Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 53

FLUID MECHANICS

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Fluid
Fluid is a substance which has no definite shape and
continuously deforms or flow whenever an external force
is applied to it. e.g. water, milk, steam, gas, etc. It cannot
preserve its shape unless it is restricted into a particular
form depending upon the shape of its surroundings.
Fluids are broadly classified into two types: Liquids and
Gases.

Fig 1.1 Fluids classified as liquids and gases

1.2 Fluid Mechanics is a branch of science that deals with


fluid behavior either in motion (fluid dynamics/kinematics)
or at rest (fluid statics). One of the areas of modern fluid
mechanics is Computational Fluid Mechanics which deals
with numerical solutions using computers. Fluid
mechanics comprises of the following subjects:

Fig. 1.2 Subjects covered under fluid mechanics

Continuum concept
The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the
continuous description of matter where the properties of
the matter are considered as continuous functions of space
variables. Although any matter is composed of several
molecules, the concept of continuum assumes a continuous
distribution of mass within the matter or system with no
empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of
separate molecules.
A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen
number, K n = λ / L, where λ is the mean free path and
L is the characteristic length. It describes the degree of
departure from continuum.
Usually when K n> 0.01, the concept of continuum does not
hold well.
Beyond this critical range of Knudsen number, the flows
are known as
slip flow (0.01 < K n < 0.1),
transition flow (0.1 < K n < 10) and
free-molecule flow (Kn > 10).
However, for the flow regimes considered in
this course, K n is always less than 0.01 and it is usual to
say that the fluid is a continuum.
Other factor which checks the validity of continuum is the
elapsed time between collisions. The time should be small
enough so that the random statistical description of
molecular activity holds good.
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as
density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, temperature,
etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of space
and time.
1.3 Why to Study Fluid Mechanics?
Fluid mechanics is one of the basic courses in Engineering.
It is a bridge course between what have already been
studied in physics and core B.Tech. courses which will be
studied after 1st year of degree programme. Dairy plants
handle various types of fluids such as milk, water, air,
refrigerants, steam etc. It is very important to learn the
behavior of fluid under various conditions in order to
design the system for handling of such fluids in dairy
plants. Fluid mechanics is a branch of Engineering Science,
the knowledge of which is needed in the design of:
 Water supply and treatment system

 Pumps used for handling of different fluids

 Ships, submarines, aero planes, Automobiles

 Storage tanks (milk silo, tankers, feed tanks, balance

tanks etc.)
 Piping systems for various utilities, pipefitting &

valves, flow meters etc.


 Measuring instrument

 Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) systems for optimum

performance
 Heat transfer behavior in processing equipments

(such as HTST pasteurizers, spray dryers etc.)


2. PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Properties of fluids determine how fluids can be used in
engineering and technology. The following are some of the
important basic properties of fluids:

 Density
 Specific Volume
 Specific Weight
 Specific Gravity
 Viscosity
 Compressibility
 Bulk Modulus
 Surface Tension
 Capillarity
 Vapor Pressure
 Cavitation

2.1 Density
Density is the mass per unit volume of a fluid. In other
words, it is the ratio between mass (m) and volume (V) of
a fluid. It is denoted by ‘ρ’, the unit of density is 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = ( 3)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚

In general, density of a fluid decreases with increase in


temperature. It increases with increase in pressure.

2.2 Specific Volume


Specific volume is the volume of a fluid (V) occupied per
unit mass (m). It is the reciprocal of density. It is denoted
by ‘ν’, unit of specific volume is 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒌𝒈

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜈 = ( )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔

2.3 Specific Weight


Specific weight is the weight possessed by unit volume of
a fluid. It is denoted by ‘w’. Its unit is N/m3. Specific
weight varies from place to place due to the change of
acceleration due to gravity
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑁
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑤 = ( )
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3
= 𝜌𝑔

2.4 Specific Gravity


Specific gravity is the ratio of specific weight of the given
fluid to the specific weight of standard fluid. It is denoted
by the letter ‘S’. It has no unit.
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑆
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Or
Specific gravity may also be defined as the ratio between
density of the given fluid to the density of standard fluid.

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑


𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑆 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

The standard fluid is taken as water whose density is


1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3

Example:

If the density of ethanol is 789 kg/m3, then what is its


specific gravity?

