Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

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Geochemistry and possible origins of biodegraded oils in the Cretaceous T

reservoir of the Muglad Basin and their application in hydrocarbon
exploration
Zhe Yanga, Meijun Lia,b,∗, Dingsheng Chengc, Hong Xiaoa, Hongfei Laid, Qingyao Chena
a
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, 102249, China
b
Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resources, Ministry of Education, College of Resources and Environment, Yangtze University, Wuhan,
430100, China
c
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina, Beijing, 100083, China
d
MLR Key Laboratory of Marine Mineral Resource, Guangzhou Marine Geology Survey, Guangzhou, 510075, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Muglad Basin is one of the largest petroliferous basins within the Central and Western African Rift System
Geochemical characteristics (WCARS). A total of 42 oil samples including light, normal and heavy crude oils from the Cretaceous reservoirs
Biodegraded oil of the Muglad Basin were systematically analyzed to fully understand their geochemical characteristics and
Cretaceous possible origins. The results of oil–oil correlation show that these Cretaceous crude oils are genetically identical
Muglad basin
and derive from the same source kitchen. Differences in physical properties and geochemical compositions may
WCARS
be attributed to secondary alteration, such as biodegradation. Lightly, moderately and severely biodegraded oils
can be divided on the basis of the relative abundance of n–alkanes and acyclic isoprenoids in the oils and the
presence of “humps” on gas chromatogram baselines, as well as of the relative abundance of 25–norhopanes. The
biodegradation degree of Cretaceous oils in the Muglad Basin is closely related to the burial depth of oil re-
servoirs and the distance between the locations of oil reservoirs and adjacent faults. This study may have
practical application for further petroleum exploration and development in the Muglad Basin.

1. Introduction
The type and thermal maturity of organic matter in source rocks are
important geochemical factors controlling variations in physical prop-
erties and geochemical compositions for subsurface reservoired crude
oils (Hunt, 1979; Tissot and Welte, 1984). Moreover, secondary al-
teration, such as biodegradation is also a factor, and is sometimes a key
factor, in modifying oil properties (Connan, 1984; Volkman et al., 1984;
England, 1987; Peters and Moldowan, 1993). Crude oil biodegradation
is a significant hydrocarbon alteration process that has been reported in
numerous previous studies, and which usually occurs in reservoirs with
relatively shallower burial depths and lower temperatures (Seifert and
Moldowan, 1979; Connan, 1984; Lafargue and Barker, 1988; Peters
et al., 2005). The process of biodegradation will dramatically reduce
petroleum quality and producibility. With increasing levels of biode-
gradation, the content of NSO compounds (resin), the content of as-
phaltene and the viscosity of petroleum increase, while API gravities of
crude oils decrease (Connan, 1984; Peters et al., 2005).
The Muglad Basin is a typical continental rift basin. Recently, sev-
eral petroleum reservoirs have been discovered in this basin. Several,
such as the Fula, Bamboo and Unity oilfields, present excellent pro-
spects for hydrocarbon exploration in the region (Mohamed et al.,
1999; Zhang and Gu, 2011; Dou et al., 2013; Makeen et al., 2015a,b,c).
The physical properties of oils in the Muglad Basin vary greatly. Light,
normal and heavy oils, and oils with high acidity have all been reported
in previous studies (Dou et al., 2006; Cheng and Dou, 2010; Li et al.,
2010; Han et al., 2016). Most oils from Cretaceous reservoirs of the
Muglad Basin have a close genetic relationship and have been grouped
as a single oil family (Luo et al., 2003; Wen et al., 2007; Makeen et al.,
2015d). Previous studies have indicated that oils from Block 6 of the
Muglad Basin have generally been subjected to heavier biodegradation
than those from other blocks (Nie et al., 2004; Dou et al., 2006; Luo
et al., 2006; Wen et al., 2007; Li et al., 2010; Shi et al., 2014).
Numerous papers have reported about the geological and geo-
chemical features of Cretaceous petroleum in the Muglad Basin, such as
reservoir features and occurrence (Genik, 1993; Tong et al., 2004; Jia

