Lectures 8, 9 and 10

Junctions
5.2 Equilibrium Conditions

pn junction
ideal  step junction Analysis developed on step junctions
actual  graded junction Approximations made for graded junctions

Consider equilibrium:
no net currents (4 components of currents across the junction)
no external voltage or excitations

5.2.1 Contact potential

Before joining – n side has large concentration of electrons and few holes
converse for the p side
After joining –
in the n doped region
electrons diffuse over to the p doped region leaving behind Nd+
in the p doped region
holes diffuse over to the n doped region leaving behind Na-

Diffusion cannot continue till concentrations are equal

Electric field sets in – prevents further diffusion
 equilibrium sets in

The electric field appears in some region W about the junction

There is an equilibrium potential difference Vo across W

Vn – constant potential in the n neutral region

Vp – constant potential in the p neutral region
 Vo = Vn – Vp  contact potential  built-in
necessary for the maintenance of equilibrium across the junction
Fig 5.11b – Fermi level is constant throughout the device (ref. Section 3.5)
Energy bands on the p side are higher than the n side by qVo

To obtain a quantitative relationship between Vo and the doping concentrations on both sides,
use requirements for equilibrium in the drift and diffusion current equations

Ex. Drift and diffusion components of the hole current cancel at equilibrium

The equation can be rearranged to obtain

Where the x-direction is arbitrarily taken from p to n.

As E(x) = - dV(x)/dx, and utilizing the Einstein eqn., Eqn 5-4b becomes

Integrate within the limits –

V – between Vp and Vn, p(x) – between pp and pn
If the step junction is made up of material with a concentration of Na acceptors on the p side
and Nd donors on the n side, eqn. 5.7 can be written as --

by considering the majority concentration to be the doping concentration on each side

Another useful form of eqn. 5-7 is –

By using the equilibrium condition ppnp = ni2 = pnnn, we can extend eqn 5-9
5.2.2 Equilibrium Fermi Levels

As we have assumed that pn and pp are given by their equilibrium values outside the
transition region, we can write Eqn. 5-9 as --

(subscripts – p, n  indicate the sides of the equilibrium)

5.2.3 Space Charge at a Junction

In the transition region –

some electrons diffuse from n to p
some are swept away by the field conversely for the holes

Very few carriers in the transition region

-- space charge only due to uncompensated donor and acceptor ions

See Fig 5-12b. Neglecting carriers within the space charge region,
the charge density on the n side  qNd
the charge desnity on the p side  -qNa

The assumption of carrier depletion within W and neutrality outside –

depletion approximation

The dipole about the junction – equal number of charges on either side
To calculate the electric field distribution within the transition region, use Possion’s equation

Neglecting (p-n), the equation simplifies to

Assuming complete ionization of the impurities i.e. (Nd+ = Nd and Na- = Na)
E
Two slopes of E(x)  p side negative, n side positive
E is negative everywhere in the transition region (from Gauss’ law)
Electric field is in the –x direction (i.e. from n to p)
Maximum mod. value for E  Eo  at the junction
all the electric flux lines pass through the x=0 plane

To find the value of Eo

Therefore the maximum value of E is

Relating E to Vo

Thus the negative of the contact potential is the area under the E(x) vs x triangle

Since the balance of the charge requirement is xnoNd = xpoNa, and W = xpo + xno,
We can write xno = WNa/(Na+Nd) in Eqn 5-19
W

By using the expression of Vo from Eqn 5-8

xpo, xno
5.3 Forward and Reverse Biased Junctions; Steady State Conditions

5.3.1 Qualitative Description of Current Flow at a Junction

Vf  forward bias Electrostatic potential changes

Vr  reverse bias W changes

Fermi energy levels – separated by an energy equal to qV (V  applied voltage)

Applied voltage
affects diffusion current but not drift current

4 components
 The current at V=0 (equilibrium) is zero as the
generation and diffusion amounts cancel

An applied forward bias of V=Vf increases the probability

that a carrier can diffuse across
The junction by a factor exp(qVf/kT)

Equilibrium diffusion current is equal in magnitude to

|I(gen.)|exp(qV/kT)

-Io  reverse saturation current.