S = 789/1000

= 0.789
If S > 1, the substance floats beneath the water,
If S < 1, floats above the water.

If ice has a density of 920kg/m3, then S=0.92 i.e., nearly


90% of ice will be submerged in water.
Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6

Problem

Calculate density, specific weight and weight of one liter


of petrol of specific gravity 0.7

solution: volume= 1 liter=10-3 m3

S = 0.7

i) Density of liquid = S * Density of standard liquid

= 0.7 * 1000 = 700 kg/m3

ii) Weight density of liquid (w)

or specific weight of the liquid =

S of liquid * specific weight density of water


=0.7* 9810 = 6867 N/m3

iii) Specific weight = Weight/ Volume

⟹W = w * volume = 6867* 0.001 = 6.867 N

2.5 Viscosity
Viscosity is the fluid property that determines the amount
of resistance of the fluid to shear stress. It is the property
of the fluid due to which the fluid offers resistance to flow
of one layer of the fluid over another adjacent layer. In a
liquid, viscosity decreases with increase in temperature.
For gases, viscosity increases with increase in temperature.
Viscosity affects heat generation in bearings, cylinders and
gear sets related to oil’s internal friction.

If the speed of the top plate is small enough, the fluid


particles will move parallel to it, and their speed will
vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u at the top. Each
layer of fluid will move faster than the one just below it,
and friction between them will give rise to a force resisting
their relative motion. In particular, the fluid will apply on
the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion,
and an equal but opposite one to the bottom plate. An
external force is therefore required in order to keep the top
plate moving at constant speed. The magnitude F of this
force is found to be proportional to the speed u and the
area A of each plate, and inversely proportional to their
separation y: The ratio u/y is called the rate of shear
deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the
fluid speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates.

Fig. 2.1 pictorial representation of velocity gradient


Viscosity is usually denoted by the Greek symbol μ (mu)
and is defined as the ratio of shearing stress τ (Greek letter
tau) to the rate of change of velocity, v, which in
mathematical terms can be expressed as du/dy (where this
is the derivative of the of the velocity with respect to the
distance y).
The derivative du/dy is called the velocity gradient.
This results in the important equation for fluid shear for
viscous or laminar flow which is known as Newton’s
law of viscosity
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
However, the above equation is not applicable for
turbulent flow where a large amount of the shear stress
due to the exchange of momentum between adjacent
layers of the fluid occurs.
The unit of dynamic viscosity is Ns/m² or kg/ms.
Pascals (unit of pressure or stress) can be combined with
time (seconds) to define dynamic viscosity.

μ = Pa•s
1.00 Pa•s = 10 Poise = 1000 Centipoise

Kinematic Viscosity
The kinematic viscosity can be determined by dividing
the dynamic viscosity with the fluid density.
Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity / Density

ν=µ/ρ
1.0 m²/s = 10000 Stokes = 1000000 Centistokes

Problems:
1.When a flat plate of 0.1 m2 area is pulled at a constant
velocity of 30 cm/sec parallel to another stationary plate
located at a distance 0.01 cm from it and the space in
between is filled with a fluid of dynamic viscosity = 0.001
Ns/m2, the force required to be applied is:
2. The velocity distribution in a viscous flow over plate is
given by u = 4y - y2 for y ≤ 2m, where u = velocity in m/s
at a distant y from plate. If the coefficient of dynamic
viscosity is 1.5 pa s, determine the shear stress at y = 0
and at y = 2.0m?
Classification of fluids based on viscosity
Basically, the fluids are classified into 5 types and these
are
1. Ideal fluid
2. Real fluid
3. Newtonian fluid
4. Non-Newtonian fluid
5. Ideal plastic fluid
1. Ideal Fluid: A fluid which cannot be compressed and
have no viscosity falls in the category of ideal fluid. Ideal
fluid is not found in actual practice but it is an imaginary
fluid because all the fluids that exist in the environment
have some viscosity. There is no ideal fluid in reality.
2. Real Fluid: A fluid which has at least some viscosity is
called real fluid. Actually all the fluids existing or present
in the environment are called real fluids. For example
water.
3. Newtonian Fluid: If a real fluid obeys the Newton's law
of viscosity (i.e the shear stress is directly proportional to
the shear strain) then it is known as the Newtonian fluid.
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid: If real fluid does not obey the
Newton's law of viscosity then it is called Non-Newtonian
fluid. For Non-Newtonian fluids, shear stress and velocity
gradient are related by the following equation. Depending
upon the values of n and B these fluids are again classified
into different types which are given in the table.
𝝏𝒖 𝒏
𝝉 = 𝑨( ) + 𝑩
𝝏𝒚

