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Aim
The aim of the course is to introduce basic data (intuitions about meaning) and problems of
semantics, as opposed to pragmatics as well as to give a survey of most important solutions
offered in contemporary Anglo-American linguistic literature.
Reading list
Topics
Requirements
1. Midterm test
2. Follow-up exercises in class
3. Final test
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1. Analyticity
Cats are animals
Bachelors are unmarried
John’ s nine year old brother is a boy
Cats are not vegetables
If it breaks it breaks
2. Syntheticity
Cats never live longer than twenty years
Bachelors are lonely
John’s brother is nine years old
Cats are not dangerous
If it breaks, you’ll have to mend it
3. Contradictoriness
a) Cats never live longer than 20 years
Cats live longer than 20 years
b) Bachelors are lonely
Bachelors are not lonely
c) John’s only brother is nine years old now
John’ s only brother is not nine years old now
4. Contradiction
Cats are vegetables
Bachelors are female
John’ s nine year old brother is a girl
If it breaks, it doesn`t break
6. Synonymy
mother - female parent; pavement - sidewalk; oculist - eye-doctor
7. Paraphrase
John opened the door = The door was opened by John
They say John is clever = John is said to be clever
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11.Homography: lead
18. Metonymy (using the name of one thing to refer to another if the two things are somehow
related, e.g. source-product; cause-effect)
You should read Mickiewicz
The whole world is singing
19. Synecdoche (type of metonymy; the relation between the things is that of part and whole)
They were afraid of his iron (=arms)
Ma 20 wiosen (= lat)
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a) literal talk
b)loose talk
c)metaphor, hyperbole, litotes, metonymy, synecdoche
d)irony, sarcasm
f)connotative meaning
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a) An utterance is any stretch of talk, by one person, before and after which there is
silence on the part of that person. An utterance is the USE by a particular speaker, on
a particular occasion, of a piece of language, such as a sequence of sentences, or a
single phrase, or even a single word
We adopt the convention that anything written between double quotation marks
represents an utterance, and anything underlined represents a sentence or (similarly
abstract) part of a sentence, such as a phrase or a word.
- Pamela considered the fact that her mother was alive and realized that it could not
possibly be true
- Pamela considered the proposition that her mother was alive and realized that it
could not possibly be true
Examples:
a) A: Jerzy dzwonił, że nie będzie na naszym ślubie.
B: Co to znaczy?
b) A: Odchodzę.
B: Co to ma znaczyć?
Speaker` s meaning: what he means
Language meaning: what language means
Questions:
1. Which meaning is „more important”?
2. Which meaning may be written down in dictionaries?
3. Can there be a full discrepancy between the two types of meaning?
4. Which meaning is a precondition for which?
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Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the
accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
The Maxims
Quality:
Try to make your contribution one that is true
(i) do not say what you believe to be false
(ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
Quantity
(i) make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of
the exchange
(ii) do not make your contribution more informative than is required
Relevance
make your contribution relevant
Manner
(i) avoid obscurity
(ii)avoid ambiguity
(iii) be orderly
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1. Quality
A. John has two cows
>> I believe he has and have adequate evidence that he has
2.Quantity
A. John has 14 children
>> John has only 14 children
A. The flag is white
>> The flag is all white
3.Relevance
A. Pass the salt
>> Pass the salt now
A. Can you tell me the time?
B. Well, the milkman has come
>> It’s past 8 o’clock
4. Manner
A. The lone ranger jumped on his horse and rode into the sunset
A. Open the door
A. Walk up to the door, turn the door handle clockwise as far as it will go, and then
pull gently towards you.
Conversational implicatures:
a) Definition
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Examples
1. A. Where’s Bill?
B. There’s a yellow VW outside Sue’s house
2. John: Hello Sally, let’s play marbles
Mother: How’s your homework getting along Johnny?
3. Joe teased Ralph and Ralph hit him
4. Some of the boys went to the soccer match
5. Mary is in the dining room or in the kitchen
6. The tree wept in the wind
7. John is an eel
8. A. What kind of mood did you find the boss in?
B. The lion roared
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entailments implicatures
conventional conversational
(language based) (context based)
generalized particularized
(assumed linguistic context) (assumed extra-linguistic context)
Example:
