Ving ( Active voice / Continous Tense )
To Be +
V3 (Passive Voice )

 Perfect Tense
 Has / Have / Had + V3 (Active)
Ex: Prof Smith has written many novels (A)
 Has / Have / Had + been + V3 (Passive)
Ex: Many novels have been written by Prof Smith (P)

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 Example:
- Law in the United States has became a complex blend of common law and
A B C D
statutory law.

The sentence should read: Law in the United States has become a complex blend of common law
and statutory law. Therefore, the answer is (B)
- Since Prehistoric times, artist have been arranged colors on surfaces in ways
A B
that express their ideas about people, the world, and religion.
C D
The sentence should read: Since prehistoric times, artists have arranged colors on surfaces in ways
that express their ideas about people, the world, and religion. Therefore, the answer is (A).

 Future Tense
Auxilliaries : Will/ Shall/Would
 Will + V1 (Active)
Ex: Prof Smith will write an international Journal (A)
 Will + be + V3 (Passive)
Ex: An international journal will be written by Prof Smith (P)

 Modal (Can / Could / Shall / Should / May / Might)

 Modal + V1 (Active)
Ex: Prof Smith must write an international journal. (A)
 Modal + be + V3 (Passive)
Ex: An international journal must be written by Prof Smith. P)
Example:
- The rights to any new and useful machine, manufacturing process, or
A B
material, or any improvement to these, can be protecting by United States
C D
patent law.
The sentence should read: The rights to ay new and useful machine, manufacturing process, or
material, or any improvement to these, can be protected by United States patent law.

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  Tobe (am / is / are / was / were/ be / been /being + N/adj)
Example:
Prof Smith is a lecturer
He has been a lecturer for 10 years.
He will be a dean next month
He was a journalist
Example:
- Anyone with absolute, or perfect pitch are able to identify by ear any note at
A B
some standard pitch or to sing a specified note at will.
C D
The sentence should read: Anyone with absolute or perfect pitch is able to identify by ear any note
at some standard pitch or to sing a specified note at will. Therefore, the answer is (A)
Prefix and Suffixes that form Verb
en- (enrich, enjoy, entitle) -ate (vibrate, educate)
-ize (maximize, organize) -fy (classify, identify)
-en (shorten, sharpen) -er (lower, higher)

Summary:
- A sentence must consist of at least Subject and Verb
- Subject must be Noun
- To+V1 ≠ Verb
- When the verb of a sentence is underlined, check:
a. Time Signals
b. Subject [singular/plural]
c. Active or passive voice

3. ADVERB
 Adverb of time
Now, recently , nowadays, currently
 Adverb of place
Here, there , at the office, etc
 Adverb of degree + Adjective
So, too, very, almost, rather, quite, pretty, somewhat

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  Adverb of Frequency + Verb
Always
Often
Usually
Sometimes + Verb
Seldom
Ever
Never
 Adverb of Manner [How?]
a. -ly (beautifully, naturally)
b. -ward (backward, upward)
c. -wise
Adverb of manner has three different uses. They can describe verb, adjective or other adverbs.
The functions:
a. Modify verb
a. She walks toward me. How does she walk toward you? Slowly.
- She walks slowly toward me
- She slowly toward me
- She walks toward me slowly
b. The room is decorated with expensive painting. How is it decorated? Beautifully
- The room is decorated beautifully with expensive paintings
- The room is beautifully decorated with expensive paintings.
c. Modify adjective
Ex: Albert Einstein is brilliant
- Albert Einstein is exceptionally brilliant
- Albert Einstein is an extremely brilliant scientist
d. Modify Adverb
Ex:
She speaks unbelievably quickly
- It is an extremely quickly written letter
Patterns:
I. Verb+Adv / Adv+Verb
II. Tobe + adv + V3
III. Adv+Adj

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 Adv+Adj+Noun
IV. Verb+Adv+Adv
Adv+Adv+Adj+Noun

Ex: 1. The planet mercury has a moderately elliptically orbit

A B C D
The sentence should read: The planet Mercury has a moderately elliptical orbit, therefore the correct
answer is (D)
2. In the Northern United States, two European species of small white birch are
A B
extensive planted as ornamentals.
C D
The sentence should read: In the Northern United States, two European species of small white birch are
extensively planted as ornamentals, therefore the correct answer is (C)
4. Article

The N
A Adj + N
An Adv+Adj+N

1. A versus An
An : Vocal SOUND
A : Consonant SOUND
Article A/An both must be followed by Singular Noun
Ex: An Umbrella An Hour
A University A House

Ex: The visible world …….. ( √ )

Art Adj N

A significance influent …….. ( × )

Art N Adj

A significant influence …….. ( √ )

Art Adj N

A perfectly strong boy …….. ( √ )

Art Adv Adj N

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 Sample:
Mark Spitz, an United States swimmer, won seven gold medals at the 1972 Olympic Games, all in
A B C D world
record times.