Type of Condition Examples


fluids
Dilatants n > 1 & B Butter, quick sand.
fluids =0
Bingham n =1 & Drilling mud, sewage sludge,
plastic B≠ 0, tooth paste and gel
fluids
Pseudo n<1&B Paper pulp, rubber solution,
plastic =0 lipsticks, paints, blood, polymeric
fluids solutions.
Thixotropic n < 1 & Printers ink and enamels.
fluids B≠ 0 (viscosity increases with time)

Rheopectic n > 1, & Gypsum solution in water and


fluids B≠ 0 bentonite solution. (viscosity
decreases with time)
Fig. 2.2 velocity gradient vs shear stress graph for different fluids

5. Ideal Plastic Fluid: A fluid having the value of shear


stress more than the yield value and shear stress is
proportional to the shear strain (velocity gradient) is known
as ideal plastic fluid.

2.6 Compressibility

In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics,


compressibility (also known as the coefficient of
compressibility or isothermal compressibility) is a
measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as
a response to a pressure (or mean stress) change.
Most liquids, however, do not compress very much at all.
It takes a lot of pressure to change the volume of water just
a little bit. A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that
conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly)
constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one
of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being
solid, gas, and plasma), and is the only state with a definite
volume but no fixed shape.

2.7 Bulk modulus


The ratio of the change in pressure to the fractional volume
compression is called the bulk modulus of the material.
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the
compressibility of the substance.
All materials, whether solids, liquids or gases, are
compressible, i.e. the volume V of a given mass will be
reduced to V - dV when a force is exerted uniformly all
over its surface. If the force per unit area of surface
increases from p to p + dp, the relationship between change
of pressure and change of volume depends on the bulk
modulus of the material.
Bulk modulus (K) = (change in pressure) / (volumetric
strain)

Volumetric strain is the change in volume divided by the


original volume. Therefore,
(change in volume) / (original volume) = (change in
pressure) / (bulk modulus)

i.e., -dV/V = dp/K

Negative sign for dV indicates the volume decreases as


pressure increases.

2.8 Surface tension


Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface
which makes it acquire the least surface area possible.
Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water striders), usually
denser than water, to float and stride on a water surface.
At liquid-air interfaces, surface tension results from the
greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due
to cohesion) than to the molecules in the air (due
to adhesion). The net effect is an inward force at its surface
that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were
covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the
surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces.
Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length,
or of energy per unit area. In materials science, surface
tension is used for either surface stress or surface free
energy.
Fig. 2.3 Insect floating on water because of surface
tension

The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are


responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension. In the
bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every
direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a
net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have
the same molecules on all sides of them and therefore are
pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and
forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.
Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid
droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend
to be pulled into a spherical shape by the imbalance in
cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other
forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids
would be approximately spherical.
The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two
kinds of intermolecular forces.

Cohesion: The force of attraction between the molecules


of a liquid by virtue of which they are bound to each other
to remain as one assemblage of particles is known as the
force of cohesion. This property enables the liquid to resist
tensile stress.

Adhesion: The force of attraction between unlike


molecules, i.e. between the molecules of different liquids
or between the molecules of a liquid and those of a solid
body when they are in contact with each other, is known as
the force of adhesion. This force enables two different
liquids to adhere to each other or a liquid to adhere to a
solid body or surface.

Fig. 2.4 The intermolecular cohesive force field in a


bulk of liquid with a free surface
A and B experience equal force of cohesion in all
directions, C experiences a net force interior of the liquid
The net force is maximum for D since it is at surface.
The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile
force acting across imaginary short and straight elemental
line divided by the length of the line.
The dimensional formula is F/L or MT-2. It is usually
expressed in N/m in SI units.
Surface tension is a binary property of the liquid and gas or
two liquids which are in contact with each other and
defines the interface. It decreases slightly with increasing
temperature. The surface tension of water in contact with
air at 20°C is about 0.073 N/m.

