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AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
FOR 6th SEMESTER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OF
ANNA UNIVERSITY (Chennai, Trichy, Coimbatore & Tirunelveli)

Dr. G.K. VIJAYARAGHAVAN, B.E., M.Tech., Ph.D.

Adviser,
Dhaanish Ahmed College of Engineering,
Padappai, Chennai, Tamilnadu.
E-mail: haigkv@yahoo.com
Website: wwww. gkvbooks.comm

Dr. S.SUNDARAVALLI, M.Tech., Ph.D.

Associate Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
B.S. Abdur Rahman University,
Vandalur, Chennai.

LAKSHMI PUBLICATIONS
Plot No.73, Gokula Nagar, 2nd Main Road,
(40 Feet Road) Perumbakkam, Medavakkam (P.O),
Chennai – 601 100, Tamil Nadu, INDIA.
Cell: 9443351098.
E-mail: lakshmipublications@gmail.com
Automobile Engineering
By Dr. G.K. Vijayaraghavan & Dr. S. Sundaravalli

First Edition: Dec. 2006

Fully Revised Tenth Edition: Dec. 2015

© All rights are exclusively reserved by the authors

This book or part thereof should not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of
the authors.

Price: Rs. 300/-

ISBN: 978-81-920301-0-4

Published by and Copies can be had from

Head office:

Lakshmi Publications
Plot No.73, Gokula Nagar, 2nd Main Road,
(40 Feet Road) Perumbakkam, Medavakkam (P.O),
Chennai – 601 100, Tamil Nadu, INDIA.
Phone: 044 – 65397467 Cell : 9443351098
E-mail: lakshmipublications@gmail.com
Branch Office:
Lakshmi Publications
Arapakkam (Post), Sirkali (Taluk)
Nagapattinam District,
Tamil Nadu – 609 111, INDIA.
Phone: 04364 – 291130, Cell : 9843616861

Type set at:

Surya DTP center, 91/4A/2, Gandhi road, Srinivasa Nagar 2nd st., Thiruvanai kovil, Trichy –
620 005. Ph no: 9790801417.Email: haigkv@yahoo.com
 PREFACE

We are pleased to bring out our fully revised tenth edition “AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING” book for Engineering and Technology studies. This book is based on the
latest syllabi prescribed by the Anna University Chennai, Trichy, Coimbatore & Tirunelveli
for 6th Semester Mechanical engineering students of its affiliated colleges.

The term automobile or automotive stands for a vehicle which can be moved by itself.
Therefore, an automobile is a self-propelled vehicle. It is used for the transportation of
passengers and goods from one place to another on the ground. It is made up of a frame
supported by the body and power producing units and power transmitting units. These units
are further supported by tyres and wheels which are connected by springs and axles. In
general, the power is produced by internal combustion engines. This power inturn is
transmitted to rear wheels through various transmission systems such as clutch, propeller
shaft, gear box, differential units etc. The various units are held together in a proper position
and arranged on the frame. The automobile is propelled through the friction between tyre and
ground. The super structure or body of the automobile provides protection and comfort to the
passenger.

Modern automobiles are produced by using complex components of machineries and

therefore, it requires a careful attention for making it to perform the task in a safe, economical
and efficient way. Thus, for any mechanical engineer, it is essentially required to have the
knowledge of through knowledge of various components and function of automobiles.

Unit 1 deals with Types of automobiles, Vehicle construction, Different layouts, Chassis,
Frame and Body, Vehicle aerodynamics, Resistances to vehicle motion, Components,
functions and materials of IC engines and Variable Valve Timing (VVT).

Unit 2 has an in depth dealing of Carburetors, Electronic Fuel Injection Systems for SI and
diesel engines, Electronic ignition system, Turbo chargers, Engine emission control by three
way catalytic converter system and Emission norms (Euro and BS).

