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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Fluid
Fluid is a substance which has no definite shape and
continuously deforms or flow whenever an external force
is applied to it. e.g. water, milk, steam, gas, etc. It cannot
preserve its shape unless it is restricted into a particular
form depending upon the shape of its surroundings.
Fluids are broadly classified into two types: Liquids and
Gases.
Continuum concept
The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the
continuous description of matter where the properties of
the matter are considered as continuous functions of space
variables. Although any matter is composed of several
molecules, the concept of continuum assumes a continuous
distribution of mass within the matter or system with no
empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of
separate molecules.
A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen
number, K n = λ / L, where λ is the mean free path and
L is the characteristic length. It describes the degree of
departure from continuum.
Usually when K n> 0.01, the concept of continuum does not
hold well.
Beyond this critical range of Knudsen number, the flows
are known as
slip flow (0.01 < K n < 0.1),
transition flow (0.1 < K n < 10) and
free-molecule flow (Kn > 10).
However, for the flow regimes considered in
this course, K n is always less than 0.01 and it is usual to
say that the fluid is a continuum.
Other factor which checks the validity of continuum is the
elapsed time between collisions. The time should be small
enough so that the random statistical description of
molecular activity holds good.
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as
density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, temperature,
etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of space
and time.
1.3 Why to Study Fluid Mechanics?
Fluid mechanics is one of the basic courses in Engineering.
It is a bridge course between what have already been
studied in physics and core B.Tech. courses which will be
studied after 1st year of degree programme. Dairy plants
handle various types of fluids such as milk, water, air,
refrigerants, steam etc. It is very important to learn the
behavior of fluid under various conditions in order to
design the system for handling of such fluids in dairy
plants. Fluid mechanics is a branch of Engineering Science,
the knowledge of which is needed in the design of:
Water supply and treatment system
tanks etc.)
Piping systems for various utilities, pipefitting &
performance
Heat transfer behavior in processing equipments
Density
Specific Volume
Specific Weight
Specific Gravity
Viscosity
Compressibility
Bulk Modulus
Surface Tension
Capillarity
Vapor Pressure
Cavitation
2.1 Density
Density is the mass per unit volume of a fluid. In other
words, it is the ratio between mass (m) and volume (V) of
a fluid. It is denoted by ‘ρ’, the unit of density is 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = ( 3)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜈 = ( )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔
Example:
S = 789/1000
= 0.789
If S > 1, the substance floats beneath the water,
If S < 1, floats above the water.
Problem
S = 0.7
2.5 Viscosity
Viscosity is the fluid property that determines the amount
of resistance of the fluid to shear stress. It is the property
of the fluid due to which the fluid offers resistance to flow
of one layer of the fluid over another adjacent layer. In a
liquid, viscosity decreases with increase in temperature.
For gases, viscosity increases with increase in temperature.
Viscosity affects heat generation in bearings, cylinders and
gear sets related to oil’s internal friction.
μ = Pa•s
1.00 Pa•s = 10 Poise = 1000 Centipoise
Kinematic Viscosity
The kinematic viscosity can be determined by dividing
the dynamic viscosity with the fluid density.
Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity / Density
ν=µ/ρ
1.0 m²/s = 10000 Stokes = 1000000 Centistokes
Problems:
1.When a flat plate of 0.1 m2 area is pulled at a constant
velocity of 30 cm/sec parallel to another stationary plate
located at a distance 0.01 cm from it and the space in
between is filled with a fluid of dynamic viscosity = 0.001
Ns/m2, the force required to be applied is:
2. The velocity distribution in a viscous flow over plate is
given by u = 4y - y2 for y ≤ 2m, where u = velocity in m/s
at a distant y from plate. If the coefficient of dynamic
viscosity is 1.5 pa s, determine the shear stress at y = 0
and at y = 2.0m?
Classification of fluids based on viscosity
Basically, the fluids are classified into 5 types and these
are
1. Ideal fluid
2. Real fluid
3. Newtonian fluid
4. Non-Newtonian fluid
5. Ideal plastic fluid
1. Ideal Fluid: A fluid which cannot be compressed and
have no viscosity falls in the category of ideal fluid. Ideal
fluid is not found in actual practice but it is an imaginary
fluid because all the fluids that exist in the environment
have some viscosity. There is no ideal fluid in reality.
2. Real Fluid: A fluid which has at least some viscosity is
called real fluid. Actually all the fluids existing or present
in the environment are called real fluids. For example
water.
3. Newtonian Fluid: If a real fluid obeys the Newton's law
of viscosity (i.e the shear stress is directly proportional to
the shear strain) then it is known as the Newtonian fluid.
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid: If real fluid does not obey the
Newton's law of viscosity then it is called Non-Newtonian
fluid. For Non-Newtonian fluids, shear stress and velocity
gradient are related by the following equation. Depending
upon the values of n and B these fluids are again classified
into different types which are given in the table.
𝝏𝒖 𝒏
𝝉 = 𝑨( ) + 𝑩
𝝏𝒚
2.6 Compressibility
2𝜋 𝑅 𝜎 = 𝑝 𝜋 𝑅2
2𝜎 4𝜎
𝑝= 𝑜𝑟
𝑟 𝑑
𝜋 2
∴𝑝∗ 𝑑 = 2 ∗ (𝜎 ∗ 𝜋𝑑)
4
4𝜎 8𝜎
𝑝= 𝑜𝑟
𝑟 𝑑
𝑝∗𝐿∗𝑑 =𝜎∗2∗𝐿
𝜎 2𝜎
𝑝 = 𝑜𝑟
𝑟 𝑑
2.9 Capillarity:
For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the
capillary rise takes place with θ = 0 . Mercury causes
capillary depression with an angle of contact of about
1300 in a clean glass in contact with air. Since h varies
inversely with D as found from Equation below,
2.11 Cavitation
Problems:
1) Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.4 m of i)
water ii) oil of sp gr = 0.8 iii) mercury
2) The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given by
4.9 N/cm2. Find the corresponding height of fluid
when it is i) water ii) oil of S = 0.8 iii) Mercury.