It is due to surface tension that a curved liquid interface in


equilibrium results in a greater pressure at the concave
side of the surface than that at its convex side.

Pressure inside a liquid Droplet


Fig. 2.5 Free body diagram of liquid droplet

It is because of surface tension that pressure of a liquid


increases within a bubble. Consider the free-body diagram
of a liquid drop as shown in Fig.2.5. If the force due to
surface tension at the edge is balanced by the pressure force
inside the bubble, we have

2𝜋 𝑅 𝜎 = 𝑝 𝜋 𝑅2

2𝜎 4𝜎
𝑝= 𝑜𝑟
𝑟 𝑑

where p is the pressure difference between inside the drop


and that outside. In addition the pressure inside the bubble
is greater than that outside.
Pressure inside a liquid Bubble:

In case of a bubble there are two free surfaces, the


outside surface and the inside surface.

𝜋 2
∴𝑝∗ 𝑑 = 2 ∗ (𝜎 ∗ 𝜋𝑑)
4
4𝜎 8𝜎
𝑝= 𝑜𝑟
𝑟 𝑑

Pressure inside a liquid Jet:

𝑝∗𝐿∗𝑑 =𝜎∗2∗𝐿
𝜎 2𝜎
𝑝 = 𝑜𝑟
𝑟 𝑑

2.9 Capillarity:

The interplay of the forces of cohesion and adhesion


explains the phenomenon of capillarity. When a liquid is in
contact with a solid, if the forces of adhesion between the
molecules of the liquid and the solid are greater than the
forces of cohesion among the liquid molecules themselves,
the liquid molecules crowd towards the solid surface. The
area of contact between the liquid and solid increases and
the liquid thus wets the solid surface. The reverse
phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is
greater than the force of adhesion. These adhesion and
cohesion properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity
by which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into
the liquid depending upon whether the force of adhesion is
more than that of cohesion or not in figure.

The angle θ as shown in figure, is the area wetting contact


angle made by the interface with the solid surface.
Fig. 2.6 Phenomenon of capillarity

For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the
capillary rise takes place with θ = 0 . Mercury causes
capillary depression with an angle of contact of about
1300 in a clean glass in contact with air. Since h varies
inversely with D as found from Equation below,

An appreciable capillary rise or depression is observed in


tubes of small diameter only.

2.10 Vapor pressure

The vapor molecules exert a partial pressure in the space


above the liquid, known as vapor pressure. Consider a
liquid which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the
temperature of liquid is 20°C and pressure is atmospheric.
This liquid will vaporize at 100°C.When vaporization
takes place, the molecules escapes from the free surface of
the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the
space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel.
These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the liquid
surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the
liquid or this is the pressure at which the liquid is converted
into vapours.

If the space above the liquid is confined in the below figure


and the liquid is maintained at constant temperature, after
sufficient time, the confined space above the liquid will
contain vapor molecules to the extent that some of them
will be forced to enter the liquid.

Fig 2.7 Phenomenon of vapor pressure

2.11 Cavitation

Cavitation is formation of vapor bubbles in the liquid


flowing through any Hydraulic Turbine or pump.
Cavitation occurs when the static pressure of the liquid
falls below its vapor pressure. Cavitation is most likely exit
region of the turbines or at inlet of the pump.
3. CONCEPT OF PRESSURE
Fluid pressure at a point is defined as the force exerted by
the fluid per unit area
Units:
S.I - N/m2 , M.K.S – Kgf/cm2
1 bar = 100 kPa, 1 atm = 101.325 kPa

3.1 Pascal’s law:


Pascal’s law states that the pressure at any point is equal
in all the directions.