Unit 3 deals with Clutches, manual and automatic Gear boxes, gear shift mechanisms,
Overdrives, Propeller shaft, Transfer box, Fluid flywheel, Torque converter, Slip joints,
Universal joints, Differential, Rear Axle in transmission systems, and Hotchkiss drive and
Torque tube drive.

Steering geometry, Types of steering gear box, Power Steering, Types of front axle,
Suspension systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic braking systems, Antilock Braking System
(ABS), Electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and Traction Control are elaborately
discussed in Unit 4.

Use of natural gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and
Hydrogen in automobiles, Engine modifications required, Performance, Combustion and
Emission Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels, Electric and Hybrid
vehicles and Fuel cells are treated elaborately with advanced vehicles running today in Unit 5.

Important solved University questions have been added in each unit which will enable the
students to score high marks in the University examinations. In addition to this, two mark
questions and answers are added at the tail end of each unit.

With these features, we sincerely hope that this book would serve as a valuable text for the
students.

Though efforts have been taken aiming at a ‘zero flaw’ content, we do recognize that mistakes
may have inadvertently crept in. We welcome constructive criticisms on any specific topics of
this book.

Our sincere thanks to Mrs. Nirmala Durai, Proprietor of “Lakshmi Publications” and
Publishing Advisor Mr. A. DURAI, B.E. for their involvement to make this publication
successful.

- Authors
 ME6602 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES

Types of automobiles, vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and
body, Vehicle aerodynamics (various resistances and moments involved), IC engines
–components functions and materials, variable valve timing (VVT).

UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, Electronically
controlled diesel injection system (Unit injector system, Rotary distributor type and
common rail direct injection system), Electronic ignition system (Transistorized coil
ignition system, capacitive discharge ignition system), Turbo chargers (WGT, VGT),
Engine emission control by three way catalytic converter system, Emission norms
(Euro and BS).

UNIT III TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift
mechanisms, Over drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel, torque converter, propeller
shaft, slip joints, universal joints, Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and
Torque Tube Drive.

UNIT IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-Power Steering, Types of Front
Axle, Types of Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems,
Antilock Braking System (ABS), electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and Traction
Control.

UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and
Hydrogen in Automobiles- Engine modifications required –Performance, Combustion
and Emission Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels - Electric
and Hybrid Vehicles, Fuel Cell.
 CONTENTS

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT 1 Vehicle Structure and Engines