5.3.2 Carrier Injection

The minority carrier concentration on each side of a p-n junction is expected to vary with the
applied bias because of variations in the diffusion of carriers across the junction.
The equilibrium ratio of hole concentrations on each side

becomes with bias

For low level injections, we can neglect changes in the majority carrier concentrations.
With this simplification, we can write the ratio of Eqn 5-26 to Eqn 5-27 as

With forward bias, Eq 5-28 suggests a greatly increased minority carrier hole concentration at
the edge of the transition region on the n side p(xno) than the case at equilibrium.
Conversely for holes --
 Fig 5-15 
A forward bias V results in a steady state injection of excess holes into the n region
and excess electrons into the n region.
We can calculate the excess hole concentration ∆pn at the edge of the transition region
xno by subtracting the equilibrium hole concentration from Eq 5-28

and similarly for the excess electrons on the p side

From section 4.4.4  expect that injection leading to a steady concentration of ∆pn
excess holes at xno will produce a distribution of excess holes in the n material. As holes
diffuse deeper into the n region, they recombine with the electrons in the n material, and the
resulting excess hole distribution is obtained as a solution of the diffusion equation, Eq 4-34b.
Similar analysis for injected electrons in the p material.

For analysis: define two new coordinates (see Fig 5-15a)  xp and xn
 Write the diffusion equation, as in Eqn 4-34 for each side of the junction and solve for the
distribution of excess carriers (δn and δp) -

The hole diffusion current at any point xn in the material can be calculated from Eqn 4-40:

The total hole current injected into the n material at the junction can be obtained simply
by evaluating Eq 5-32 at xno:

Similar analysis for injection of electrons into the p material -

The total current –

Diode equation

This is a general equation. Can also be used for reverse bias. When V = -Vr

When Vr is larger than a few kT/q, the total current is just the reverse saturation current
5.3.3 Reverse bias

So far, the discussion of carrier injection and minority carrier distributions primarily based
on forward bias conditions.
The distributions for reverse bias can be obtained from the same equations if a –ve value of
V is introduced. From Eqn 5.29 –

and similarly ∆np ~ -np

The reverse-bias depletion of minority carriers can be thought of as minority carrier extraction,
analogous to injection during forward bias.
5.4 Reverse Bias Breakdown

Reverse bias –
small and voltage independent saturation current
critical voltage (Vbr) – current increases sharply

If the current is limited to a reasonable value by the external circuit,

the p-n junction can be operated safely in reverse breakdown
(just as in the forward bias condition)

Reverse breakdown –
(i) Zener breakdown – low volatge
(ii) Avalance breakdown – high voltage
5.4.1 Zener Breakdown

When heavily doped junction is reverse biased –

energy bands become crossed at relatively low voltages
(i.e. n-side conduction band appears opposite the p-side valence band )

Crossing of the bands aligns the large number of empty states in the n-side conduction
band opposite the many filled states of the p-side valence band.
If the barrier separating the bands is narrow, tunneling of electrons can occur.

Tunneling of electrons from the p-side from the p-side valence band to the n-side
conduction band constitutes a reverse current from  Zener Effect

Basic requirements of tunneling current – large number of electrons separated from a

large number of empty states by a narrow barrier of finite height.
As tunneling probability depends on the width of the barrier (d in Fig 5-20) 
important that the metallurgical junction be sharp and the doping be high
i.e. W is small
Another requirement – value of reverse voltage
more is the reverse voltage, smaller is the d
5.4.2 Avalanche Breakdown

