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Course: Art Crafts & Calligraphy Semester: Spring, 2019

Level: ADE/B.Ed (4-Years) code (6410)

Assignment No.2
Unit 6-9

Q.No 1. Define the term painting also discuss various kind of painting in detail.
Answer

Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a

solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly
applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives,
sponges, and airbrushes, can be used. The final work is also called a painting.
Painting is an important form in the visual arts, bringing in elements such
as drawing, gesture (as in gestural painting), composition, narration (as
in narrative art), or abstraction (as in abstract art). Paintings can be naturalistic
and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic,
abstract, narrative, symbolistic(as in Symbolist art), emotive (as
in Expressionism), or political in nature (as in Artivism).
A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is
dominated by religious art. Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork
depicting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes Sistine Chapel
ceiling, to scenes from the life of Buddha or other images of Eastern religious
origin.
In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action. The
support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood,
glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may
incorporate multiple other materials including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold
leaf, as well as objects.
Painting is the creative interpretation of thoughts, expression and various
aspects or situations occurring in the surroundings. It is an application of
different types of colours and paints on a solid base. Painting may be
symbolistic or naturalistic. There is a dissimilarity in the two types of paintings.
The base includes various materials like wood, glass, canvas, paper, walls, clay,
leaf and others. The types of painting may be dependent on the colour or the
paint used which is mainly dependent on the miscibility, drying time and the
solubility of particular media. More than anything, it carries a cultural meaning
and most reflect thoughts about the society and ides of the mind.

Different Types Of Painting Styles:

Paintings have several types in India. Here are some different types of painting
in India.

1. Water Colour Painting:

In this painting method, paints are applied to the base with the help of water.
The pigments of the paints are water soluble. This is usually painted on the
paper but another base is also used for this media like wood, canvas, leather,
etc. The strokes of colour are applied using different sizes of the brush. The
watercolour painting has a long tradition which is popular for ages. It is also
known as brush painting.

2. Oil Painting:

The oil paint used in oil painting has a drying oil which is used as a binder to the
pigment. The drying oils used are walnut oil, poppy seed oil, linseed oil mainly
and others. Though because of the oily part, it seems quite complicated and
messy, but this painting has a shiny effect and is of smooth texture. This was
mainly originated in India and China but got recognition after many centuries.
Nowadays this seems to be very popular types of painting and artist usually
prefer to choose this type of paints.

3. Ink Wash Painting:

This is a brush painting which consists of different densities of ink to provide the
different shades in the paintings. China is the origin of this painting and it’s
quite popular in East Asia. The vital feature of this style of wash painting is that
it uses a brush in which the hairs are tapered to a fine point. The strokes are
painted carefully as it cannot be changed afterwards. It takes a lot of effort and
time to get this right and stunning.

4. Acrylic Painting:
In this type of painting the paints used are quite impressive. The acrylic paints consist of
pigments in acrylic polymer emulsion. The pigments of the paints are water soluble; hence
water is used while painting. But the surprising fact is that when the painting is complete, it
turns out to be water resistant. This water-resistant art is loved by most painters and dries
faster. This drying time characteristic makes this paint different from watercolour and oil
colour. This type of painting is most colourful.

5. Pastel Colour Painting:

Pastel colours are generally available in the sticks. This is the simple way of colouring and kids
usually start colouring using pastel colours. The pastel sticks can be immediately used for
colouring and drawing. In spite of its simple way of colouring, it may be difficult to shade and
blend with different colours. The pastel painting can be done on paper and also on canvas.
Pastel painting remains as usual without any change for years.

6. Glass Painting:
Glass paintings are done on a glass base with pigments of colour. The other paints don’t get
bind with the glass. So the paints used in glass painting are especially for glass so that those
colour pigments can easily bind with glass. A black liner is used to outline the borders of the
images drawn. The viscous colours are applied within the marked boundary. Glass painting is an
artistic expression and is a craft work. This type of painting can be done on any wall hanging or
any other showpieces or any glass flower vase or even in lampshade too. They look attractive
and shine through.