UNIT 2 Engine Auxiliary Systems

UNIT 3 Transmission Systems

UNIT 4 Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems

UNIT 5 Alternative Energy Sources

Contents C-1

UNIT 1 VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES

1.1. Introduction 1.1

1.1.1. Brief History of Automobiles 1.2
1.1.2. Requirements of an Automobile 1.5
1.2. General classification of vehicles 1.5
1.2.1. Single unit vehicles 1.5
1.2.2. Articulated vehicles 1.6
1.2.3. Heavy tractor vehicles 1.6
1.3. Types of automobiles 1.6
1.4. Vehicle construction 1.10
1.5. Different layouts of a car 1.12
1.5.1. Layout for the light passenger vehicle (car) 1.12
1.5.1.1. Front engine 1.12
1.5.1.2. Rear engine 1.12
1.5.1.3. Central or mid-engine 1.13
1.5.2. Front engine front wheel drive 1.14
1.5.3. Front engine rear wheel drive 1.16
1.5.4. Rear engine rear wheel drive 1.17
1.5.5. Four-wheel drive 1.18
1.6. Chassis 1.19
1.6.1. Basic construction of chassis 1.19
1.6.2. Main components of chassis 1.20
1.6.3. Classification of chassis 1.20
1.6.4. Characteristics of a good chassis 1.22
1.6.5. Layout of chassis 1.22
1.6.6. Components and drive systems in chassis 1.23
1.7. Frame 1.27
C-2 Automobile Engineering
1.7.1. Functions or importance of frame 1.27
1.7.2. Requirements of a good frame 1.28
1.7.3. Frame construction 1.28
1.7.4. Types of frame 1.30
1.7.5. Load on chassis frame (various resistances and
moments involved) 1.34
1.7.6. Materials for frame 1.35
1.7.7. Sub frames 1.35
1.7.8. Frame defects 1.37
1.7.9. Frame repair and alignment 1.37
1.7.10. Checking frame alignment 1.38
1.8. Body 1.39
1.8.1. Importance of vehicle body design 1.40
1.8.2. Requirements of vehicle body 1.40
1.8.3. Types of vehicle body 1.41
1.8.4. Body construction and its components 1.43
1.8.5. Materials for body construction 1.51
1.9. Vehicle aerodynamics 1.52
1.9.1. Resistances to vehicle motion 1.52
1.9.2. Aerodynamics of automobile body 1.54
1.10. Internal combustion engine (IC engine) 1.56
1.11. Engine construction 1.56
1.12. Components of IC Engine 1.58
1.12.1. Cylinder block 1.58
1.12.2. Cylinder head 1.58
1.12.3. Crankcase 1.59
1.12.4. Oil Sump or Oil Pan 1.59
1.12.5. Cylinder liners 1.59
1.12.6. Piston 1.60
1.12.7. Connecting rod 1.64
Contents C-3
1.12.8. Piston rings 1.65
1.12.9. Crank shaft 1.66
1.12.10. Flywheel 1.66
1.12.11. Cam Shaft 1.67
1.12.12. Spark Plug 1.68
1.12.13. Valves 1.68
1.12.14. Valve mechanisms 1.69
1.13. Classification of IC engines 1.71
1.14. Working principle of IC engines 1.73
1.14.1. Working of four stroke cycle (petrol) SI engine 1.73
1.14.2. Working of four stroke cycle (diesel) CI engine 1.75
1.14.3. Working of two stroke cycle SI engine (petrol engine) 1.76
1.14.4. Working of two stroke cycle CI engine (diesel engine) 1.78
1.14.5. Comparison of SI engine and CI engine 1.79
1.14.6. Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke engines 1.80
1.15. Classification based on number of cylinders 1.82
1.16. Classification based on arrangement of cylinders 1.84
1.17. Classification based on length of cylinders 1.91
1.18 Classification based on arrangement of valves 1.92
1.19. Classification based on methods of cooling 1.95
1.20. Wankel engine 1.95
1.21. Valve timing diagram for a four-stroke cycle SI engine 1.98
1.22. Valve timing diagram for a four stroke CI engine 1.100
1.23. Variable valve timing (VVT) 1.101
1.23.1. Types of variable valve timing 1.103
1.23.2. Advantages of variable valve timing 1.104
1.23.3. Applications of variable valve timing 1.105
1.24. Two mark questions and answers 1.105
1.25. Solved questions 1.126
C-4 Automobile Engineering