∗
Corresponding author. State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, 102249,
China.
E-mail addresses: meijunli2008@hotmail.com, meijunli@cup.edu.cn (M. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2018.10.077
Received 26 August 2018; Received in revised form 18 October 2018; Accepted 23 October 2018
Available online 26 October 2018
0920-4105/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Yang et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic geological map of the Muglad Basin showing locations of samples.
et al., 2012), bulk organic geochemical characteristics of oils and po-
tential source rocks (Luo et al., 2003; Mohamed et al., 2010; Zhang and
Gu, 2011; Dou et al., 2013), and hydrocarbon accumulation mechan-
isms and migration processes (Mohamed et al., 1999; Dou et al., 2006;
Ouyang et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2008). However, less work has been
done on the origins of heavy oils and the geological conditions con-
trolling the occurrence and features of biodegraded oils in this basin.
Based on detailed geochemical analyses of 42 oils of differing densities,
this study describes the geochemical characteristics of oils in the basin
and investigates the geological factors governing the spatial distribu-
tion of heavy oils with different biodegradation degrees.
2. Geological setting
The Muglad Basin (Fig. 1), which extends across the border of Sudan
and the Republic of South Sudan, is a Mesozoic–Cenozoic continental
rift basin in the Central and Western Rift System (WCARS) (Genik,
1993). The basin has an area of about 120,000 km2 and consists of
deposited sedimentary strata from Cretaceous to Cenozoic with a
maximum depositional thickness of approximately 15,000 m (Genik,
1993; Zhang, 2002; Wei and Liu, 2003; Zhang and Qi, 2007; Dou et al.,
2013). In the Muglad Basin, the Lower Cretaceous can be subdivided
into the Abu Gabra Formation and the Bentiu Formation (from bottom
to top), while the Darfur Group and the Amal Formation can be dis-
tinguished in the Upper Cretaceous (Tong et al., 2004; Zhang et al.,
2008; Dou et al., 2013). The thick dark mudstone intervals occurring in
the Abu Gabra Formation are regarded as potential source rocks, while
the sandstone distributed in the upper parts of the Abu Gabra and
Bentiu formations, as well as in the bottom of the Darfur group, are the
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898
principal reservoir rocks in the study area. The mudstone of the upper
Cretaceous Darfur Group is the principal regional cap rock (Tong et al.,
2004). On the basis of basin framework and structural characteristics,
the Muglad basin can be divided into five tectonic units: the Northern
Depression; the Eastern Slope; the Eastern Depression; the Kaikang
Depression, and the Western Depression (Nie et al., 2004; Dou et al.,
2006; Shi et al., 2014).
3. Samples and experiments
A total of 42 crude oils were sampled from the Sufyan, Nugara, Fula
depressions and from the north of the Kaikang Depression of the
Muglad Basin (Fig. 1; Table 1). The formations and burial depths of the
collected oil samples are shown in Table 1. In this study, all of the crude
oils were analyzed using conventional geochemical analysis methods.
The crude oils were deasphaltened using petroleum ether and then
fractioned into saturated, aromatic hydrocarbons and NSO fractions by
column chromatography on silica gel/neutral alumina (3:2, w/w) col-
umns, eluting sequentially with petroleum ether, dichloromethane/
petroleum ether (2:1, v/v) and dichloromethane/methanol (93:7, v/v).
Saturated hydrocarbon fractions was analyzed by GC analysis using
a Shimadzu GC–2010 equipped with a Flame Ionization Detector (FID),
HP–5MS fused silica capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm film
thickness) was used. Helium was carrier gas. The initial oven tem-
perature was programed at 100 °C for 1 min, and then increased to
300 °C at a rate of 4 °C/min, and finally held at 300 °C for 25 min.
Saturated and aromatic hydrocarbons analysis was performed by
GC–MS equipped to an Agilent 6890 gas chromatograph with an
Agilent 5975i mass spectrometer. The gas chromatograph was
Z. Yang et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898