7. Fresco:
This word ‘fresco’ comes from an Italian word which is obtained from a Latin word. This type of
painting style is done on the ceiling, on the walls. The technique of fresco consists of mixing the
paints with water and applied on a thin layer of wet plaster. The painting requires a binding
medium to get attached to the wall properly. This was specially done during the Renaissance;
hence it’s done from ages. This is a popular kind of painting on ancient monuments.

8. Encaustic Painting:
The Encaustic painting is well known for hot wax painting in which generally beeswax is heated
with coloured pigments. This liquid mixture is then applied on the surface of wood or other
materials. This modern type of painting is quite difficult to paint and requires maximum effort.

9. Gouache:
Gouache is an opaque painting method. The water-based pigments are used in which the
particle sizes are larger than the water coloured ones. The colours are beautifully pitched
against each other to add extra beauty to the art. This type of painting is rare and often looks
realistic.

10. Spray Painting:

In spray painting, aerosol paint comes out from the pressurized container by controlling it with
a valve. The portion of the surface where a particular colour is needed to be applied is kept
 open, while the other portions are covered. This is done so that the colour does not spread to
other portions of the painting.

Q.No 2. In your opinion what is the importance of clay work in art, craft and calligraphy
elaborate different kind of clay used in teaching art, craft and calligraphy.

ANWSER

Crafts

The term crafts is often used to describe the family(relations) of artistic practices within the
family

decorative arts that traditional are defined by their relationship to functional products such as

sculpture forms in the vessel tradition or by their use of such natural media as wood, clay, glass,

textiles and metal.

Calligraphy:

Calligraphy is a type of visual art. It is often called the art of fancy lettering (Mediavilla 1996:

17). A contemporary definition of calligraphic practice is "the art of giving form to signs in an

expressive, harmonious and skillful manner"

Islamic calligraphy has evolved alongside the religion of Islam and the Arabic language. As it is

based on Arabic letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy". However the term "Islamic
calligraphy" is a more appropriate term as it comprises all works of calligraphy by the Muslim
calligraphers from Morocco to China.

Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art on the walls and ceilings of mosques

as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of

calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions.

Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy for Muslims is a visible

expression of the highest art of all, the art of the spiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably
become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the
languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam.

Any value that art might have in the eyes of our culture is something that has to be the concern
of

schools, as well as the rest of society. Otherwise we ignore what makes us human. Art is part of

the human condition and contrasts sharply with our specific needs to invent things and make

discoveries through technology. (Rob, 1996)

From the beginning of our existence we have needed to make forms which express the values

which makes us human beings whose imaginative gifts distinguish us from other animals.

―The expression or application of human creative skill and imagination; typically in a visual
form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty
or emotional power called arts.”

Traditionally, the term art was used to refer to any skill or mastery. Generally, art is made with

the intention of stimulating thoughts and emotions. Art, in both traditional and contemporary

terms, is generally about aesthetics rather than function.

Art appeals human emotions. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood
as a way of communicating these feelings. It’s also known as the process or the activity of the

creating of art objects. Art in general is a representation of its culture. By examining works of
art, one can often differentiate the culture from which it came. To do this well, one must be
aware of the styles, purposes, and techniques that were used to make the work of art.

Jane Cooper Bland once said, “Art, to the child, is more than a matter of painting pictures or
making objects. It is a means by which he expresses his individuality and communicates his
ideas about himself and his world.”

Picasso said that ―To create man (and woman) who are capable of doing new things, not
simply

of repeating what other generations have done- men who are creative, inventive and
discoverers‖.

Art is one subject that can help achieve this and more.

According to Elliot W. Eisner, emeritus professor of art and education at the Stanford University

School of Education, ―Art helps a child to create his or her own world as well as to explore and

understand the world around him. Creating art helps children discover the unexpected
possibilities of their creativity.‖

Education depends on its objectives. Since now our attention towards arts was to produce artist

only, who could draw pictures and sceneries, make sculpture only. Such students cannot do

anything except these activities which overall affect their personalities.

Art is one subject that utilizes our creativity and those who have original and novel ideas tend
to

do better in it. Art education provides children great opportunities to express themselves.