UNIT 2 ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

2.1. Carburetors 2.1

2.1.1. Functions of carburetor 2.1
2.2. Factors affecting fuel vaporization 2.2
2.3. Types of carburetor 2.2
2.3.1. Simple carburetor 2.3
2.3.1.1. Defects in a simple carburetor 2.4
2.3.2. Solex carburetor 2.13
2.3.3. S.U carburetor 2.19
2.3.4. Zenith carburetor 2.21
2.3.5. Carter carburetor 2.22
2.4. Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engine 2.25
2.4.1. Limitations of carburetor or necessity of petrol fuel injection 2.25
2.4.2. Types of gasoline injection system 2.25
2.4.3. Working of electronically controlled gasoline injection system 2.27
2.5. Electronic diesel injection system 2.30
2.5.1. Components of electronic diesel injection system 2.31
2.5.2. Unit injector system 2.33
2.5.3. Rotary distributor system 2.35
2.5.4. Common rail direct injection system (CRDI) 2.36
2.6. Ignition system 2.38
2.6.1. Battery ignition system or coil system 2.38
2.6.2. Magneto ignition system 2.40
2.6.3. Electronic ignition system 2.43
2.6.4. Transistorised ignition system 2.46
2.6.5. Capacitive discharge ignition system 2.47
2.6.6. Distributorless ignition system 2.48
2.7. Supercharging 2.49
Contents C-5
2.7.1. Types of supercharging methods 2.49
2.8. Turbo chargers 2.52
2.8.1. Methods of turbocharging 2.54
2.9. Engine emission and its control 2.56
2.9.1. Automobile engine pollutants 2.57
2.9.2. Diesel engine emission 2.59
2.9.3. SI engine emission 2.59
2.9.4. Pollution control 2.60
2.9.5. Evaporative emission control for SI engine 2.62
2.9.6. Evaporative emission control system for CI engine 2.64
2.9.7. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system 2.64
2.9.8. Crankcase emission control system 2.66
2.9.9. Engine emission control by catalytic converter 2.66
2.10. Emission norms (Euro and BS) 2.69
2.10.1. Setting emission norms 2.69
2.10.2. EURO Norms 2.70
2.10.3. BS Norms 2.72
2.11. Two mark questions and answers 2.77
2.12. Solved questions 2.90

UNIT 3 TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

3.1. Introduction 3.1

3.1.1. Functions or purposes of transmission systems 3.2
3.2. Clutch 3.2
3.2.1. Principles of operation of friction clutch 3.3
3.2.2. Functions of clutch 3.3
3.2.3. Characteristics or requirements of a clutch 3.3
3.3. Types of clutches 3.4
C-6 Automobile Engineering
3.3.1. Single plate clutch 3.5
3.3.2. Multi-plate clutch 3.9
3.3.3. Cone clutch 3.10
3.3.4. Centrifugal clutch 3.11