The sentence should read: Mark Spitz, a United States swimmer, won seven gold medals at the 1972
Olympic Games, all in world record times. Therefore, the answer is (A)
2. A/an versus The
A/AN  Generalization or definition
The is used in the following conditions:
a. Specific
b. Special
c. Only one
d. Superlative Degree
Sample:
1. The gila monster is an only poisonous lizard native to the United States
A B C D
2. Lake Superior, part of the United States-Canadian boundary, is a largest freshwater lake in the
A B C D
world
Answer key : 1. A, 2. C

5. Preposition

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of
gerund verbs).

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:

Prepositions – Time
Prepositions
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of
gerund verbs).
Prepositions – Time

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English Usage Example

 on  days of the week  on Monday

 in  months / seasons  in August / in winter

 time of day  in the morning
 year  in 2006
 after a certain period of  in an hour
time (when?)

 at  for night  at night

 for weekend  at the weekend
 a certain point of time (when?)  at half past nine

 since  from a certain point of time  since 1980

(past till now)

 for  over a certain period of time  for 2 years

(past till now)

 ago  a certain time in the past  2 years ago

 before  earlier than a certain point of  before 2004

time

 to  telling the time  ten to six (5:50)

 past  telling the time  ten past six (6:10)

 to / till / until  marking the beginning and end  from Monday to/till Friday
of a period of time

 till / until  in the sense of how long  He is on holiday until Friday.

something is going to last

 by  in the sense of at the latest  I will be back by 6 o’clock.

 up to a certain time  By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)

English Usage Example

 in  room, building, street, town,  in the kitchen, in London

country  in the book
 book, paper etc.  in the car, in a taxi
 car, taxi  in the picture, in the world

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English Usage
 picture, world
 at  meaning next to, by an object
 for table
 for events
 place where you are to do
something typical (watch a
film, study, work)
 on  attached
 for a place with a river
 being on a surface
 for a certain side (left, right)
 for a floor in a house
 for public transport
 for television, radio
 by, next to,  left or right of somebody or
beside something
 under  on the ground, lower than (or
covered by) something else
 below  lower than something else but
above ground
 over  covered by something else
 meaning more than
 getting to the other side
(also across)
 overcoming an obstacle
 above  higher than something else,
but not directly over it
 across  getting to the other side
(also over)
 getting to the other side
 through  something with limits on top,
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Example
 at the door, at the station
 at the table
 at a concert, at the party
 at the cinema, at school, at work
 the picture on the wall
 London lies on the Thames.
 on the table
 on the left
 on the first floor
 on the bus, on a plane
 on TV, on the radio
 Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.
 the bag is under the table
 the fish are below the surface
 put a jacket over your shirt
 over 16 years of age
 walk over the bridge
 climb over the wall
 a path above the lake
 walk across the bridge
 swim across the lake
 drive through the tunnel
English Usage Example

bottom and the sides

 to  movement to person or  go to the cinema

building  go to London / Ireland
 movement to a place or  go to bed
country
 for bed

 into  enter a room / a building  go into the kitchen / the house

 towards  movement in the direction of  go 5 steps towards the house

something (but not directly to
it)

 onto  movement to the top of  jump onto the table

something

 from  in the sense of where from  a flower from the garden

Other important Prepositions

English Usage Example

 from  who gave it  a present from Jane

 of  who/what does it belong to  a page of the book

 what does it show  the picture of a palace

 by  who made it  a book by Mark Twain

 on  walking or riding on horseback  on foot, on horseback

 entering a public transport  get on the bus
vehicle

 in  entering a car / Taxi  get in the car

 off  leaving a public transport  get off the train

vehicle

 out of  leaving a car / Taxi  get out of the taxi

 by  rise or fall of something  prices have risen by 10 percent

 travelling (other than walking  by car, by bus
or horseriding)