Art is a creative subject, needs serious attention in education. There is a need to realize the

importance of art in schools and teachers must understand how art should be used in teaching.

Unfortunately, it was never under consideration. Art teacher should understand its creativity,

objectives and advantages not in education only but in culture and society respectively.

So it is really important to realize and understand the importance of the art and its objectives
and how we can use it for the development of education and our society. Clay is a finely-
grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with possible
traces of quartz (SiO2), metal oxides (Al2O3 , MgO etc.) and organic matter. Geologic
clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate mineralscontaining variable amounts
of water trapped in the mineral structure. Clays are plastic due to particle size and geometry as
well as water content, and become hard, brittle and non–plastic upon drying
or firing.[1][2][3] Depending on the soil's content in which it is found, clay can appear in various
colours from white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red Although many naturally
occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained
soils by differences in size and mineralogy. Silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include
clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in
particle size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by
discipline. Geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle
size of 2 µm (clays being finer than silts), sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm,
and colloid chemists use 1 μm.[1] Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays
based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils' Atterberg
limits. ISO 14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being
larger.
Mixtures of sand, silt and less than 40% clay are called loam. Loam makes good soiland is used
as a building material.

Formation
Clay minerals typically form over long periods of time as a result of the gradual
chemical weathering of rocks, usually silicate-bearing, by low concentrations of carbonic
acid and other diluted solvents. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the weathering
rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. In addition to the weathering process,
some clay minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of clay
deposits: primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at
the site of formation. Secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original
location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit.[4] Clay deposits are
typically associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes and
marine basins.

Grouping
Depending on the academic source, there are three or four main groups of
clays: kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, illite, and chlorite. Chlorites are not always
considered to be a clay, sometimes being classified as a separate group within
the phyllosilicates. There are approximately 30 different types of "pure" clays in these
categories, but most "natural" clay deposits are mixtures of these different types, along with
other weathered minerals.
Varve (or varved clay) is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by seasonal
deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion and organic content. This
type of deposit is common in former glacial lakes. When fine sediments are delivered into the
 calm waters of these glacial lake basins away from the shoreline, they settle to the lake bed.
The resulting seasonal layering is preserved in an even distribution of clay sediment banding.[4]
Quick clay is a unique type of marine clay indigenous to the glaciated terrains
of Norway, Canada, Northern Ireland, and Sweden. It is a highly sensitive clay, prone
to liquefaction, which has been involved in several deadly landslides.
Medical use
Traditional uses of clay as medicine goes back to prehistoric times. An example is Armenian
bole, which is used to soothe an upset stomach. Some animals such as parrots and pigs ingest
clay for similar reasons.[12] Kaolin clay and attapulgite have been used as anti-diarrheal
medicines.

As a building material

Clay as the defining ingredient of loam is one of the oldest building materials on Earth, among
other ancient, naturally-occurring geologic materials such as stone and organic materials
like wood.[13] Between one-half and two-thirds of the world's population, in both traditional
societies as well as developed countries, still live or work in buildings made with clay, often
baked into brick, as an essential part of its load-bearing structure. Also a primary ingredient in
many natural building techniques, clay is used to create adobe, cob, cordwood, and rammed
earth structures and building elements such as wattle and daub, clay plaster, clay render case,
clay floors and clay paints and ceramic building material. Clay was used as a mortar in
brick chimneys and stone walls where protected from water.

Q.No 3. Keeping in view the importance of recycling discusses different techniques of

recycling which can be applied in everyday life.
ANWSER
Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is an
alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can save material and help lower greenhouse
gas emissions. Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the
consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing: energy usage, air pollution
(from incineration), and water pollution (from landfilling).
Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the
"Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle" waste hierarchy. Thus, recycling aims at environmental
sustainability by substituting raw material inputs into and redirecting waste outputs out of the
economic system.
There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste
and ISO 14001:2015 for environmental management control of recycling practice.
Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, textiles,
batteries, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste—such
as food or garden waste—is also a form of recycling.Materials to be recycled are either
delivered to a household recycling center or picked up from curbside bins, then sorted, cleaned,
and reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing new products.
In the strictest sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same
material—for example, used office paper would be converted into new office paper or
used polystyrene foam into new polystyrene. However, this is often difficult or too expensive
(compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other sources), so
"recycling" of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials
(for example, paperboard) instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of certain materials
from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value (such as lead from car batteries, or
gold from printed circuit boards), or due to their hazardous nature (e.g., removal and reuse
of mercury from thermometers and thermostats).