For lightly doped junctions – electron tunneling is negligible

rather the breakdown mechanism involves the impact ionization of host atoms by
energetic carriers
Normal lattice-scattering events can result in creation of EHPs if carrier being scattered
has sufficient energy.
e.g. electrons in the transition region accelerated to high energy –
causes ionization collision with a lattice  carrier multiplication (fig 5.21)
 avalanche
Approximate analysis of avalanche multiplication –
assume that a carrier (of either type) has a probability P of having an ionization collision
with the lattice while being accelerated a distance W through the transition region.
For nin electrons entering from the p-side, there will be Pnin ionizing collisions and
an EHP (secondary carriers) for each collision.
After the collisions by the primary electrons, there are nin(1+P) secondary electrons
Thus the probability that an ionizing collision will occur due to the motion the secondary
carriers is still P.
For ninP secondary pairs, there will be (ninP)P ionizing collisions and ninP2 tertiary pairs
Thus – summing up the total number of electrons out of the region at n after many collisions

assuming no recombination

The electron multiplication factor, Mn

5.4.3 Rectifiers

Application – rectification
Requirements for good rectifier junctions

(a) Eg – large bandgap  smaller ni (preferred)

can be operated at higher temperatures

(b) Doping level

(c) Geometry
5.4.4 The Breakdown Diode

The reverse-bias breakdown voltage of a junction can be varied by the choice of the junction
doping concentrations.
When a diode is designed for a specific breakdown voltage, it is called a breakdown diode
-- also called Zener diodes

Used as voltage regulators in

circuits with varying inputs

Can also be used as a reference diode

5.4 Transient and AC Conditions

So far – operations of p-n junctions under equilibrium conditions

steady state current flow conditions

As devices are used for switching and operating AC signals 

need to study transient processes

Indepth studies – mathematical rigor

Here – solving current flow equations in space and time
(time dependent equations)

This section –
influence of excess carriers in transient and AC conditions
5.5.1 Time Variation of Stored Charge

Excess carrier distributions of a p-n junction under bias (see Fig 5-15) –
any change in current must lead to a change of charge stored in the carrier distributions.
As time is required in building up or depleting a charge distribution, the stored charge
lags behind the current in a time-dependent problem
 inherent capacitive effect
 use time-dependent continuity equations (Eq 4.31)

From Eq 4.31a

To obtain instantaneous current density, we can integrate both sides at time t to obtain
 For injection into a long n region from a p+ region, we can take current at xn =0 to be the
Hole current, and Jp at xn = ∞ to be zero.
The total injected current, including variations, is

This result – hole current injected across the p+-n junction (therefore total diode current)
Determined by two charge storage effects:
(i) the usual recombination term, Qp/τp
where the excess carrier distribution is replaced every tp seconds
(ii) a charge build-up/depletion term, dQp/dt
which allows for the fact that the distribution of excess carriers can change in
a time dependent problem

At steady-state -- dQp/dt and Eqn 5-47 reduces to Eqn 5-40.

We can solve for the storage charge as a function of time for a given current transient
Eg. The step off transient (fig 5-27a), where a current I is suddenly removed at t = 0,
leaves the diode with stored charge. Since the excess holes in the n region must die out
by recombination with matching excess electron population, some time is required for
Qp(t) to reach zero.
Solving Eq 5-47 with Laplace transforms, with i(t>0) =0, and Qp(0) = Iτp, we obtain

As expected, the stored charge dies out exponentially from its initial value Iτp with a time
Constant equal to the hole lifetime in the n material.
An important implication of Fig 5-27 –
Even though current is suddenly terminated, voltage across the junction persists
until Qp disappears
As excess hole concentration can be related to the junction voltage (section 5.3.2),
we can solve for v(t)
We know that at anytime during the transient, the excess hole concentration at xn =0 is

So that finding ∆pn(t) will help provide the transient voltage.

However – not so simple to find exactly ∆pn(t) from the expression for Qp(t)
Problem – hole distribution does not remain in the convenient exponential form
as in the steady state
Fig 5-27c – the quantity δp(xn,t) becomes markedly exponential as the transience proceeds

An approximate solution of v(t) can be obtained by assuming an exponential distribution

for δp at every instant during the decay.
This quasi steady state approximation – neglects distortion due to the slope requirement
at xn=0 and the effects of the diffusion during the transient
If we take