Table 1
API gravities and bulk geochemical compositions for oils from the Muglad Basin.
Tectonic block Well No Depth(m) Fm. APIo Sat (wt %) Aro (wt %) Resin (wt %) Asph (wt %) Sat
/Aro

Sufyan Depression Sufyan E−1 2449–2455 Abu Gabra 40.2 75.79 9.12 11.64 3.46 8.31
Suf-2 3374–3376 Abu Gabra 40.1 76.95 9.83 10.17 3.05 7.83
Suf E−1 3595–3599 Abu Gabra 38.5 80.00 9.37 8.13 2.50 8.53
Suf N-1 2849–2852 Abu Gabra 42.7 78.15 7.38 9.23 5.23 10.58
Suf SE-1 3185–3187 Abu Gabra 37.5 74.85 13.64 5.15 6.36 5.49
Suf SE-1 3149–3152 Abu Gabra 35.8 65.16 26.63 4.25 3.97 2.45
Suf SE-1 3354–3357 Abu Gabra 38.2 80.26 10.20 6.25 3.29 7.87
Nugara Depression HadidaN-3 1708–1712 Bentiu 15.0 45.77 26.54 19.62 8.08 1.72
Hadida-1 2989–3011 Abu Gabra 37.4 76.04 16.67 4.58 2.71 4.56
Fula Depression FEN-16 523–548 Bentiu 17.8 46.19 38.76 13.61 1.44 1.19
Moga-26 804–814 Bentiu 19.4 45.70 34.50 14.50 5.30 1.30
Moga-20 826–874 Bentiu 16.0 38.30 38.30 19.40 4.00 1.00
Moga 1-4 834–871 Aradeiba 17.5 45.43 36.76 14.16 3.65 1.24
Moga 1-7 893–898 Bentiu 16.6 47.55 34.50 12.35 5.59 1.38
FN-156 1204–1216 Aradeiba 21.4 47.41 34.48 15.52 2.59 1.38
FN-4 1245–1269 Bentiu 17.5 41.74 36.98 17.98 3.31 1.13
Moga 10-3 1452–1456 Abu Gabra 26.8 59.60 29.30 8.10 2.90 2.00
Moga 7-5 1537–1564 Abu Gabra 30.4 63.80 30.60 4.70 0.90 2.10
Keyi-8 1554–1581 Ghazal 22.8 49.90 33.95 15.53 0.62 1.47
Keyi-5 1568–1584 Bentiu 23.7 48.92 34.48 14.01 2.59 1.42
KS-4 1601–1616 Aradeiba 21.0 45.80 36.26 11.83 6.11 1.26
Moga-9 1602–1605 Abu Gabra 31.0 60.20 21.60 11.20 7.10 2.80
Moga-17 1632–1917 Abu Gabra 27.9 62.40 26.60 6.20 4.80 2.40
Bara-1 1679–1682 Abu Gabra 35.1 71.89 18.27 5.82 4.02 3.93
Keyi-4 1686–1696 Zarqa 22.2 50.94 34.03 14.61 0.42 1.50
Moga 18-2 1764–1770 Abu Gabra 39.0 75.70 14.90 7.00 2.40 5.10
Moga 21 1787–1807 Abu Gabra 39.0 68.70 26.10 3.30 1.80 2.60
FN4-4 1854–1869 Abu Gabra 23.7 53.08 30.14 10.96 5.82 1.76
Moga 33-1 1929–1965 Abu Gabra 39.0 75.80 18.10 3.30 2.80 4.20
Maha-1 2172–2181 Abu Gabra 34.3 69.23 16.12 11.72 2.93 4.30
Maha-1 2730–3027 Abu Gabra 37.2 75.71 15.82 7.06 1.41 4.79
Kaikang Depression Hilba NE-1 815–846 Amal 10.4 27.85 28.86 26.17 17.11 0.97
Hilba NE-1 1843–1860 Ghazal 16.1 37.56 23.90 22.93 15.61 1.57
Hilba E−1 1691–1700 Ghazal 17.6 42.83 24.57 20.65 11.96 1.74
Kela N-1 1763–1765 Benitu 23.9 57.94 12.70 12.30 17.06 4.56
Hilba N-1R 1780–1810 Baraka 29.4 66.21 19.11 9.90 4.78 3.46
Hilba NW-1 1796–1800 Ghazal 17.9 38.64 23.78 22.93 14.65 1.62
Hilba-1 2025–2028 Ghazal 17.0 35.32 24.54 19.70 20.45 1.44
Hilba-1 2044–2052 Ghazal 18.0 40.52 25.28 13.38 20.82 1.60
Hilba C-1 2015–2031 Ghazal 22.0 47.06 21.88 15.76 15.29 2.15
Hilba C-1 2095–2110 Ghazal 26.4 49.06 18.23 18.80 13.91 2.69
Hilba C-1 2318–2329 Ghazal 27.3 50.27 16.03 9.51 24.18 3.14