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 English Usage Example

 at  for age  she learned Russian at 45

 about  for topics, meaning what about  we were talking about you

Patterns:

The N
 Preposition A Adj + N
An Adv+Adj+N

 Preposition + Ving
Ex: Before picking up my mom, I went to the market
Prep Ving
Ex: By practicing a lot, students can master writing and speaking English.
Prep Ving

 Preposition for Time

Ex: The seminar will be held in 2015
The seminar will be held in June 2015
The seminar will be held on June 6, 2015 on Wednesday at 4 A.M
Note:
In 1970 (Correct)
In the 1970’s (Correct)
In the nineteenth century (Correct)
In the 1828 (Incorrect)  In 1828
In the twenty century (Incorrect)  In the twentieth century

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6. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE and ADJECTIVE PHRASE
 Function: To modify Noun
 Who + V
 Which/That + (S) + V
 Whom/Whose/When/Where + S + V
Ex: 1. The people [who consume too much sugar] have a greater risk of diabetes.
S Adj. Clause V
The people consuming too much sugar have a greater risk of diabetes.
S Adj. Phrase V

2. The government released a new policy [that regulated the number of political parties.]
S V Adj. Clause
The government released a new policy regulating the number of political parties.
S V Adj. Phrase
3. The books [which are written by Gus Dur] create a lot of controversies.
S Adj. Clause V
The books written by Gus Dur create a lot of controversies.
S Adj. Phrase V

4. Louis Pasteur [who is a French Chemist and Biologist] invented the Pasteurization.
S Adj. Clause V
Louis Pasteur, a French Chemist and Biologist, invented the Pasteurization.
S Adj. Phrase V

Directions: Change the adjective clauses to adjective phrases.

1. Dr. Stanton, who is the president of the university, will give a speech at the commencement
ceremonies.

2. Be sure to follow the instructions that are given at the top of the page.

3. The rules that allow public access to wilderness areas need to be reconsidered.

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4. The photographs which were published in the newspaper were extraordinary.

5. There is almost no end to the problems that face a head of state.

6. The psychologists who study the nature of sleep have made important discoveries.

7. The experiment which was conducted at the University of Chicago was successful.

8. Kuala Lumpur, which is the capital of the city of Malaysia, is a major trade center in Southeast Asia.

9. Antarctica is covered by a huge ice cap that contains 70 percent of the earth's fresh water.

10. When I went to Alex's house to drop off some paperwork, I met Jerry, who is his longtime partner.

11. Our solar system is in a galaxy that is called the Milky Way.

12. Two out of three people who are struck by lightning survive.

13. Simon Bolivar, who was a great South American general, led the fight for independence early in the
19th century.

14. Many of the students who hope to enter the university will be disappointed because only one-tenth of
those who apply for admission will be accepted.

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 15. There must exist in a modern community a sufficient number of persons who possess the technical
skill that is required to maintain the numerous devices upon which our physical comforts depend.

16. Many famous people did not enjoy immediate success in their early lives. Abraham Lincoln, who was
one of the truly great presidents of the United States, ran for public office 26 times and lost 23 of the
elections. Walt Disney, who was the creator of Mickey Mouse and the founder of his own movie
production company, once was fired by a newspaper editor because he had no good ideas. Thomas
Edison, who was the inventor of the light bulb and the phonograph, was believed by his teachers to be
too stupid to learn. Albert Einstein, who was one of the greatest scientists of all time, performed badly
in almost all of his high school courses and failed his first college entrance exam.

Example:
1. Scientists are now only beginning to understand the factors …….. cigarette addiction.
a. Cause
b. Causing
c. They cause
d. Causes
2. John Singleton Copley, ……… in Boston in 1793, built his reputation in colonial America as a
portraitist.
a. Born on
b. Was born
c. Born
d. Who born

3. An entire salt-marsh complex of creeks, marshes, river mouths, and barrier

A
islands can be seen as a single community linking by the tides.
B C D

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 4. Princeton University, was founded in 1746, is one of the oldest universities
A B C D
in the United States.
5. An entire salt-marsh complex of creeks, marshes, river mouths, and barrier
A
islands can be seen as a single community linking by the tides.
B C D
6. Establishing outside Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1976, The Minnesota
A
Valley National Wildlife Refuge contains more than 9,000 acres of forest,
B C
prairies, marshes and lakes.
D

Answer key: 1. B, 2. C, 3. D, 4. A, 5. D, 6.A

7. Preposition in Adjective Clause

Which (Thing)
Prep + S+V

Whom (Person)

Example:
For people: The teacher gave me good advice. I spoke to her yesterday

The teacher whom I spoke to yesterday gave me good advice.