3.3.5. Semi-centrifugal clutch 3.12
3.3.6. Diaphragm clutch 3.13
3.3.7. Positive clutch (or) dog and spline clutch 3.15
3.3.8. Hydraulic clutch 3.16
3.3.9. Electro-magnetic clutch 3.17
3.3.10. Vacuum clutch 3.18
3.4. Trouble shooting of clutch 3.19
3.5. Gearbox 3.22
3.5.1. Necessity of transmission 3.22
3.5.2. Purposes of transmission 3.23
3.5.3. Resistances to motion 3.23
3.5.4. Tractive effort 3.24
3.6. Types of gearbox 3.25
3.6.1. Sliding mesh gearbox 3.25
3.6.2. Constant mesh gearbox 3.29
3.6.3. Synchromesh gearbox 3.32
3.6.4. Epicyclic gearbox 3.34
3.6.5. Automatic gearbox 3.36
3.7. Hydromatic transmission 3.37
3.8. Shift or selector mechanism 3.42
3.9. Trouble shooting of gearbox 3.43
3.10. Overdrives 3.47
3.10.1. Operation 3.49
3.10.2. Construction 3.49
3.10.3. Free-wheel assembly 3.50
3.10.4. Pawl action 3.51
Contents C-7
3.10.5. Electrical controls 3.52
3.10.6. Trouble shooting chart for overdrive 3.54
3.11. Transfer box 3.55
3.12. Fluid flywheel 3.57
3.13. Torque converter gearbox 3.58
3.13.1. Difference between fluid coupling and torque convertor 3.61
3.14. Propeller shaft 3.62
3.14.1. Functions of propeller shaft 3.62
3.14.2. Propeller shaft construction 3.64
3.15. Slip joints 3.65
3.16. Universal joints 3.66
3.16.1. Types of universal joints 3.66
3.16.2. Maintenance of propeller shafts and universal joints 3.69
3.16.3. Trouble shooting for propeller shaft 3.70
3.17. Differential 3.71
3.17.1. Need for the differential gear unit 3.71
3.17.2. Major components of differential 3.72
3.17.3. Construction 3.72
3.17.4. Basic principle of operation 3.73
3.17.5. Types of differential 3.74
3.17.5.1. Conventional differential 3.74
3.17.5.2. Limited slip differential or self-locking differential or
differential lockout 3.74
3.17.5.3. Non-slip differential 3.78
3.17.5.4. Double reduction type differential 3.78
3.17.6. Trouble shooting for differential 3.79
3.18. Rear axle 3.81
3.18.1. Construction of rear axles 3.82
3.18.2. Rear axle casing 3.82
3.18.3. Types of loads acting on rear axles 3.85
C-8 Automobile Engineering
3.18.4. Types of rear axles 3.85
3.18.5. Comparison of different types of rear axles 3.88
3.18.6. Rear axle drives 3.88
3.18.6.1. Hotchkiss drive 3.88
3.18.6.2. Torque tube drive 3.89
3.18.6.3. Comparison between Hotchkiss drive and torque tube drive 3.90
3.18.7. Trouble shooting for rear axle 3.91
3.19. Two mark questions and answers 3.92
3.20. Solved questions 3.108