Fig. 2. Ternary diagram showing the relative abundance of saturated, aromatic,

asphaltenes plus NSO fractions of oils from the Muglad Basin. Fig. 3. Cross plots of API gravity vs. asphaltenes plus NSO fractions contents of
crude oils from the Muglad Basin.

combined with a 60 m HP–5MS fused silica capillary column (0.25 mm

i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness). First, the temperature was set at 50 °C, and to 310 °C at 3 °C per minute and then remain held at constant tem-
held for 1 min then ramped from 50 °C to 120 °C at 20 °C/min by pro- perature for 25 min. Helium still was utilized as carries gas. The MS was
grammed temperature control. The temperature was finally ramped up operated in both full scan mode (m/z 50–570) and selected ion

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Z. Yang et al.
Fig. 4. Gas chromatograms showing the distribution of normal alkanes and acyclic isoprenoids.
monitoring (SIM) mode, with an ionization energy of 70 eV.
Compounds were identified by comparison of relative retention time
and retention indices on m/z 177, 191 (hopanes and 25–norhopanes),
m/z 198, 212 (alkylated dibenzothiophenes), m/z 182, 196 (alkylated
dibenzofurans) and m/z 231 (Triaromatic steroids) mass chromato-
grams (SIM mode) with the published work (Bennett et al., 2006; Li
et al., 2012b; Li and Ellis, 2015; Yang et al., 2015).
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Physical properties and bulk compositions
The physical properties and compositional characteristics of oils
from the Muglad Basin are shown in Table 1. The API gravities show
significant differences between the oil samples. Oils sampled from the
Sufyan Depression, such as oils from wells Sufyan E−1, Suf–2, Suf
E−1, Suf N–1 and Suf SE–1, exhibit higher API gravities with a range of
35.8° to 42.7°, indicating that they are light to normal oils. However,
some oil samples from the Nugara, Fula and Kaikang depressions are
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898
heavy oils with extremely low API gravities, e.g. oils from wells Hadida
N–3, FEN–16, and Hilba NE–1.
The bulk compositional characteristics of oil samples from the
Muglad Basin exhibit considerable variations (Fig. 2). The contents of
saturated and aromatic hydrocarbons in these oils range from 27.85%
to 80.26% and from 7.38% to 38.76%, respectively. The saturated/
aromatic hydrocarbon ratios of sampled oils range from 0.97 to 10.58.
This ratio is mainly controlled by the thermal maturity level of the
effective source rock during hydrocarbon expulsion and the secondary
alteration processes of oil migration or accumulation (Connan, 1984;
Tissot and Welte, 1984).
The API gravities and contents of asphaltenes plus NSO fractions in
crude oils from the Muglad Basin exhibit good negative correlation
(Fig. 3). The asphaltenes plus NSO fraction contents of light oils from
the Sufyan Depression are quite low (8.22%–15.09%). In contrast, most
heavy oils from the Kaikang Depression with lower API gravities con-
tain a relatively higher proportion of asphaltenes plus NSO fractions
(> 30%). Data from other oils from the Nugara and Fula depressions
display considerable variations (5.1%–27.69%). Generally, oil
Z. Yang et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898