A. Do you think that Mary loves Bill?
B. Well, his brother often asks her out to the cinema or to the theatre
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items giving rise to conventional implicatures: but, therefore, even, yet, however,
moreover, anyway, well, still, furthermore, although, sir
Analyzing examples
3. Mary’s sister has realized that her boyfriend was cheating on her
a. Mary exists, Mary has a sister, the sister has/had a boyfriend - entailments
b. Mary’s sister was cheating on her - entailment
c. Mary’s sister didn’t know that her boyfriend was cheating on her - entailment
d. Mary’s sister’s boyfriend was doing something „bad” - conventional
e. Mary’s sister is unhappy
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conventional implicature
c. It wasn’t expected of John to solve any of the problems - conventional
d. It was difficult for John to solve some of the problems - conventional
e. John didn’t solve all the problems - generalized
f. The exam was easy
III. What conventional implicatures arise from the presence of the underlined items?
1. A. What can I do for you, sir?
2. A. Anyway, I somehow managed to escape.
3. A. Mary is a republican but she is honest.
4. B. John spared me the trouble of talking to Peter.
5. B. John deprived me of the privilege of talking to Peter.
IV. Find at least two different particularized implicatures arising from the underlined utterance
a) in one context
b) in different contexts
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EXTENSION: relation between language and reality (no speaker is necessary). Extension of a
language expression = that part of a reality that may be potentially referred to by a speaker.
Exercise 2. What is the sense, extension and reference of the following words: cat, happiness,
on, the
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AN EQUATIVE SENTENCE is one used to state the identity of two referents of two referring
expressions, i.e. to assert that the two referring expressions have the same referent
Examples: a) John is the person in the corner
b) Henry the Eighth is the current president of the USA
c) Dr Jeckyl is Mr. Hyde
but not d) Cairo is a large city
e) Ted is an idiot
THE PREDICATOR of a simple declarative sentence is the word (or a group of words) which
does not belong to any of the referring expressions and which, of the remainder, makes the
most specific contribution to the meaning of the sentence.
Examples: a) Mummy is asleep
b) The white man loved the Indian maiden
c) I am hungry
d) Joe is in San Francisco
e) The Mayor is a crook
f) The Royal Scottish Museum is behind Old College
A PREDICATE is any word (or sequence of words) which can function as the predicator of a
sentence
Examples: dusty, drink, woman, you, Fred, about
Are all of the words predicates?
Exercise 3. Divide the following sentences into referring expressions and predicators
a) My friends gave me a wonderful present
b) The dog which you can see over there is big
c) Santa Claus visited me yesterday
d) Happiness is our goal
Before we show how entailments are extracted from sentences, we will have an overview of
basic approaches to meaning.
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2. Mental images: meaning of a language expression is our mental representation (in the
form of an image) of this expression.
4. Meaning and use: meaning of a language expression are the conditions of the
„appropriate” use of the expression.
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- Specification of a practical situation which must exist in order for a speaker to use a
particular type of utterance
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„What is sentence meaning? „ = „What do you know when you know what a sentence
means?”
Example: (a)Ronald Reagan is asleep
What would the world have to be like for this sentence to be true? The referent of the
referring expression „Ronald Reagan” would have to be in the extension of the predicate
„asleep”
To know the meaning of the sentence under (a), we have to know its truth conditions (=
entailments)
Problems:
a) Sentences with referring expressions having no referents:
1. Santa Claus is old
2. Winnie the Pooh likes honey
b) Sentences with different referring expressions having the same referent
1. I want to see the Morning star
2. I want to see the Evening Star
3. I want to see Venus
c) How do we get the meanings of the words, if entailments give us the meanings of whole
sentences?
1. Ronald Reagan is asleep
2. Ronald Reagan is awake
d) Problems with non-declaratives
1. Is Santa Claus old?
2. Show me the Morning Star
e) Problems with performative utterances
1. I pronounce you man and wife
2. I hereby promise that the test will be easy
3. May you be happy
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Entailment = truth-condition
X entails Y iff
(i) if X is true Y must be true
(ii) if Y is false X must be false
I. (5) Hyponymy
X: This cat is brown ----- Y: This animal is brown
A sentence containing a hyponym entails the sentence containing the super-ordinate (unless in
special contexts). The two sentences differ in that only that where one has the hyponym, the
other has the super-ordinate.
(6) Synonymy = mutual hyponymy
X: You must see an eye-doctor ----- You must see an oculist
Two sentences containing synonyms entail each other . The two sentences differ in that only
that where one has the first of the synonyms, the other has the next.
(7) Paraphrase = mutual entailment
X: John opened the door ---- Y: The door was opened by John
Paraphrases entail each other. Alternatively: they have the same entailments.