Recycling has been a common practice for most of human history, with recorded advocates as
far back as Plato in the fourth century BC.[citation needed] During periods when resources were
scarce and hard to come by, archaeological studies of ancient waste dumps show less
household waste (such as ash, broken tools, and pottery)—implying more waste was being
recycled in the absence of new material.
In pre-industrial times, there is evidence of scrap bronze and other metals being collected in
Europe and melted down for perpetual reuse. Paper recycling was first recorded in 1031 when
Japanese shops sold repulped paper. In Britain dust and ash from wood and coal fires was
collected by "dustmen" and downcycled as a base material used in brick making. The main
driver for these types of recycling was the economic advantage of obtaining recycled feedstock
instead of acquiring virgin material, as well as a lack of public waste removal in ever more
densely populated areas.[5] In 1813, Benjamin Lawdeveloped the process of turning rags into
"shoddy" and "mungo" wool in Batley, Yorkshire. This material combined recycled fibers with
virgin wool. The West Yorkshire shoddy industry in towns such as Batley and Dewsbury lasted
from the early 19th century to at least 1914.
Industrialization spurred demand for affordable materials; aside from rags, ferrous scrap metals
were coveted as they were cheaper to acquire than virgin ore. Railroads both purchased and
sold scrap metal in the 19th century, and the growing steel and automobile industries
purchased scrap in the early 20th century. Many secondary goods were collected, processed
and sold by peddlers who scoured dumps and city streets for discarded machinery, pots, pans,
and other sources of metal. By World War I, thousands of such peddlers roamed the streets of
American cities, taking advantage of market forces to recycle post-consumer materials back
into industrial production.
Beverage bottles were recycled with a refundable deposit at some drink manufacturers in Great
Britain and Ireland around 1800, notably Schweppes. An official recycling system with
refundable deposits was established in Sweden for bottles in 1884 and aluminum beverage
cans in 1982; the law led to a recycling rate for beverage containers of 84–99 percent
depending on type, and a glass bottle can be refilled over 20 times on average
New chemical industries created in the late 19th century both invented new materials
(e.g. Bakelite [1907]) and promised to transform valueless into valuable materials. Proverbially,
you could not make a silk purse of a sow's ear—until the US firm Arthur D. Little published in
1921 "On the Making of Silk Purses from Sows' Ears", its research proving that when "chemistry
puts on overalls and gets down to business ... new values appear. New and better paths are
opened to reach the goals desired."
Recycling (or "salvage", as it was then usually known) was a major issue for governments
throughout World War II. Financial constraints and significant material shortages due to war
efforts made it necessary for countries to reuse goods and recycle materials These resource
shortages caused by the world wars, and other such world-changing occurrences, greatly
encouraged recycling. The struggles of war claimed much of the material resources available,
leaving little for the civilian population. It became necessary for most homes to recycle their
waste, as recycling offered an extra source of materials allowing people to make the most of
what was available to them. Recycling household materials meant more resources for war
efforts and a better chance of victory. Massive government promotion campaigns, such as
the National Salvage Campaign in Britain and the Salvage for Victorycampaign in the United
States, were carried out on the home front in every combative nation, urging citizens to donate
metal, paper, rags, and rubber as a matter of patriotism.
Post-World War II
A considerable investment in recycling occurred in the 1970s, due to rising energy
costs.Recycling aluminum uses only 5% of the energy required by virgin production; glass, paper
and other metals have less dramatic but very significant energy savings when recycled
feedstock is used.
Although consumer electronics such as the television have been popular since the 1920s,
recycling of them was almost unheard of until early 1991. The first electronic waste recycling
scheme was implemented in Switzerland, beginning with collection of old refrigerators but
gradually expanding to cover all devices. After these schemes were set up, many countries did
not have the capacity to deal with the sheer quantity of e-waste they generated or its
hazardous nature. They began to export the problem to developing countries without enforced
environmental legislation. This is cheaper, as recycling computer monitors in the United States
costs 10 times more than in China. Demand in Asia for electronic waste began to grow when
scrap yards found that they could extract valuable substances such as copper, silver, iron,
silicon, nickel, and gold, during the recycling process.The 2000s saw a large increase in both the
sale of electronic devices and their growth as a waste stream: in 2002, e-waste grew faster than
any other type of waste in the EU. This caused investment in modern, automated facilities to
cope with the influx of redundant appliances, especially after strict laws were implemented in
2003.
As of 2014, the European Union had about 50% of world share of the waste and recycling
industries, with over 60,000 companies employing 500,000 persons, with a turnover of €24
billion. Countries have to reach recycling rates of at least 50%, while the lead countries were
around 65% and the EU average was 39% as of 2013. The EU average has been rising steadily,
to 45% in 2015.
In 2018, changes in the recycling market have sparked a global "crisis" in the industry. On
December 31, 2017, China announced its "National Sword" policy, setting new standards for
imports of recyclable material and banning materials that were deemed too "dirty" or
"hazardous". The new policy caused drastic disruptions in the global market in recycling and
reduced the prices of scrap plastic and low-grade paper. Exports of recyclable materials from
G7 countries to China dropped dramatically, with many exports shifting to countries in
southeast Asia. The crisis generated significant concern about the practices and environmental
sustainability of the recycling industry. The abrupt shift caused countries to accept more
recyclable materials than they could process, raising fundamental questions about shipping
recycling waste from economically developed countries to countries with few environmental
regulations—a practice that predated the crisis.