biodegradation will reduce the saturated fractions and increase the

relative content of NSO components in oils. This will usually lead to the
biodegraded oils having low API gravity (Connan, 1984; Tissot and
Welte, 1984). In this study, all the oils were sampled from Cretaceous
reservoirs, accumulating in the same geological time and under similar
migration conditions. Moreover, all oil samples were analyzed using
identical experimental treatments. Therefore, the distinct physical dif-
ferences between these oils cannot be ascribed to oil evaporation/
fractionation during the burial history, or during the experimental
process. The most probable explanation for the complex relationship
between physical properties and chemical composition is differences
between oil sources or different degrees of biodegradation.

4.2. Normal alkanes and acyclic isoprenoids

Normal alkanes are preferentially depleted during the early stages

Fig. 5. Cross plots of pristane to nC17 alkane (Pr/nC17) vs. phytane to nC18
alkane (Ph/nC18) of crude oils from the Muglad Basin (after Shanmugam,
1985).
of oil biodegradation (Peters et al., 2005). Acyclic isoprenoids with
multiple methyl groups are more bio–resistant than n–alkanes with si-
milar gas chromatographic elution times because the methyl groups
generally inhibit biodegradation. (Peters et al., 2005). Representative
gas chromatograms of selected crude oils from the study area are

Fig. 6. Mass chromatograms of m/z 231 (aromatic hydrocarbons) showing the distributions of triaromatic steroids.