(1) Analyticity
a) Semantic: Cats are animals
In semantically analytic sentences, the relation between the syntactic subject and syntactic
predicator (expressed by semantic predicates) is that of hyponymy (so the subject entails the
predicator)
b) logical: If it breaks, it breaks
Translatable into logical tautology: If p, p
(4) Contradictions have no entailments
(5) Contadictoriness
Conjoined contradictory sentences result in contradiction:
Bachelors are lonely and bachelors are not lonely
(8) Antonymy
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(i)
OBJECT LANGUAGE (a fragment of English)
1. Jo laughed
2. The cat was poisoned by Ethel
LEXICON
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NP1 Vi[+FIN]
Npr laughed
Jo
the N Npr2
cat poisoned Ethel
(ii)
Determining the meaning of the object language sentences:
Metalanguage: propositional language Lp - syntax
Categories:
- e: individual expressions (denoting referents of referring expressions)
- Pred1: one-place predicates
- Pred 2: two-place predicates
- Pred3: three-place predicates
- t: formulae
Formation rule: t ----- Predn(e1,e2,...,en), 0< n
Metalanguaeg: propositional language Lp - interpretation
1.Model (ontology)
E: MAN1, WOMAN1, CAT, DOG
2. Denotation assignment function (attaching names to individuals, attaching extensions to
predicates)
a) individuals
- MAN1 ---- jo`
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3. Prototypical categorization
- Labov 1973: cups, mugs, bowls, vases - drawings to be named:
- relevant attributes could be relational, functional or interactional
- the attributes formed a continuum
- attributes point not to the essence of objects in themselves but to the role they play in a
given culture
- there are no criterial attributes of distinguishing between categories
Conclusion: We categorize in prototypes: it` s not necessary to make sure whether an entity
has an attribute but how closely it comes to a prototype.
Rosch, 1973, 1975: ten categories: furniture, weapon, vegetable, tool, bird, sport, toy,
clothing, fruit, vehicle; 60 items per each; 7 point scale; 200 college students.
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artifact
Basic level categorization is cognitively and linguistically more salient. Such categories are
linguistically simple (kitchen-chair - compound, furniture - deviant, artifact - vague), short
and of high frequency.
Problem: Why do we have basic categories ? Because they are useful: maximize the number
of attributes shared by members of the category and minimize the number of attributes shared
with members of other categories.
Definition of prototype
a) the central member or a cluster of central members of a category
b) schematic representation (mental image) of the conceptual core of a category
Problem: How do you know that an entity does not belong to a category, e.g. cat = dog. You
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Within the truth-conditional approach: there is a core definition and identification procedure.
Prototypical effects arise from the latter.
Cognitive approach: Schematic representation - clear-cut boundary
Prototypical representation - prototypical effects
In the case of a folk category, the schema comes from extracting what is commonly believed,
what is prototypical and interactional. In the case of an expert category, the schema comes
from imposing what people should believe; the schema is created, classical and resting on
necessary and sufficient conditions on membership.
Some words can have only expert definitions: e.g. phoneme, or only a folk definition e.g. cup.
Language behaves as expert definitions, e.g. cup = mug. Yet, it has a device to relax the
boundaries (i.e. hedges)
Examples: Loosely speaking, a telephone is a piece of furniture
?Loosely speaking, a chair is a piece of furniture
Strictly speaking, a bat is not a bird.
?Strictly speaking, a TV set is not a bird
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I. Polysemy
- in terms of family resemblance categories
- distinct though related meanings
- no need of a semantic component unifying the different uses (though it may be there)
- polysemous words, morphemes, structures, suprasegmentals
All the instances are somehow linked to the central sense of „smallness in physical space”.
The linking does not „assume” a common core of meaning.
Interesting facts about diminutives:
- productivity diminishes with lowering centrality of sense;
- diminutives often bring about independent lexical items: rozprawka, mazurek, krówka,
bilecik. This is a case of semantic specialization leading to the extension of lexicon.
II. Metaphor
Origin: the basis of our conceptual system:
- spatial experience
- physical experience
- emotional experience
- emergent concepts
- experimental gestalts
Operation:
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- ontological metaphors (experience with physical objects and substances). Example: Inflation
is an entity.
Inflation is lowering our standard of living.
We need to combat inflation.
Inflation is backing us into a corner.