Recycling industrial waste

Although many government programs are concentrated on recycling at home, 64% of waste in
the United Kingdom is generated by industry. The focus of many recycling programs done by
industry is the cost–effectiveness of recycling. The ubiquitous nature of cardboard packaging
makes cardboard a commonly recycled waste product by companies that deal heavily in
packaged goods, like retail stores, warehouses, and distributors of goods. Other industries deal
in niche or specialized products, depending on the nature of the waste materials that are
present.
The glass, lumber, wood pulp and paper manufacturers all deal directly in commonly recycled
materials; however, old rubber tires may be collected and recycled by independent tire dealers
for a profit.
Levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010, the International Resource Panel, hosted
by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) published reports on metal stocks that
exist within society[49] and their recycling rates. The Panel reported that the increase in the use
of metals during the 20th and into the 21st century has led to a substantial shift in metal stocks
from below ground to use in applications within society above ground. For example, the in-use
stock of copper in the USA grew from 73 to 238 kg per capita between 1932 and 1999.
The report authors observed that, as metals are inherently recyclable, the metal stocks in
society can serve as huge mines above ground (the term "urban mining" has been coined with
this idea in mind. However, they found that the recycling rates of many metals are very low.
The report warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as
 mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells, are so low that unless future end-of-
life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for
use in modern technology.
The military recycles some metals. The U.S. Navy's Ship Disposal Program uses ship breaking to
reclaim the steel of old vessels. Ships may also be sunk to create an artificial reef. Uranium is a
very dense metal that has qualities superior to lead and titanium for many military and
industrial uses. The uranium left over from processing it into nuclear weapons and fuel
for nuclear reactors is called depleted uranium, and it is used by all branches of the U.S. military
use for armour-piercing shells and shielding.
The construction industry may recycle concrete and old road surface pavement, selling their
waste materials for profit.
Some industries, like the renewable energy industry and solar photovoltaic technology, in
particular, are being proactive in setting up recycling policies even before there is considerable
volume to their waste streams, anticipating future demand during their rapid growth.
Recycling of plastics is more difficult, as most programs are not able to reach the necessary
level of quality. Recycling of PVCoften results in downcycling of the material, which means only
products of lower quality standard can be made with the recycled material. A new approach
which allows an equal level of quality is the Vinyloop process. It was used after the London
Olympics 2012 to fulfill the PVC Policy.