UNIT 4 STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

4.1. Steering system 4.1

4.1.1. Requirements and functions of the steering system 4.2
4.1.2. Layout of steering system 4.3
4.1.3. Principle of operation of steering system 4.7
4.1.4. Fundamentals of steering mechanism or condition for
true rolling motion 4.7
4.1.5. Ackerman - Jeantaud steering linkage 4.9
4.1.6. Davis steering gear 4.11
4.1.7. Steering linkage for vehicle with
independent front suspension 4.12
4.1.8. Steering geometry 4.12
4.1.9. Wheel alignment 4.19
4.1.10. Steering gears 4.20
4.1.11. Types of steering gear box 4.21
4.1.12. Steering ratio 4.27
4.1.13. Turning radius and slip angle 4.28
Contents C-9
4.1.14. Understeering and oversteering 4.29
4.1.15. Centre point steering 4.30
4.1.16. Cornering force 4.32
4.1.17. Reversible and irreversible steering 4.33
4.1.18. Power steering 4.33
4.1.19. Trouble shooting for steering system 4.37
4.2. Front axle 4.43
4.2.1. Functions of front axle 4.44
4.2.2. Construction and components of front axle 4.44
4.2.3. Types of front axles 4.46
4.3. Stub axle 4.47
4.3.1. Types of stub axles 4.47
4.4. Suspension system 4.48
4.4.1. Components of suspension system 4.49
4.4.2. Functions or objectives of suspension system 4.49
4.4.3. Requirements of suspension system 4.50
4.4.4. Principles of suspension system 4.50
4.4.5. Sprung weight and unsprung weight 4.50
4.4.6. Basic suspension movements 4.52
4.4.7. Types of suspension springs 4.54
4.4.8. Leaf spring suspension 4.55
4.4.9. Helper springs 4.58
4.4.10. Coil spring 4.59
4.4.11. Torsion bar 4.60
4.4.12. Rubber springs 4.61
4.4.13. Air springs 4.63
4.4.14. Hydro elastic suspension 4.66
4.4.15. Shock absorber 4.68
4.4.16. Types of suspension system 4.71
4.4.17. Independent front suspension 4.71
C-10 Automobile Engineering
4.4.18. Rigid axle front suspension 4.78
4.4.19. Independent rear suspension 4.79
4.4.20. Interconnected suspension system 4.82
4.4.21. Anti-roll bar (stabilizer) 4.84
4.4.22. Trouble shooting in springs and suspension 4.86
4.5. Braking system 4.90
4.5.1. Requirements of braking system 4.90
4.5.2. Stopping distance, time and braking efficiency 4.91
4.5.3. Theory of braking or principle of braking 4.92
4.5.4. Friction resistance and coefficient of friction 4.93
4.5.5. Types of brakes 4.94
4.5.6. Drum brake 4.95
4.5.6.1. Types of drum brakes 4.97
4.5.7. Disc brakes 4.98
4.5.7.1. Components of disc brake 4.98
4.5.7.2. Types of disc brake 4.99
4.5.8. Comparison between drum brake and disc brake 4.103
4.5.9. Hydraulic brakes 4.104
4.5.9.1. Master cylinder 4.105
4.5.9.2. Wheel cylinder 4.108
4.5.9.3. Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic brakes 4.109
4.5.9.4. Brake fluid of hydraulic brake system 4.110
4.5.9.5. Bleeding of hydraulic brakes 4.111
4.5.10. Mechanical brakes 4.112
4.5.10.1. Fixed expander brake 4.113
4.5.10.2. Leading and trailing shoes 4.114
4.5.10.3. Floating-cam brake 4.114
4.5.10.4. Floating anchor brake 4.115
4.5.10.5. Brakes with two leading shoes 4.116
4.5.10.6. Brakes with two trailing shoes 4.116
Contents C-11
4.5.11. Air assisted hydraulic braking system 4.117
4.5.12. Pneumatic braking system 4.117
4.5.12.1. Comparison between pneumatic and hydraulic braking systems 4.119
4.5.13. Transmission or propeller shaft parking brake 4.120
4.5.14. Servo brake systems 4.121
4.5.15. Power-assisted braking system 4.122
4.5.15.1. Vacuum assisted hydraulic brake 4.123
4.5.16. Brake valve 4.124
4.5.17. Brake adjustments 4.125
4.5.17.1. Micram adjuster 4.125
4.5.17.2. Taper screw adjuster 4.126
4.5.17.3. Girling mechanical brake adjuster 4.127
4.5.18. Brake compensation 4.128
4.5.19. Retarder 4.128
4.5.19.1. Hydraulic retarder 4.128
4.5.19.2. Electric retarder 4.129
4.5.20. Antilock braking systems (ABS) 4.129
4.5.20.1. Need of ABS in automobile 4.130
4.5.20.2. Components of ABS 4.131
4.5.20.3. Working principle of ABS 4.134
4.5.20.4. Types of anti-lock brakes 4.136
4.5.20.5. Advantages and disadvantages of ABS 4.136
4.5.21. Electronic brake force distribution (EBD) 4.137
4.5.22. Traction control 4.139
4.55.22.1. Function of a traction control 4.139
4.55.22.2. Components of TCS systems 4.140
4.5.23. Trouble shooting in brakes 4.141
4.6. Two mark questions and answers 4.148
4.58. Solved questions 4.174
C-12 Automobile Engineering