Fig 3.1 Free body diagram of wedge shaped fluid


element
Let us consider an infinitesimally small wedge shaped
fluid element of dimensions: δx,. δy & δz .
Forces in X direction:
Px δy δz = (Ps δs δz) sinθ
δs sinθ = δy
Px = Ps ---------------------- (1)
Forces in Y direction:
(Ps δs δz) cosθ – Py δx δz + ½( δx x δy) δz ρ g = 0
½( δx x δy) δz ρ g = Weight of the fluid element
As δx,. δy & δz are small dimensions, their product also
becomes negligible.
½( δx x δy) δz ρ g = 0
δs cosθ = δx
Ps = Py --------------------------- (2)
From equations 1 and 2, we have
Px = P y = P s
Hence Pascal’s law is proved
Problem
1) A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a
plunger of 5 cm dia. Find the weight lifted by the
hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger
is 400 N.

3.2 Hydrostatic law:


The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest (static fluid) is
obtained by Hydrostatic law and it states that the rate of
increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction is
equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
Let us consider a fluid element of area ΔA and height Δh
at a height of h in a fluid at rest.

Fig 3.2 Forces acting on fluid element of height Δh


For equilibrium of the fluid element
P ΔA – ( P + (∂P/∂h)Δh) ΔA + ρ g (ΔA Δh) = 0
∂P/∂h = ρ g
∫ dP = ∫ ρ g dh
P=ρgh

Problems:
1) Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.4 m of i)
water ii) oil of sp gr = 0.8 iii) mercury
2) The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given by
4.9 N/cm2. Find the corresponding height of fluid
when it is i) water ii) oil of S = 0.8 iii) Mercury.

3) An open tank contains water up to a depth of 1.5 m


and above it an oil of specific gravity 0.8 for a depth
of 2 m. Find the pressure intensity i) at the interface
of the two liquids ii) At the bottom of the tank.

3.3 Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum


Pressures:
Absolute Pressure:
Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with reference
to absolute vacuum pressure.
Gauge Pressure:
Pressure above the atmospheric pressure is known as the
gauge pressure where atmospheric pressure is taken as
reference.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

Vacuum Pressure:
Pressure below the atmospheric pressure is known as the
vacuum pressure where atmospheric pressure is taken as
reference.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure - vacuum
pressure
Pabs = Patm – Pvacuum
Problems:
1) Find the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a
point 4 m below the free surface of a liquid of sp gr
1.2, if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750
mm of mercury.

4. PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES


4.1 Introduction
There are many techniques for the measurement of
pressure. Instruments used to measure pressure are called
pressure gauges. A pressure transducer is used to convert a
certain value of pressure into its corresponding mechanical
or electrical output. Measurement if pressure is of
considerable importance in process industries.
4.2 Classification of Pressure Measuring Devices
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following
devices. They are:
1. Manometers, and
2. Mechanical gauges
4.2.1 Manometers
Manometers are the devices used for measuring the
pressure of fluids at a point by balancing the fluid column
of fluid against another column of fluid of known specific
gravity. These are used for the measurement of very low
pressures as well as vacuum especially in hydraulic
laboratories.
Manometers can be classified as:
i. Simple manometers
a) Piezometer
b) U-tube manometer
c) Single column manometers or Micro manometers
ii. Differential manometers
a) Upright U-tube differential manometer
b) Inverted U-tube differential manometer
Simple manometers: A simple manometer consists of a
glass tube having one of its ends is connected to the point
where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains
open to atmosphere.

a) Piezometer
It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring
gauge pressures. One end of this manometer is connected
to the point where pressure is to be measured and other
end is open to atmosphere. The rise of liquid gives the
pressure head at that point. If at the point, the height of
liquid is h in piezometer tube, then the pressure is
𝑁
𝑃 =𝜌×𝑔×ℎ 2
𝑚

Fig 4.1 Piezometer

b) U-tube manometer
The manometer is named so because it consists of a glass
tube having the shape of alphabet 'U’ One end is open to
the atmosphere and other end connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured. One of the ends is connected to
a pipe or a container having a fluid (A) whose pressure is
to be measured while the other end is open to atmosphere.
The lower part of the U-tube contains a liquid immiscible
with the fluid A and is of greater density than that of A.
This fluid is called the monomeric fluid.