Q.No 4. What do you understand by the term evaluation discuss different types of
evaluation in detail
ANWSER
Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance, using
criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist an organization, program, design, project or
any other intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realisable concept/proposal, or any
alternative, to help in decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or value in
regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action that has been completed. The
primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to gaining insight into prior or existing initiatives, is
to enable reflection and assist in the identification of future change.
Evaluation is often used to characterize and appraise subjects of interest in a wide range of
human enterprises, including the arts, criminal justice, foundations, non-profit
organizations, government, health care, and other human services. It is long term and done at
the end of a period of time.
We’ve put together 7 types of evaluation that you need to know about to have an effective
M&E system. Using these types of evaluation can help your program deliver better results and
have a greater impact, all while reducing costs!
Choosing the best types of evaluation depends on the stage at which your development
program is. Each evaluation can help you make better decisions by giving you the right kind of
data at the right time.

Stage of Project Purpose Types of Evaluation

Helps prevent waste and identify potential  Formative

Conceptualization
areas of concerns while increasing chances Evaluation
Phase
of success.

 Process
Evaluation
Optimizes the project, measures its ability  Outcome
Implementation
to meet targets, and suggest improvements Evaluation
Phase
for improving efficiency.  Economic
Evaluation

 Impact Evaluation
 Summative
Evaluation
Insights into the project’s success and
Project Closure  Goals-based
impact, and highlight potential
Phase Evaluation
improvements for subsequent projects.

The best development project will conduct different types of evaluations, constantly looking to
streamline their project or program at different stages and using different metrics.

Formative Evaluation
(also known as ‘evaluability assessment’)

Formative evaluation is used before program design or implementation. It generates data on

the need for the program and develops the baseline for subsequent monitoring. It also
identifies areas of improvement and can give insights on what the program’s priorities should
be. This helps project managers determine their areas of concern and focus, and increases
awareness of your program among the target population prior to launch.

When:

 New program development

  Program expansion

What:

 The need for your project among the potential beneficiaries

 The current baseline of relevant indicators, which can help show impact later

Why:

 Helps make early improvements to the program

 Allows project managers to refine or improve the program

How:

Conduct sample surveys and focus group discussions among the target population focused on
whether they are likely to need, understand, and accept program elements.

Questions to ask:

 Is there a need for the program?

 What can do to improve it?

Process Evaluation
(also known as ‘program monitoring’)

Process evaluation occurs once program implementation has begun, and it measures how
effective your program’s procedures are. The data it generates is useful in identifying
inefficiencies and streamlining processes, and portrays the program’s status to external parties.

When:

 When program implementation begins

 During operation of an existing program

What:

 Whether program goals and strategies are working as they should

 Whether the program is reaching its target population, and what they think about it

Why:

 Provides an opportunity to avoid problems by spotting them early

 Allows program administrators to determine how well the program is working
How:

Conduct a review of internal reports and a survey of program managers and a sample of the
target population. The aim should be to measure the number of participants, how long they
have to wait to receive benefits, and what their experience has been.

Questions to ask:

 Who is being reached by the program?

 How the program is being implemented and what are the gaps? Is it meeting targets?

Outcome Evaluation
(also known as ‘objective-based evaluation’)

Outcome evaluation is conventionally used during program implementation. It generates data

on the program’s outcomes and to what degree those outcomes are attributable to the
program itself. It is useful in measuring how effective your program has been and helps make it
more effective in terms of delivering the intended benefits.

When:

 After the program has run for some time period

 At an appropriate time to measure outcomes against set targets – usually benchmarked
time periods

What:

 How much the program has affected the target population

 Clearly establish the degree of benefit provided by the program

Why:

 Helps program administrators tell whether a program is meeting its objectives

 Insights from outcome-focused feedback can help increase effectiveness

How:

A randomized controlled trial, comparing the status of beneficiaries before and during the
program or comparing beneficiaries to similar people outside of the program. This can be done
through a survey or a focus group discussion.