We have for the stored charge at any instant

Many problems of the stored charge can be reduced by designing a p+-n diode
(for example) with a very narrow n region.
 5.5.2 Reverse Recovery Transient
Switching of diodes –
stored charge transient is more complicated than a simple turn-off transient
requires more analysis
 important result of this analysis 
a reverse current much larger than the normal reverse saturation current can flow
in a junction during the time required for readjustment of the stored charge

Assume a p+-n junction driven by a

square wave generator that
periodically switches from
+E to –E volts (Fig 5-28a)

After switching – initially If = Ir

Then decreases to reverse saturation current
(Fig 5-28b)
 The time tsd required for the stored charge (and therefore the junction voltage) to become
zero is called the storage delay time (an important figure of merit)

It is important that the tsd be small

Compared to the switching times

The critical parameter determning tsd

is the carrier life time
(τp for example in the p+-n junction)
Exact analysis of the problem of Fig 5-28 leads to

Important implication –
τp can be calculated in a straightforward way
from measurement of the storage delay
time
 5.5.3 Switching Diodes

In discussing rectifiers, we emphasized the importance of minimizing the reverse-bias

current and the power losses under forward bias.
In may applications, the time response can be important as well. For switching, the charge
control properties need consideration

From Eqns 5-47 and 5-54 

for fast switching – store very little charge in the neutral regions for steady forward currents
have very short carrier life time
(at least one of the above conditions)
5.5.4 Capacitance p-n Junctions

There are two types of capacitances associated with a junction:

(i) the junction capacitance due to the dipole in the transition region
 dominant under reverse-bias conditions
(ii) the charge storage capacitance arising from the lagging behind of voltage as
current changes, due to charge storage effects
 dominant under forward-bias conditions

Junction capacitance – important for device design

As Q varies non-linearly on both sides with applied voltage

From Eqn 5-21 – under equilibrium

Under bias

Q can be expressed as

And

Therefore

Charge is a non-linear function of the applied voltage

From Eqn 5-55 and other steps, we can calculate Cj

Cj – proportional to (Vo-V)1/2  variable voltage capacitance

Further analysis

And for asymmetrically doped junction (Fig 5-30)

p+-n  Na>>Nd, xno~W, xpo is negligible
5.5.5 Varactor Diode

Variable reactor – voltage variable capacitance of a reverse-biased p-n junction

Junction capacitance depends on applied voltage and design of the junction

If a p-n junction is abrupt – capacitance varies as square root of the reverse bias, Vr
In a graded junction -
Eg. p+-n junction
Three types of graded junction profiles on the n side (W extends primarily on the n side)

Donor distribution Nd(x) given by Gxm, where G is a constant and the exponent m is
0,1, -1.5
5.6 Deviations From The Simple Theory

5.6.1 Effects of Contact Potential on Carrier Injection

I-V characteristics appear “square”

critical voltage -
This is understood from the simple rearrangement of the diode equation.
Rewrite Eqn 5-36 for a forward-biased p+-n diode (with V>> kT/q) and include the
exponential form for the minority carrier concentration pn, we get

Hole injection into the n material is small if the forward bias V is much less than (Efn – Evn)/q
For a p+-n diode, the Fermi level is near the valence band on the p side.
If the n region is also heavily doped, then the contact potential ~ band gap

Limiting forward bias across the p-n junction is equal to the contact potential

This accounts for the dramatic

increase in diode current near
the band gap voltage

Minority carrier concentrations low

at low voltages  low current
Note – in the ideal case (Eqn 5-28)  based on low level injection
Here – high level injection – hence equations need to be rewritten
Eg. At low level injection, ∆np=∆pp is important compared with the equilibrium minority
electron concentration np, but is negligible compared to the majority hole concentration
pp; this was the basis for neglecting ∆ppin Eqn 5-28. For high injection levels,
∆pp is comparable to pp --- hence Eqn 5-27 is rewritten as
 5.6.2 Recombination and Generation in the Transition Regime
Ideal model – recombination and generation were in the neutral region
not in the transition region
i.e. forward current in the diode is carried by recombination of excess minority carriers
injected into each neutral region by the junction.
Similarly, reverse saturation current is due to the thermal generation of EHPs in the
neutral regions and the subsequent diffusion of the generated minority carriers to
the transition regions, where they are swept to the other side of the field