Vacuum Pressure:
Pressure below the atmospheric pressure is known as the
vacuum pressure where atmospheric pressure is taken as
reference.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure - vacuum
pressure
Pabs = Patm – Pvacuum
Problems:
1) Find the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a
point 4 m below the free surface of a liquid of sp gr
1.2, if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750
mm of mercury.
a) Piezometer
It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring
gauge pressures. One end of this manometer is connected
to the point where pressure is to be measured and other
end is open to atmosphere. The rise of liquid gives the
pressure head at that point. If at the point, the height of
liquid is h in piezometer tube, then the pressure is
𝑁
𝑃 =𝜌×𝑔×ℎ 2
𝑚
b) U-tube manometer
The manometer is named so because it consists of a glass
tube having the shape of alphabet 'U’ One end is open to
the atmosphere and other end connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured. One of the ends is connected to
a pipe or a container having a fluid (A) whose pressure is
to be measured while the other end is open to atmosphere.
The lower part of the U-tube contains a liquid immiscible
with the fluid A and is of greater density than that of A.
This fluid is called the monomeric fluid.
Hence, it becomes
Problems
1) The right limb of a simple U tube manometer
containing mercury is open to the atmosphere while
the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of
sp gr 0.8 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 10 cm
below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the
pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of
mercury levels in the two limbs is 30 cm
2) Determine the vacuum pressure in the pipe in which
water is flowing, which is connected to one end of a
U tube manometer and the other end is connected to
atmosphere. The difference in mercury levels of the
tube is 40 cm and the fluid level in the left limb is 10
cm below the centre of the pipe.
Differential manometers
These are used to measure pressure difference at two points
in a pipe or between two pipes at different levels. Most
commonly used differential manometers are:
a) Upright U-tube differential manometer, and
b) Inverted U-tube differential manometer
a) U-tube upright differential manometer: It consists of
an U tube containing heavy liquid whose ends are
connected to two points whose difference of pressure
is to be measured
𝑝1∗ − 𝑝2∗ ≈ 𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑥
Problems
1) A U-tube manometer measures pressure difference
between two points A and B in a liquid of density ρ1.
The u-tube contains mercury of density ρ2. Calculate
the difference of pressure if a = 2 m, b = 1.5 m and h
= 0.5 m if the liquid at A and B is water and ρ2 = 13.6
ρ1.
2) An inverted U tube differential manometer is
connected to two pipes conveying water. The centre
line of pipe B is 20 cm above centre line of pipe A.
The level of water in the left limb is 100 cm from the
centre line of pipe A and that of water in the right limb
is 50 cm from the centre line of pipe B. Determine the
difference of pressures at A&B. The manometric fluid
is oil of sp gr 0.8.
5. FLUID STATICS
Fluid statics is the field of physics that involves the
study of fluids at rest. Because these fluids are not in
motion, that means they have achieved a stable equilibrium
state, so fluid statics is largely about understanding these
fluid equilibrium conditions. When focusing on
incompressible fluids (such as liquids) as opposed to
compressible fluids (such as most gases), it is sometimes
referred to as hydrostatics.
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces
develop on the surface due to the fluid which is known as
hydrostatic force. The determination of these forces is
important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and
other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest, we know that
the force must be perpendicular to the surface since there
are no shearing stresses present. The point of action of
total hydrostatic force on the submerged surface is called
the Centre of Pressure (CP).
∗
𝐼𝑜 liquid
∴ℎ =
𝐴ℎ̅
𝐼𝐺
∗
∴ℎ = + ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ̅
ℎ ̅
ℎ ℎ∗
From the figure = = = sin 𝜃
𝑦 𝑦̅ 𝑦∗
∴ 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
= 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐴 𝑦̅
= 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ [∵ ℎ̅ = 𝑦̅ sin 𝜃]
6. BUOYANCY
When a body is either wholly or partially immersed in
a fluid, the hydrostatic lift due to the net vertical component
Problems:
1) A stone weighs 490.5 N in air and 196.2 N in water.
Determine the volume of stone and its specific gravity.
2) A wooden block of width 2 m. depth 1.5 cm and length
4 m floats horizontally in water. Find the volume of
water displaced and position of centre buoyancy. The
specific gravity of the wooden block is 0.7.
3) A metallic body floats at the interface of the mercury
of specific gravity 13.6 and water In such a way that
the 30% of its volume is submerged in mercury and
70% in water. Find the density of the metallic body.
7. METACENTRE
Metacentre is defined as the point about which a
body starts oscillating, when a small disturbance is given.
Otherwise it is the point of intersection of the line action
of force of buoyancy and the normal axis.
7.1 Metacentric height
The distance between Centre of gravity and
Metacentre is defined as the Metacentric height denoted
as GM and is given by
GM = I/Vdisp - BG
Where I is the moment of inertia about the axis passing
through C.G
Problems:
1) A block of wood of specific gravity 0.8 floats in
water. Determine the meta-centric height of the block
if its size is 3 m X 2 m X 1 m.