Questions to ask:

 Did participants report the desired change after the implementation of the program?
  What are the short or long-term results reported by participants?

Economic Evaluation
(also known as ‘cost analysis’, ‘cost-effectiveness evaluation’, ‘cost-benefit analysis’, and ‘cost-
utility analysis’)

Economic evaluation is used during the program’s implementation and looks to measure the
benefits of the programs against the costs. Doing so generates useful quantitative data that
measures the efficiency of the program. This data is like an audit, and provides useful
information to sponsors and backers who often want to see what benefits their money would
bring to beneficiaries.

When:

 At the beginning of a program, to remove potential leakages

 During the operation of a program, to find and remove inefficiencies.

What:

 What resources are being spent and where

 How these costs are translating into outcomes

Why:

 Program managers and funders can justify or streamline costs

 The program can be modified to deliver more results at lower costs

How:

A systematic analysis of the program by collecting data on program costs, including capital and
man-hours of work. It will also require a survey of program officers and the target population to
determine potential areas of waste.

Questions to ask:

 Where is the program spending its resources?

 What are the resulting outcomes?

Impact Evaluation
Impact evaluation studies the entire program from beginning to end (or at whatever stage the
program is at), and looks to quantify whether or not it has been successful. Focused on the
long-term impact, impact evaluation is useful for measuring sustained changes brought about
by the program or making policy changes or modifications to the program.
When:

 At the end of the program

 At pre-selected intervals in the program

What:

 Assesses the change in the target population’s well-being

 Accounts for what would have happened if there had been no program

Why:

 To show proof of impact by comparing beneficiaries with control groups

 Provides insights to help in making policy and funding decisions

How:

A macroscopic review of the program, coupled with an extensive survey of program

participants, to determine the effort involved and the impact achieved. Insights from program
officers and suggestions from program participants are also useful, and a control group of non-
participants for comparison is helpful.

Questions to ask:

 What changes in program participants’ lives are attributable to your program?

 What would those not participating in the program have missed out on?

Conducting an impact evaluation project soon? Use this ready-to-use survey template and get
started in just a few minutes.

Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation is conducted after the program’s completion or at the end of a program
cycle. It generates data about how well the project delivered benefits to the target population.
It is useful for program administrators to justify the project, show what they have achieved, and
lobby for project continuation or expansion.

When:

 At the end of a program

 At the end of a program cycle

What:

 How effectively the program made the desired change happen

  How the program changed the lives of program participants

Why:

 Provides data to justify continuing the program

 Generates insights into the effectiveness and efficiency of the program

How:

Conduct a review of internal reports and a survey for program managers and target
populations. The aim should be to measure the change that the project has brought about and
compare the change to the costs.

Questions to ask:

 Should the program continue to be funded?

 Should the program be expanded? If so, where? What factors worked in its favor and
what worked against it?

Goals-Based Evaluation
(also known as ‘objectively set evaluation)

Goals-based evaluation is usually done towards the end of the program or at previously agreed-
upon intervals. Development programs often set ‘SMART’ targets — Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Relevant, and Timely — and goals-based evaluation measures progress towards
these targets. The evaluation is useful in presenting reports to program administrators and
backers, as it provides them the information that was agreed upon at the start of the program.

When:

 At the end of the program

 At pre-decided milestones

What:

 How the program has performed on initial metrics

 Whether the program has achieved its goals

Why:

 To show that the program is meeting its initial benchmarks

 To review the program and its progress

How:
 This depends entirely on the goals that were agreed upon. Usually, goals-based evaluation
would involve some survey of the participants to measure impact, as well as a review of input
costs and efficiency.

Q.No 5. Write short note on the following.

(i) Assessment and evaluation Techniques.