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Z. Yang et al.
Fig. 7. Ternary diagram showing the relative compositions of C26, C27 and C28
triaromatic steroids (TAS) of crude oils from the Muglad Basin.
Fig. 8. Cross plot of pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) vs. alkyldibenzothiophene/al-
kyldibenzofuran (ADBT/ADBF) of crude oils from the Muglad Basin (After
Radke et al., 2000).
illustrated in Fig. 4. The distribution patterns of n–alkane series and
acyclic isoprenoids can provide useful information for evaluating the oil
biodegradation. For example, crude oil samples from wells Suf–2 and
Hadida–1 are typical normal oils, in which gas chromatograms are
characterized by straight base lines and intact n–alkane series
(C13eC37) (Fig. 4g and h). As to the oil samples from wells Hilba NE–1
and Hibla–1, significant reduction of n–alkanes with low to medium
molecular weight content (e.g. nC13–nC24) and a slight “hump” on their
gas chromatogram baselines (Fig. 4e and f) indicate slight oil biode-
gradation (the qualitative standard applied in assessment of degrees of
biodegradation is drawn from Peters and Moldowan, 1991). The gas
chromatograms of crude oils from wells Moga 10–3 and Moga–9 are
characterized by severe depletion of n–alkanes (with very low intensity
of n–alkanes remaining) and a relatively higher abundance of acyclic
isoprenoid alkanes (e.g. pristane and phytane) (Fig. 4c and d), sug-
gesting that these crude oils have been moderately biodegraded. The
oils from wells Moga–20 and Moga–26, with an evident UCM (un-
resolved complex mixture) “hump” on the gas chromatograms and total
depletion of normal alkanes and cyclic isoprenoids, were severely
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898
biodegraded (Fig. 4a and b).
The relative abundance of acyclic isoprenoids compared to normal
alkanes, for example pristane compared to n–C17 alkane (Pr/nC17) and
phytane compared to n–C18 alkane (Ph/nC18), is indicative of oil bio-
degradation. In general, slightly biodegraded oils have higher Pr/nC17
and Ph/nC18 ratios than non–biodegraded oils because of preferential
depletion of normal alkanes during the biodegradation process. The
plots of Pr/nC17 versus Ph/nC18 ratios can be used to distinguish
non–biodegraded from biodegraded oils. For example, non–-
biodegraded oils have lower Pr/nC17 and Ph/nC18 ratios in the range of
0.06–0.21 and 0.05–0.1, respectively (Fig. 5). Relatively higher values
of Pr/nC17 and Ph/nC18 values occur in lightly biodegraded oils, ran-
ging from 0.22 to 3.11 and from 0.46 to 2.45, respectively (Fig. 5). In
addition, the plot of Pr/nC17 versus Ph/nC18 ratios indicates that all of
the selected oil samples probably originate from source rocks with
mixed organic matter sources (i.e. a mixture with contributions from
terrigenous organic matter and from lower aquatic organisms) that
accumulated in a transitional depositional environment. It is noted that
Pr/nC17, Ph/nC18 and Pr/Ph ratios are not available for severely bio-
degraded oils due to depletion of both normal alkanes and acyclic
isoprenoids.
4.3. Aromatic steroids
Triaromatic steroids (TAS) are formed by the aromatization of
regular steranes, and can remain unaltered in oils except for the most
heavily biodegraded (level 10) (Peters et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2015;
Zhang et al., 2016a). Triaromatic steroids are considered to be sig-
nificant geochemical indicators for ascertaining oil–to–oil correlations
and thermal maturity where n–alkanes and acyclic isoprenoids of crude
oils have been destroyed or fully consumed (Lin et al., 1989; Peters
et al., 2005; Li et al., 2012a). Triaromatic steroids can be detected in
conventional GC–MS analysis of the aromatic hydrocarbons of crude
oils (Fig. 6) and extracts of source rocks, but they have not been widely
applied in petroleum geochemistry due to the co–elution of C26 TAS
20R and C27 TAS 20S. Recently, Yang et al. (2015) and Zhang et al.
(2016b) have established a practical and straightforward way to de-
termine relative abundances of C26, C27 and C28 TAS. The ternary dia-
gram in Fig. 7 shows a clear oil–oil correlation among the crude oils
based on relative percentages of C26, C27 and C28 TAS (Fig. 7). All of
these datasets from Cretaceous oils are closely plotted in a single group,
revealing that there is a high similarity in characteristics of molecular
composition between the sampled oils, and that the selected oils
therefore derive from the same source bed/kitchen. Moreover, these
deductions are further supported by the modified diagram of alkylated
dibenzothiophenes to alkylated dibenzofurans (ADBT/ADBF) versus Pr
to Ph (Pr/Ph) ratios (Fig. 8). Oil samples with ADBT/ADBF and Pr/Ph
ratios ranged from 0.52 to 3.09 and from 0.63 to 2.27, respectively,
suggest a typical lacustrine depositional environment with mixed or-
ganic sources dominated by input of lower aquatic organisms and
minor terrigenous organic matter. These results provide strong evi-