The teacher to whom I spoke yesterday gave me good advice.

For things: The bag was empty. She looked in it.

The bag which she looked in was empty.

The bag in which she looked was empty.

Sample from TOEFL:

1. Hypoglycemia is a condition _____ concentration of glucose in the blood falls to an abnormally low
level.
a. The
b. Of the
c. In which the
d. Such as the
2. Reflection occurs when light bounces off an objects and returns to the side ____
a. To come from
b. From which it came
c. It came
d. Which it came

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 3. In the cardiac cycle, the diastole is the period of relaxation of heart muscle
A B
which during the chamber of the heart fill with blood.
C D

The sentence should read: In the cardiac cycle, the diastole is the period of relaxation of heart
muscle during which the chambers of the heart fill with blood.

Answer key: 1. C, 2. B, 3.C

8. Expressions of Quantity in Adjective Clause

Whom (Person)
Expression of Quantity + Which (Thing) S+V
Whose (Possessive)

Examples:
a. In my class there are 20 students. Most of them are from the Far East.
 In my class there are 20 students, Most of whom are from Asia.

b. He gave several reasons. Only the few of them were valid.

 He gave several reasons, only of few of which were valid.

c. The teachers discussed Jim’s problems. One of his problems was poor study habits

 The teachers discussed Jim’s problems, one of whose problems was poor study habits.

Note:

- An adjective clause may contain an expression of quantity with of: some of, many of, most of,
none of, two of, haft of, both of, neither of, each of, all of, several of, a few of, little of, a
number of, etc.
- The expression of quantity precedes the pronoun. Only whom, which, and, whose are used in
this pattern.
- Adjective clauses that begin with an expression are more common in writing than speaking.
Commas are used.

9. ADVERB CLAUSE
 Function: To modify Sentence
 Connectors:
Because Until When As if
Since Unless Where As if Whether _ or
Though Before While As Though Yet + S+V
Although After Meanwhile So
Even though Once Whereas So That

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 Pattern:

Connector S V , S V If it rains, the streets get wet

S V Connector, S V The streets get wet, if it rains

Ex:
1. A delta is formed when _________ and the process of erosion does not carry the materials away.
a. the deposit of river c. the deposits of river sediment
b. the river deposits sediment d. the sedimentation of river
3. When ___________, the elections of the outer rings are exchanged
a. joining of two atoms c. two atom joint
b. two atoms join d. two of atom joining
4. Only a few sounds produces by insects are heard by humans ________ most of the sounds are
pitched either too high or too low.
a. In spite of c. as a result of
b. Because d. instead of
5. As a country develops from an agricultural to an industrial economy, the attitudes, values,
structures, and functions of the family _______.
a. The change c. change
b. Which change d. changing
Answer key : 1. B, 2. B, 3. B, 4. C.
Note:
a. Despite
In spite of + N/NP
Instead of
Because of
During

Ex: Because he is brilliant, he gets an achievement from his University.

Conn. S V
Because of his brilliance, he gets an achievement from his University.
Conn. NP
b. Two sentences  one connector
Three sentences  two connectors

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10. PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION
and
Same Structure but Same Structure
or

Ex: The living room was decorated with expensive paintings and elegance lamps.
Adj. N N N
Elegance is a Noun. It should be changed by Elegant (Adj).

Ex: The student reads each chapter, takes a lot of notes and memories the materials.
V V N
Memories is a Noun. It should be changed by Memorizes (V).

11. PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS

 Both __________ and
 Either _________ or
 Neither ________ nor
 Not ___________ but
 Not only _______ but also
 Whether _______ or
 From __________to
 Between/among __________________and
 Rather than
 One _______ another

Ex: Rapid eye movement sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep because it has
A B
characteristics of either the waking and sleeping state.
C D
The sentence should read: Rapid eye movement sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep because
it has characteristics of both the waking and sleeping state. Therefore, the answer is (D)

12. TWO WORD EXPRESSIONS

 Based on  According to  Devoted to
 Relate to  Resistant to  Similar to
 Derived from  Capable of  Differ from
 Exile from  Date from/to  Same as
 Adapted to  Regarded as  Carry on/out
 Consist of  Originated from  Native to
 Name for/after  Benefit from  Suited to
 Suffer from  Concern with  Result from
 Escape from  Purpose of  Come into

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  Date to/from  Comment on  Known as
 Refer to  Depend on  Dedicated to
 Aware of  Combine into  Account for
 Deal with

Samples from TOEFL:

1. A liquid is similar at a gas in that a liquid can fit the shape of any container into which it is put.
A B C D
2. The development of microscope dates ________, which occurred between 1950 and 1610.
a. From the construction of compound-lens systems
b. When the construction of compound-lens systems
c. The construction of compound-lens systems
d. Was when the construction of compound-lens systems

3.
Teak wood is highly valued because it is _________ to water.
a. Resisting, and strong, and durable
b. Strong, durable and resistant
c. Resistant, durable, and strong
d. Strong, durable, and resists
Answer Key: 1. A, 2. A, 3. B

13. COMPARISON
Positive Comparative Superlative
Small Smaller The smallest
Happy Happier The happiest
Expensive More expensive The most expensive
Beautiful More beautiful The most beautiful
Far Farther/ further The farthest/ the furthest
Good Better The best
Bad Worse The worst
Many/much More The most
Little Less The least
Patterns:
 Positive Degree (as adj as)
 Comparative Degree [more]adj
Adj [-er] + than

 Superlative Degree ( the + [most] + Adj

Adj+Noun
Adv + adj + Noun

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 Example:
1. Prized for centuries for their beauty, roses are the world’______________ plants.
a. Cultivated ornamental most widely
b. Ornamental widely cultivated most
c. Most widely cultivated ornamental
d. Widely ornamental most cultivated
2. Of the more 850 species of trees in the United States, the most oldest, the
A B
bristlecone pine, grows in the Nevada and Southern California dessert.
C D
The sentence should read: Of the more 850 species of trees in the United States, the oldest,
the bristlecone pine, grows in the Nevada and Southern California dessert.
3. When Franklin Roosevelt was inaugurated as President in 1933, the United
A
States was in the midst of the worse economic depression in its history.
B C D
The sentence should read: When Franklin Roosevelt was inaugurated as President in 1933; the
United States was in the midst of the worst economic depression in its history.
 Superlative in Clause
The first / The second / The third …….
To + V1 To + be + V3
The (most) adj. (-est) …………………
Ex: Sally Ride is the first American astronaut woman ______ on the moon.
a. landed c. landing
b. who landed d. to land
 Equalisation

Pattern: The more _________; The more (S) V

Ex: 1. Hubble’s law states that the greater the distance between any two galaxies,
__________________ is their relative speed of separation.
a. the greatest c. greater than
b. the greater d. as great as
2. The more kinetic energy in the particles of a material, the hottest the material
A B C D
Is.
The sentence should read: The more kinetic energy in the particles of a material, the hotter
the material is. There for the answer is (D)

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  Repetition in Comparison
That (Singular) >< Those (Plural)
Example:
 The chemical composition of sand stone is the same as the chemical composition
of sand.
The repeated words “the chemical composition” could be changed into that.

 The rules in Written English are more stringent than those of spoken English.
The repeated words “the rules” could be changed into those.
Ex:
1. Ostrich eggs are larger _____ of other birds; they are 50 mm long and 125 mm thick.
a. than they are c. than those
b. than that d. that than those
2. Veterinary medicine is practiced separately from human medicine since animal diseases differ
largely from ________________ humans.
a. those affecting c. they are affecting
b. what affecting d. affecting of

14. INVERSION
 Not until  Never
 Not only  Under the circumstances
Auxiliary

 Rarely  With no exception Does/Do/Did

 In no way  At no time
Has/Have/Had
S+V
 Never  Seldom
 Scarcely  Hardly To be
 Only  No sooner Modal

Ex: 1. Television did not get its start as a full-scaled broadcasting service in the U.S until 1948
Not until 1948 did television get its start as a full-scaled broadcasting in U.S
2. I have never seen such a beautiful rose
Never have I seen such a beautiful rose
3. Earthquake not only destroys the buildings but also the fragile ecosystem
Not Only does the earthquake destroy the buildings but also the fragile ecosystem.
4. Rendang is seldom made of fish
Seldom is Rendang made of fish

Example:

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 1. Not until 1741 and the first installment of Benjamin Franklin’s General magazine _______________
their first appearance in North America.
a. When did literary magazines begin to make
b. Did literary magazines begin to make
c. Literary magazine began to make
d. Began to make literary magazines
2. Not only ________________ the center of French language and culture in North America, it is also
the second largest province in Canada with respect to population.
a. Considering Quebec
b. Where Quebec is considered
c. Quebec is considered
d. Is Quebec considered.