Example: The mind is an entity - The mind is a machine
Example: personification: caught Life has cheated me. Cancer finally caught up with him
Example: metonymy: The ham sandwich is waiting for his check
I`ve got a new set of wheels
He bought a Ford
- figurative metaphors
a) conventional metaphor: Theories are buildings; These facts are foundations of my theory
b) extension of the used part: These facts are bricks and mortar of my theory
c) unusual part: He prefers massive Gothic theories covered with gargoyles
d) novel metaphor: His theories are patriarchs who father many children
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A B C D E
stołek taboret krzesło krzesło ?
Krzesło: { C, D}
taboret: {B}
stołek: {A}
X jest krzesłem:
A jest krzesłem: false
B jest krzesłem: false
C jest krzesłem: true
D jest krzesłem: true
E jest krzesłem: true
E jest krzesłem: neither true nor false
Truth condition: P(a) is true if the entity denoted by „a” is in the extension of P. P(a) is false if
the entity denoted by „a” is not in the extension of P but is found in an extension of some
other predicate of the model. P(a) is neither true nor false otherwise.
- special case: the model is the whole of our world. Then we speak about truth in the world
---- objectivism
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- truth in cognitive linguistics: relative to the conceptual system. It avoids full subjectivism
because individuals interact in their community. Truth is what members of a community
believe to be true
OBJECTIVISM
- the world is made up of objects which have properties independent of people (e.g. rock)
- knowledge of the world consists in experiencing the objects and learning about their
properties
- understanding the objects in terms of categories and concepts which correspond to the
properties of objects
- objective reality exists and we may describe it truthfully or falsely. Science guides the
truthful pronouncements
- words have fixed meanings: they express concepts and categories in terms of which we
think
- people can be objective and can speak literally
SUBJECTIVISM
- we rely on our senses and intuitions
- most important things: feelings, aesthetics, morality, spiritual awareness - purely subjective
- art and poetry - more important than reality: subjective (imagination)
- language: imaginative, metaphorical
- objectivism is dangerous for it misses the essence
EXPERIENTIALISM
- no absolute truth
- no imaginative idiosyncratic truth
- metaphor: unites reason and imagination. Reason comprises categorization and inference,
imagination allows us to see one thing in terms of another
- truth relative to understanding
- objectivity relative to the conceptual system of a culture
- transcultural values and concepts possible (but not universal)
- we understand the world through interacting with it
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1. Among the expressions below find a) binary antonyms; b) gradable antonyms; c) multiple
incompatibles; d) converses.
intelligent, Tuesday, hate, same, lend, in, take, above, grandparent, true, love, winter, borrow,
Sunday, spring, stupid, grandchild, different, false, clever
2. Consider the following sentences:
a) John passed the hammer and saw through the window
b) John saw through the window and passed the hammer
c) John passed the hammer and the saw through the window
d) John passed the saw and the hammer through the window
e) John passed the hammer
f) John saw through the window
g)The hammer which John saw was not a hammer
h) A saw is a tool
1) Which sentences are paraphrases of each other?
2) Which sentence is entailed by sentence (d) but does not entail it?
3) Which of the above sentences is analytic?
4) Which of the above sentences is a contradiction?
3. Write down at least four inferences B’s utterance has. Next to each inference write the
name of the type of inferences it belongs to. Prove (by using the tests) that the inference is of
the type specified by you.
A. Have you talked to your teacher?
B. I believe she has left for Paris or she has cancelled some appointments, sir.
4. Why is the coding-decoding model of communication inadequate to describe the „whole”
of verbal communication?
7. Of what degree are the predicates you have selected in (6). Give examples to justify your
answer.
-
-
-
-
-
8. Explain:
a) Why, in truth-conditional semantics, is a metalanguage necessary?
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9. How are the following related in truth-conditional semantics. Write the answer in one
sentence in each case: (4p)
a) Hyponymy and synonymy
-
10. Fill in the following table, which is a comparison of the main assumptions of truth-
conditional semantics and American cognitive linguistics:(8p)
7. A`s utterance has the implicatures written under (a)-(d). Specify their types by writing
appropriate terms in blanks. (8p)
___________________________
(b) A exists
The person addressed exists
The person addressed has servants
The servants believe that A is guilty
___________________________
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____________________________
____________________________
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Paul Grice: „Logic and conversation”. In: Grice, P. 1989. Studies in the Way of Words.
Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA.
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If conventional implicatures fail, the sentence may still be true. They are non-truth-
conditional
Ad. 8. Examples
(1) No maxim violated
(a) A. I am out of petrol.
B. There is a garage round the corner.
(b) A. Smith doesn`t seem to have a girlfriend these days.
B. He has been paying a lot of visits to New York lately.
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