dence that the selected oil samples belong to the same population and
consequently eliminate the effect of origin on the nature of the oils. The
most important conclusion to be drawn from this is that the most likely
controlling factor for differences in oil composition is biodegradation.
4.4. Hopanes and 25–norhopane series
Numerous studies in related literature have proposed that microbial
demethylation of hopanes is one of the important precursors for the
occurrence of 25–norhopane series in severely biodegraded oils
(Volkman et al., 1983; Moldowan and Mccaffrey, 1995; Moldowan and
Mccaffrey, 1995; Peters et al., 2004; Bennett et al., 2006). Therefore,
detection of the 25–norhopane homologous series is generally accepted
as being a significant indicator for identification of severely biode-
graded oils (Volkman et al., 1983; Moldowan and Mccaffrey, 1995;
Z. Yang et al.
Fig. 9. Mass chromatograms (m/z 191, 177) showing hopanes and 25–norhopanes in crude oils from Muglad Basin.
Bennett et al., 2006). Hopanes and 25–norhopanes of representative
crude oils are shown in the m/z 191 and m/z 177 mass chromatograms,
respectively (Fig. 9a and b). A complete 25–norhopane series, including
a single C29 25–nor–17α–hopane, C30eC34 25–nor–17α–hopane
(22S + 22R) epimers, and the corresponding hopane series, have been
detected in severely biodegraded oils. In this study, complete 25–nor-
hopane homologous series were not detected in all oils sampled from
the Sufyan and Nugara depressions, but can be clearly distinguished in
some biodegraded oils from the Fula and Kaikang depressions, for ex-
ample in oils from wells FEN–16, FN–4, Hilba–1 and Hilba C–1. It can
therefore be deduced that oil biodegradation has occurred to a greater
extent (up to level 6) in analyzed samples from the Fula and Kaikang
depressions.
4.5. Geological conditions for oil biodegradation
Various factors may be responsible for differences in the physical
properties and chemical compositions of oils derived from the same
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898
source kitchen/bed. Secondary alteration of residual oils is one of the
principal explanations for this. Clearly, biodegradation is a pre-
dominant geological process in the Muglad Basin. In general, oil bio-
degradation will occur when oil reservoirs are exposed to an environ-
ment that favors the growth of microbial communities (Connan, 1984;
Palmer, 1993; Blanc and Connan, 1994). It is generally accepted that
reservoir temperature is another vital factor controlling the biode-
gradation of crude oils (Peters et al., 2005). According to previous
studies (Connan, 1984; Palmer, 1984), an ideal temperature for the
survival of microorganisms is below approximately 80 °C. This tem-
perature range (< 80 °C) corresponds to a burial depth of less than
2000 m, on the basis of the normal geothermal gradient of the Muglad
Basin (about 2.8 °C/100 m) (Tong et al., 2004).
As shown in Fig. 10, the API gravity of Muglad Basin crude oils
generally increases with burial depth. The crude oils in reservoirs with a
burial depth of less than 1500 m are characterized by lower API
gravities (mostly lower than 20°), indicating heavy biodegradation. Oil
samples collected from reservoirs with burial depths greater than 2000
Z. Yang et al.
Fig. 10. Relationship of API gravity as a function of burial depth for crude oils
in the Muglad Basin.
m have higher API gravities (mostly higher than 35°), suggesting that
they are non–biodegraded light oils. Therefore, it can be inferred that
the burial depth of reservoired oils plays a key role in their degree of
biodegradation. Moreover, an evidently positive correlation between
Pr/nC17, Ph/nC18 ratios and the burial depth of crude oils is illustrated
in Fig. 11. This provides further evidence that the burial depth of crude
oils reservoirs is a critical factor in the occurrence and degree of
Fig. 11. Variations of Pritane to nC17 alkane (Pr/nC17) and Phytane to nC18 alkane (Ph/nC18) with burial depth of crude oils from the Muglad Basin.
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898
biodegradation. All crude oils with a burial depth of less than 1500 m
were apparently subjected to distinct biodegradation, while those from
reservoirs buried deeper than 2000 m are non–biodegraded oils. Re-
servoired oils with burial depths between 1500 and 2000 m show wide
differences in degree of biodegradation, such as the non–biodegraded
oil from well Moga 18–2, the lightly biodegraded oil from well Hilba
NE–1, the moderately biodegraded oil from Moga–9 and the heavily
biodegraded oil from well FN 4–4 (Fig. 11). This suggests that in ad-
dition to the burial depth of reservoirs, other geological and geo-
chemical factors have impacted on the degree of biodegradation in oils
with burial depths in the range of about 1500–2000 m.
The Muglad Basin is known as a typical inland rift basin, with its
formation controlled by the Central Africa Shear Zone (CASZ). This
basin is characterized by strong fault activity and extensive develop-