Fig 4.2 U-Tube manometer


The pressures at two points P and Q in a horizontal plane
within the continuous expanse of same fluid (the liquid B
in this case) must be equal. Then equating the pressures
at P and Q in terms of the heights of the fluids above those
points, with the aid of the fundamental equation of
hydrostatics, we have
Hence,

Where P1 is the absolute pressure of the fluid A in the pipe


or container at its centre line and Patm is the local
atmospheric pressure. When the pressure of the fluid in the
container is lower than the atmospheric pressure, the liquid
levels in the manometer would be adjusted as shown in
figure below.

Fig 4.3 Liquid levels in U-tube manometer in case of


vacuum pressure

Hence, it becomes
Problems
1) The right limb of a simple U tube manometer
containing mercury is open to the atmosphere while
the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of
sp gr 0.8 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 10 cm
below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the
pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of
mercury levels in the two limbs is 30 cm
2) Determine the vacuum pressure in the pipe in which
water is flowing, which is connected to one end of a
U tube manometer and the other end is connected to
atmosphere. The difference in mercury levels of the
tube is 40 cm and the fluid level in the left limb is 10
cm below the centre of the pipe.
Differential manometers
These are used to measure pressure difference at two points
in a pipe or between two pipes at different levels. Most
commonly used differential manometers are:
a) Upright U-tube differential manometer, and
b) Inverted U-tube differential manometer
a) U-tube upright differential manometer: It consists of
an U tube containing heavy liquid whose ends are
connected to two points whose difference of pressure
is to be measured

Fig 4.4 U-tube upright differential manometer

The axis of each connecting tube at A and B should be


perpendicular to the direction of flow and also for the edges
of the connections to be smooth. Applying the principle of
hydrostatics at P and Q we have,

where ρm is the density of manometric fluid and ρw is the


density of the working fluid flowing through the pipe. We
can express the difference of pressure in terms of the
difference of heads (height of the working fluid at
equilibrium).

b) U-tube inverted differential manometer: In such types of


manometers light fluids for e.g. oil is used as manometer
fluid. For the measurement of small pressure differences in
liquids, an inverted U-tube manometer is used.

Fig 4.5 U-tube inverted differential manometer

Here 𝜌𝑚 < 𝜌𝑤 and the line PQ is taken at the level of the


higher meniscus to equate the pressures at P and Q from
the principle of hydrostatics. It may be written that
Where p* represents the piezometric pressure 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 (z
being the vertical height of the point concerned from any
reference datum). In case of a horizontal pipe (z1=z2) the
difference in piezometric pressure becomes equal to the
difference in the static pressure. If (𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑚 ) is
sufficiently small, a large value of x may be obtained for
small value of 𝑝1∗ − 𝑝2∗ . If air is used as the manometric
fluid, 𝜌𝑚 is negligible when compared with 𝜌𝑤 and hence,

𝑝1∗ − 𝑝2∗ ≈ 𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑥

Problems
1) A U-tube manometer measures pressure difference
between two points A and B in a liquid of density ρ1.
The u-tube contains mercury of density ρ2. Calculate
the difference of pressure if a = 2 m, b = 1.5 m and h
= 0.5 m if the liquid at A and B is water and ρ2 = 13.6
ρ1.
2) An inverted U tube differential manometer is
connected to two pipes conveying water. The centre
line of pipe B is 20 cm above centre line of pipe A.
The level of water in the left limb is 100 cm from the
centre line of pipe A and that of water in the right limb
is 50 cm from the centre line of pipe B. Determine the
difference of pressures at A&B. The manometric fluid
is oil of sp gr 0.8.

5. FLUID STATICS
Fluid statics is the field of physics that involves the
study of fluids at rest. Because these fluids are not in
motion, that means they have achieved a stable equilibrium
state, so fluid statics is largely about understanding these
fluid equilibrium conditions. When focusing on
incompressible fluids (such as liquids) as opposed to
compressible fluids (such as most gases), it is sometimes
referred to as hydrostatics.
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces
develop on the surface due to the fluid which is known as
hydrostatic force. The determination of these forces is
important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and
other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest, we know that
the force must be perpendicular to the surface since there
are no shearing stresses present. The point of action of
total hydrostatic force on the submerged surface is called
the Centre of Pressure (CP).