ANWSER

Abstract
Assessment and evaluation have always been important; they are linked to language teaching
methodology, program outcomes, language teacher competencies, language standards and
second language acquisition training. They can serve many different policies and can come in
different forms. Assessment and evaluation have always been seen as the responsibility of the
specialists, but they have rarely been included as a component in English language teacher
(ELT) training. However, the ELT field has been experiencing a major shift in assessment and
evaluation with effects on teachers, and learners around the world. It has also been influenced
by a major questioning of traditional forms of testing and the underlying psychometric
principles of measurement in ELT. Recent studies reveal that the reconceptualization of English
language assessment and evaluation provides systematic information about student learning in
relation to their performance and contributes to better understanding of their strengths and
weaknesses. In many ways ELT has lagged behind the rest of education in the exploration of
new theories and assessment and evaluation tools, including self-assessment. This research gap
was generated partly because of the lack of integration with mainstream educational theory
and practice in many areas of ELT, and partly because of powerful positions of traditional
English language tests. The attempt to bridge this gap has lead to the research carried out. The
aim of this article is to elaborate different assessment techniques that may better address
student learning needs, improve student learning and engage students in self-assessment,
including the sequence of steps that could lead to self-assessment. The study shows that the
techniques implemented to develop self-assessment enable students to perform well.

(ii) Basic Techniques of land scape Art

ANWSER
Too many artists get caught up in the detail of landscapes. There are times to add tedious
detail, but these times are generally towards the end of the painting.

It is often much more effective to emphasize certain areas of the painting (your focal points)
and leave the rest of the work to the imagination. You can emphasize your focal points in
several ways, such as by:

 Using more delicate brushwork compared to the rest of the painting

 Using brighter colors
 Using more saturated colors
 Creating sharp contrast in colors or values
 Using more crisp brushwork or using palette knives
The above are only effective in emphasizing your focal point if you simplify the rest of the
painting.
Check out the above painting by Camille Pissarro and look closely at how much detail is added.
Notice how when you focus on certain areas of the painting, there is really not much detail at
all, just seemingly random strokes of color. But it all comes together in beautiful harmony.

Also, notice how little detail is used to render the person in the bottom right. Without the rest
of the scene, it would probably not resemble anything.

Pissarro has used simplification in this case, to draw attention away from the shadowed
foreground and bring the viewer through the trees into the high-key background. Too much
detail in the foreground would probably make the painting seem too active.

The palette knife can be a valuable addition to your painting artillery (it is not just for mixing
your colors).

I find it best used in conduction with paint brushes. However, you can of course complete
entire paintings with just palette knives. This certainly creates a very interesting effect.

In landscape painting you will come across many situations where it is much better to give the
illusion of numbers rather than to try and paint every individual object.

For example, if you have a forest of trees, you should not try and paint every individual tree.
That would be remarkably complex. Rather, you should paint the general shapes and tones of
the forest, then detail just a few trees. This will make it look like a forest without having to paint
every single detail.
Check out the grass and trees in the above painting by Claude Monet. There is little doubt they
are in fact grass and trees, however, there is basically no detailing other than some subtle
variances in tones. A problem many beginners face when painting landscapes is they do not
create enough subtle variance between the colors. The painting will often then lack any depth
and look very two dimensional.

Many landscape paintings do not have a complex color composition, but rather a simple
harmony of greens, blues and earthy colors.

To ensure your painting does not end up very monotonous, you need to create subtle variances
in areas with a narrow range of colors (varying tones, values, temperature, etc). For example,
you can break up a large plain of green grass by adding some strokes of yellow ochre.

With that being said, you should not try and create variance just for the sake of it. Try and paint
what you see. If there is little variance, then that is fine (though rarely the case in nature).
Color temperature is a scale of how cool or warm a color is. Cool colors include your blues and
greens, whilst warm colors include your yellows, oranges and reds.

However, you should not think of color temperature in absolute terms. Instead, you should
think of color temperature as a relative scale compared to the other colors in your painting.

Say for example you have a cool blue color and you mix in a touch of orange. This mixed color
will be WARMER than a blue without the orange mixed in.

Similarly, you can have an orange with a touch of blue which would be COOLER than an orange
straight from the tube.

So even if your painting only has cool colors, you should still be thinking about color
temperature (for example, you may want some warmer greens in your tree where there is
more light).