ment of faults. Three rift cycles: Early Craterous, Late Craterous and
Early Tertiary, have affected the structural framework and hydrocarbon
accumulation characteristics of this basin (Jia et al., 2012; Shi et al.,
2014). The framework of the Muglad Basin structure is mainly con-
trolled by two groups of faults: the NW–SE faults and the NNW–SSE
faults (Zhang et al., 2009; Ahmed and Ozumba, 2017). Widely devel-
oped faults and frequent fault activity may have promoted exchanges of
fluids between reservoirs and flows of nutrient supplies for micro-
organisms, which provided favorable conditions for the occurrence of
biodegradation (Guo et al., 2010; Wenger et al., 2002). The degrees of
oil biodegradation and fault distributions in the Muglad Basin are
shown in Fig. 12. All crude oils with burial depths of less than 1500 m
have suffered moderate to heavy biodegradation (Fig. 12; Table 1). On
the contrary, no biodegradation has occurred in reservoired oils whose
burial depths are greater than 2000 m, despite their proximity to the
faults (Fig. 12, Table 1). The distances from the oils to the fault planes
are major controlling factors for the degree of biodegradation of oils
with a burial depths in the range of about 1500–2000 m. For example,
the oil from well Moga 18–2 has a shallow burial depth (1764 m), but is
a non–biodegraded light oil, sourced a considerable distance from ad-
jacent unclosed faults (Fig. 12 c). However, wells Hilba NE–1 and FN
4–4 present certain conditions which are favorable for biodegradation.
Oil samples from well Hilba NE–1, with a burial depth of 1843 m and
sourced close to the adjacent NW–SE fault, have undergone moderate
biodegradation (Fig. 12 c). Similarly, oils from well FN 4–4, which have
Z. Yang et al.
Fig. 12. Sample wells locations and faults distribution in the Muglad Basin.
a relatively deeper burial depth of 1854 m, have been subjected to
heavy biodegradation because the oil was too close to the fault (Fig. 12
c). Therefore, differences in levels of biodegradation between crude oils
sampled from oil reservoirs with burial depths in the range of
1500–2000 m may probably be attributed to this specific geological
background. It can be readily inferred that fluid communication via the
fault system may have played a critical role in the biodegradation of
particular oil reservoirs in the Muglad Basin. It is generally accepted
that unclosed normal faults can offer excellent communication inter-
spaces for fluid interaction between geofluids inside oil traps and ex-
ternal reservoirs. An ideal environment for thriving bacterial activity
could readily occur when large amounts of nutrient materials and mi-
crobial communities were transported to the oil reservoirs or adjacent
areas via the fault conduit. Therefore, in oils with burial depths be-
tween 1500 m and 2000 m, biodegradation can readily occur in areas
adjacent to unclosed faults in the Muglad Basin.
5. Conclusions
A total of 42 crude oils sampled from the Muglad Basin were sys-
tematically analyzed to investigate their geochemical characteristics.
The results showed that these oil samples have a genetic affinity and
can be considered to derive from the same oil family. Biodegradation
was the principal factor which has led to differences in physical prop-
erties between these oils. The sampled biodegraded oils can be divided
into lightly, moderately and severely biodegraded oils on the basis of
the distribution of normal alkanes and acyclic isoprenoid alkanes and
the occurrence of unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) in gas chroma-
tograms, as well as the relative abundance of 25–norhopanes. The de-
gree of biodegradation is closely controlled by the burial depth of oil
reservoirs and the distance from the oils to adjacent faults. Crude oils
with burial depths greater than 2000 m were non–biodegraded, and
those with burial depths of less than 1500 m suffered heavy biode-
gradation. Reservoired oils in the burial depth range of 1500–2000 m
897
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 173 (2019) 889–898
show a wide variation on extent of biodegradation, as the biode-
gradation degree in these oils was principally controlled by the dis-
tances between oil reservoirs and adjacent faults.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant No. 41272158) and the Foundation of the State Key
Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Prospecting (PRP/open–1710),
China University of Petroleum, Beijing. The authors are grateful for the
assistance of Shengbao Shi and Lei Zhu for geochemical analyses of all
samples. We would like to thank the Research Institute of Petroleum
Exploration and Development, PetroChina for providing samples and
data, and for permission to publish this work. The authors would extend
the acknowledgments to the Dr. Tahar Aïfa, editors and anonymous
reviewers for their constructive suggestions.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2018.10.077.
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