5.1 Hydrostatic force on horizontal plane surface

ℎ̅ - distance of C.G from free surface area of liquid


ℎ∗ - distance of center of pressure from free surface of
liquid
Let a plane surface be placed horizontally in a liquid
of specific weight w. The surface is at a depth h below the
free surface of the liquid. The pressure of all the points on
the plane is constant. So the magnitude of the resultant
force is simply F = pA where p is the uniform pressure on
the bottom and A is the area of the surface.
𝐹 = 𝑝. 𝐴
= 𝜌𝑔ℎ. 𝐴

Center of pressure is equal to the depth at which the surface


is submerged.

5.2 Hydrostatic force on vertical plane surface


Consider a plane vertical surface of arbitrary shape
immersed in a liquid. The total pressure on the surface can
be determined by integrating force on a small strip over
entire surface area. Hence a small strip of width b and
thickness dh is considered as shown in figure.

A – area of the total surface


ℎ̅ - distance of C.G from free
surface area of liquid
G – centre of gravity of plane
surface
P – center of pressure
ℎ∗ - distance of center of pressure
from free surface of liquid

Total pressure force on the strip 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 × 𝐴


= 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 𝑑ℎ

Total pressure force on the surface 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹


= ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 𝑑ℎ
∫ ℎ 𝑑𝐴 = Moment of area about free
= 𝜌𝑔 ∫ ℎ × 𝑏 𝑑ℎ surface of liquid
= 𝜌𝑔 ∫ ℎ 𝑑𝐴 = Area of surface×distance of C.G
from free surface of liquid
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ ̅
̅ = 𝐴ℎ

Center of pressure can be calculated is calculated by using


principle of Moments which states that the moment of
resultant force about an axis is equal to the sum of moments
of the components about the sane axis.
The resultant force F acts at P which is at a distance of ℎ∗
from the free surface of the liquid.
Therefore, moment of resultant force is equal to 𝐹 × ℎ∗
This can be equated to integral of moment of force on an
elemental strip
𝐹 × ℎ∗ = ∫ 𝑑𝐹 × ℎ
= ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 𝑑ℎ × ℎ
= 𝜌𝑔 ∫ ℎ2 × 𝑏 𝑑ℎ
= 𝜌𝑔 ∫ ℎ2 𝑑𝐴 ∫ ℎ2 𝑑𝐴 is second moment
of area about free surface
= 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 of liquid which is nothing

𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ × ℎ∗ = 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 but moment of inertia


about free surface of the


𝐼𝑜 liquid
∴ℎ =
𝐴ℎ̅

By parallel axis theorem, we have 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴 × ℎ̅2 , where


𝐼𝐺 is moment of inertia about C.G

𝐼𝐺

∴ℎ = + ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ̅

5.3 Hydrostatic force on inclined plane surface


Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed
in a liquid such that the plane of surface makes an angle of
𝛉 with the free surface of the liquid as shown in figure.
𝛉 – angle made by plane surface
with free liquid surface
ℎ̅ - distance of C.G from free
surface of liquid
𝑦̅ – distance of C.G from O-O
𝑦 ∗ – distance of center of
pressure from O-O
ℎ∗ - distance of center of pressure
from free surface of liquid

Total pressure force on the surface 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹


= 𝜌𝑔 ∫ ℎ 𝑑𝐴

ℎ ̅
ℎ ℎ∗
From the figure = = = sin 𝜃
𝑦 𝑦̅ 𝑦∗
∴ 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
= 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐴 𝑦̅
= 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ [∵ ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅ sin 𝜃]

The center of pressure can be calculated by using principle


of moments
Moment of the resultant force about O-O = 𝐹 × 𝑦 ∗
This can be equated to integral of moment of force on
elemental area
𝐹 × 𝑦 ∗ = ∫ 𝑑𝐹 × 𝑦
= 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
= 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑜
⟹ 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ × 𝑦 ∗ = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑜
ℎ∗
𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ × = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝑜
sin 𝜃
2

𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜃
ℎ =
𝐴ℎ̅
sin2 𝜃
= [𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴 × 𝑦̅ 2 ]
𝐴ℎ̅
sin2 𝜃 ℎ̅2
= [𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴 × 2 ]
𝐴ℎ̅ sin 𝜃
𝐼𝐺 sin2 𝜃
= + ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ̅

6. BUOYANCY
When a body is either wholly or partially immersed in
a fluid, the hydrostatic lift due to the net vertical component

of the hydrostatic pressure forces experienced by the body


is called the “Buoyant Force” and the phenomenon is
called “Buoyancy”.

The Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by the fluid


on the body when the body is immersed in a fluid or
floating on a fluid. This upward force is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body.

6.1 Centre of Buoyancy


Center of Buoyancy is a point through which the
force of buoyancy is supposed to act. As the force of
buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body, the Center of Buoyancy
will be the center of the fluid displaced.

6.2 Archimedes Principle


The Buoyant Force (FB) is equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced by the submerged body and acts
vertically upwards through the centroid of the displaced
volume.

Net weight of the submerged body = Actual


weight – Buoyant force.

The buoyant force on a partially immersed body is also


equal to the weight of the displaced liquid. The buoyant
force depends upon the density of the fluid and
submerged volume of the body.

Problems:
1) A stone weighs 490.5 N in air and 196.2 N in water.
Determine the volume of stone and its specific gravity.
2) A wooden block of width 2 m. depth 1.5 cm and length
4 m floats horizontally in water. Find the volume of
water displaced and position of centre buoyancy. The
specific gravity of the wooden block is 0.7.
3) A metallic body floats at the interface of the mercury
of specific gravity 13.6 and water In such a way that
the 30% of its volume is submerged in mercury and
70% in water. Find the density of the metallic body.

7. METACENTRE
Metacentre is defined as the point about which a
body starts oscillating, when a small disturbance is given.
Otherwise it is the point of intersection of the line action
of force of buoyancy and the normal axis.
7.1 Metacentric height
The distance between Centre of gravity and
Metacentre is defined as the Metacentric height denoted
as GM and is given by
GM = I/Vdisp - BG
Where I is the moment of inertia about the axis passing
through C.G
Problems:
1) A block of wood of specific gravity 0.8 floats in
water. Determine the meta-centric height of the block
if its size is 3 m X 2 m X 1 m.

2) A solid cylinder of diameter 5 m has a height of 5 m.


Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder if the sp
gr is 0.7 and it is floating in water with its axis
vertical. State whether the state is stable equilibrium
or unstable equilibrium.

3) A uniform body of size 4 m long, 2 m wide and 1


deep floats in water. What is the weight of the body if
depth of immersion is 0.6 m? Determine the meta-
centric height also.

8. STABILITY OF SUBMERGED BODIES


When a body is submerged in a liquid (or a fluid), the
equilibrium requires that the weight of the body acting
through its Center of Gravity should be co-linear with the
Buoyancy Force acting through the Center of Buoyancy.
If the Body is Not Homogeneous in its distribution of
mass over the entire volume, the location of Center of
Gravity (G) does not coincide with the Center of Volume
(B). Depending upon the relative locations of (G) and
(B), the submerged body attains different states of
equilibrium: Stable, Unstable and Neutral.

8.1 Stable Equilibrium


(G) is located below (B). A body being given a small
angular displacement and then released, returns to its
original position by retaining the original vertical axis as
vertical because of the restoring couple produced by the
action of the Buoyant Force and the Weight.

8.2 Unstable Equilibrium


(G) is located above (B). Any disturbance from the
equilibrium position will create a destroying couple that
will turn the body away from the original position.
8.3 Neutral Equilibrium
(G) and (B) coincide. The body will always assume
the same position in which it is placed. A body having a
small displacement and then released, neither returns to
the original position nor increases it’s displacement- It
will simply adapt to the new position.

9. STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES


Stable conditions of the floating body can be
achieved, under certain conditions even though (G) is
above (B). When a floating body undergoes angular
displacement about the horizontal position, the shape of
the immersed volume changes and so, the Center of
Buoyancy moves relative to the body.

If [M] is above [G], the Restoring Couple acts on the


body in its displaced position and tends to turn the body
to the original position - Floating body is in stable
equilibrium.

If [M] were below [G], the couple would be an Over-


turning Couple and the body would be in Unstable
Equilibrium.

If [M] coincides with [G], the body will assume a


new position without any further movement and thus will
be in Neutral Equilibrium.

Вам также может понравиться