3. Not until fairly recently ____________ that land is not a limitless commodity.
a. Americans have realized
b. When have American realized
c. Have Americans realized
d. But Americans have realized

15. EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

For Singular Noun A, an, every, any, each, every, another
For Plural Noun Two, three, .., both, several, various, numerous, most, all, all of, of all,
some, between, among, many, few, a few, a number of, one of, a group
of, a lot of, lot of, other
For Countable Noun Many, few, a few, a number of
For Uncountable Noun Much, little, a little, the amount of
For both Countable and a lot of, some, most, all, all of, of all, a lot of, a lot, more, none, one of,
Uncountable Noun the majority of
Example:
- Cone shells live in much different seas and feed mainly on small fish and
A B C
worms.
D
- Another great artists of the time and possibly the most gifted silversmith in
A B C
the colonies was Paul Revere.
D

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 The sentence should read: Another great artist of the time and possibly the most gifted
silversmith in the colonies was Paul Revere. Therefore the correct answer is (A)

16. NOUN CLAUSE

A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses most often begin with the
subordinating conjunction.

- Who - How - How much -Whatever

- Which - Why - How many - If
- That - When - Whenever - Whether
- what - Where - Wherever -Whoever

Since a noun clause acts as a noun, it can do anything that a noun can do. A noun clause can be a
subject, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition, a subject complement, an object
complement or an appositive.

Examples:

Whatever you decide is fine with me. [ Noun Clause as a subject]

S V
Whether he continues his study next year or not remains unknown [NC as subject]
S V
That Jokowi chose many businessmen to join his cabinet is not surprising. [NC as Subject]

He wondered why he had to live there alone . . .. He wondered where his friends were, where his
family was. He wondered what he had done to earn himself this precarious and uncomfortable
circumstance. He remembered when he was a powerful man, successful, well-regarded." [ Noun
Clause as Object of the verb wonder and remember]

Lacey talked at length about how she had won the perogy-eating contest.
[ Noun Clause as object of the preposition about)

Sample from TOEFL:

…… different kinds of sleep has long been recognized.

a. There are
b. Although there are
c. Why there are
d. That there are

17. REVERSED WORDS

Example:
Specialization in industry creates workers lack who versatility in their ability to
A B C D
step in to other jobs.

The sentence should read: Specialization in industry creates workers who lack versatility in their
ability to step in to other jobs. Therefore, you the correct answer is (C).

18. Omitted Words

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 Example:
Yosemite National Park is most well known its beautiful spouting geysers of all
A B C
sizes.
D

The sentence should read: Yosemite National Park is most well known for its beautiful spouting
geysers of all sizes. Therefore, the correct answer is (B).

19. UNNECESARY WORDS

Example:
While push-ups build your arms, shoulders and chest, sits-ups they strengthen
A B
your abdominal muscles.
C D

The sentence should read:” While push-ups build your arms, shoulders and chest, sits-ups strengthen
your abdominal muscles. The word they is omitted. Therefore, the correct answer is (B).

20. Purpose vs. Effect

SO THAT — PURPOSE

A statement of action or intended action is followed by the preposition so and that + clause
expressing purpose or goal.

Example:

 We stayed out all night so that we could watch the World Cup final match.

 We took some blankets so that we could keep warm

SO [ ADJECTIVE/ADVERB+ADJECTIVE] THAT + S + V ---- INTENSIFIER

So has two meanings and uses for expressing effect: (1) a connector followed by a clause
expressing a result; (2) an intensifier for some remarkable situation or condition followed by that
+ clause expressing the effect.

Example:
 The car is so expensive that we could not afford to buy it.
 The weather is so hot that you could fry an egg on the sidewalk.

Sample from TOEFL:

Fluorine is a greenish gas too active that even water and glass burn in it.
A B C D

The sentence should read: Fluorine is a greenish gas so active that even water and glass burn in
it.

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