UNIT 5 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

5.1. Introduction to alternative energy sources 5.1

5.2. Alternative fuels 5.2
5.3. Properties of alternate fuels 5.4
5.4. Use of natural gas in automobiles 5.8
5.4.1. History of natural gas 5.9
5.4.2. Properties/characteristics of natural gas 5.10
5.4.3. Various forms of natural gas 5.11
5.4.4. Natural gas production 5.13
5.4.5. Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) 5.14
5.4.6. Natural gas consumption pattern in different countries 5.17
5.4.7. Compressed natural gas (CNG) and
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) 5.17
5.4.8. Advantages and Disadvantages of LNG 5.18
5.5. Use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in automobiles 5.19
5.5.1. Properties / characteristics of LPG 5.20
5.5.2. LPG equipment 5.23
5.5.3. LPG fuel / engine interaction 5.24
5.5.4. Current state of LPG engine/vehicle technology 5.24
5.5.5. LPG vehicles 5.25
5.5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of LPG 5.27
5.6. Use of bio-diesel in automobiles 5.29
5.6.1. Properties of biodiesel 5.30
5.6.2. Biodiesel production 5.30
5.6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel 5.31
5.7. Use of bio-ethanol in automobiles 5.33
5.7.1. Sources of bio-ethanol (Alcohol) 5.34
5.7.2. Bio-Ethanol (Alcohol) production 5.35
Contents C-13
5.7.3. Performance of ethanol-based engine 5.37
5.7.4. Engine cold start during winter 5.39
5.7.5. Fuel economy 5.39
5.7.6. Ethanol fuel mixtures 5.40
5.7.7. Properties/Characteristics of Ethanol / Alcohol 5.40
5.7.8. Advantages and disadvantages of Ethanol / Alcohol 5.40
5.8. Use of gasohol in automobiles 5.42
5.8.1. Potential of gasohol in India 5.43
5.8.2. Gasohol fueled vehicles 5.45
5.8.3. Advantages and disadvantages of gasohol 5.45
5.9. Use of hydrogen fuels in automobiles 5.46
5.9.1. Sources of hydrogen 5.46
5.9.2. Advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen as fuel 5.47
5.9.3. Hydrogen as a fuel 5.48
5.9.4. Hydrogen properties 5.48
5.9.5. Production of hydrogen 5.49
5.9.6. Hydrogen from natural gas 5.51
5.9.7. Thermochemical processes 5.52
5.9.8. Other methods of producing hydrogen 5.53
5.9.9. Methods of using hydrogen in CI engines 5.55
5.9.10. Challenges for hydrogen fuel 5.56
5.9.11. Hydrogen fueled vehicles 5.57
5.10. Engine modifications required for alternate fuels 5.57
5.10.1. Need for engine modification 5.57
5.10.2. Engine modification for bio-ethanol 5.58
5.10.3 Engine modification biodiesel 5.61
5.11. Performance of SI and CI engines with alternate fuels 5.62
5.11.1. Performance of a 4-stroke SI engine using CNG
as an alternative fuel 5.62
C-14 Automobile Engineering
5.11.2. Performance of spark ignition engine fuelled with methane,
methanol, hydrogen, propane and ethanol gasoline fuels 5.64
5.11.3. Performance of compression ignition (CI) engine fuelled
with biodiesel as an alternate fuel 5.67
5.11.4. Performance of soyabean oil as an alternate fuel
for CI engine at variable compression ratio 5.68
5.12. Combustion of SI and CI engines with alternate fuels 5.69
5.13. Emission characteristics of SI and CI engines with alternate fuels 5.70
5.14. Electric vehicles 5.71
5.14.1. History of electric vehicles 5.72
5.14.2. Working of electric vehicles 5.72
5.14.3. Electric vehicles 5.73
5.14.4. Maintenance considerations 5.74
5.14.5. Benefits of electric vehicles 5.75
5.14.6. Limitations of electric vehicles 5.75
5.15. Hybrid vehicles 5.76
5.15.1. Working of hybrid vehicles 5.76
5.15.2. Parallel HEV design 5.77
5.15.3. Series HEV design 5.78
5.15.4. Hybrid electric vehicle components 5.79
5.15.5. Hybrid electric vehicle benefits 5.86
5.15.6. Hybrid electric vehicles 5.87
5.16. Use of fuel cells in automobiles 5.89
5.16.1. History of fuel cell 5.89
5.16.2. Comparison of a fuel cell car and battery car 5.90
5.16.3. Comparison of gasoline cars and fuel cell car 5.90
5.16.4. Working principle of a fuel cell 5.90
5.16.5. Parts of a fuel cell 5.91
5.16.6. Types of fuel cells 5.94
5.16.6.1. Hydrogen-oxygen cell 5.94
5.16.6.2. Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells 5.95
 Contents C-15
5.16.6.3. Direct methanol fuel cells 5.96
5.16.6.4. Alkaline fuel cells 5.97
5.16.6.5. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) 5.98
5.16.6.6. Molten carbonate fuel cells 5.99
5.16.6.7. Solid oxide fuel cells 5.100
5.16.7.8. Regenerative fuel cells 5.101
5.16.7. Conversion efficiency of fuel cells 5.101
5.16.8. Advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells 5.101
5.16.9. Applications of fuel cells 5.102
5.16.10. Fuel cell vehicles 5.103
5.17. Two mark questions and answers 5.105
5.18. Solved questions 5.125

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