When a junction is forward biased, the transition region contains excess carriers of both types
-- which are in transit from one side of the junction to another.
Unless the width of the transition region is small compared to the carrier diffusion lengths (Ln, Lp)
-- significant recombination can take place within W.
Analysis 
(i) current due to recombination within W  proportional to ni and increases with forward bias
according to ~ exp(qV/2kT)
(ii) current due to recombination in the neutral region  is proportional to pn and np (Eqn 5-36)
and therefore to ni2/Nd and ni2/Na, and increases according to ~ exp(qV/kT)
The diode equation can be modified to include this effect by including the parameter n:

n – ideality parameter (varies between 1 and 2 depending on material and temperature)

becomes small for wide band gap materials, low temperatures (small ni), and low voltage.
Thus n ~ 2 at low voltage and ~ 1 at high voltage.
 Just as recombination within W can affect the forward characteristics, the reverse current
through a junction can be influenced by carrier generation in the transition region.
Reverse saturation current can be accounted by the thermal generation of EHPs within the
diffusion length on either side of the transition region, where they are swept to the other
side of the junction by the electric field .

However, carrier generation can take place within

the transition region itself. If W is small compared
to Ln, Lp  band-to-band generation of the EHPs
within the transition region is not important compared
to the generation in the neutral region.

However, the lack for free carriers within the space charge of the
transition region can create a current due to the net generation
of carriers by emission from recombination centers.
4 process depicted in Fig 5.36 
Rn and Rp negligible within W because of a small carrier concentration in the
reverse bias space charge region.
Therefore, a recombination level Er near the centre of the bandgap can provide carriers
through the thermal generation rates Gn, and Gp.
Each recombination centre alternately emits an electron and a hole  an electron at Er
is thermally excited to the conduction band (Gn) and a valence band electron is then
excited thermally to the empty state on the recombination level, leaving a hole behind
in the valence band (Gp)
5.6.3 Ohmic Losses
In deriving the diode equation, we assumed that the voltage applied to the device appears
entirely across the junction. We neglected any voltage drop in the neutral regions and at
the external contacts. Acceptable for most devices.

However, some devices exhibit ohmic effects – which cause significant deviation from the
expected I-V characteristic.

Junction voltage -

Vα  external applied voltage, Rp  resistance of p region, Rn  resistance of n region

As current increases, V decreases.

Reduction in V lowers the level of injection so that the current increases more slowly with
increases bias.
5.6.4 Graded Junctions
Ideal case – abrupt junctions (happens for epitaxially grown junctions)
Many cases – graded junctions – hence modifications needed

In Poissons’s eqn [Eqn 5-14], the linear approximation becomes --

Properties different from
abrupt junctions
 5.7 Metal Semiconductor Junctions

Let us first look at a metal-semiconductor (MS) contact

Metal and Semiconductor  property

Work function (qφm or qφs) -- Energy the electron loses when it escapes from the surface
(energy required to remove electrons from Fermi level to outside the surface)

E.g.
Photoelectric effect

Ee

Ee = hν - qφm
MS contacts

Rectifying
V
Current flows in one way only
(thus acts as a rectifier)
I
 similar to a pn junction

V
Ohmic
Current flows in both directions I

Combination of M and S work functions

Rectifying Ohmic
(depletion) (accumulation)

n-type φm > φs φm < φs

p-type φm < φs φm > φs

 (a) n-type φm > φs

Initially – Fermi levels not aligned

Upon contact – alignment of Fermi levels
 transfer of electrons (majority carriers) from S to M
 -ve charges on M side, +ve charges (immobilized ions) on S side
 depletion region formed region formed in the S side
 band bending

Contact potential
V0 = φm – φs

Injection potential
(i.e. potential for electron
injection from metal to
semiconductor
conduction band)
φB = φm – χ

(χ – electron affinity)
Application of forward bias reverse bias

rectifying behavior
(b) p-type φm < φs

Similar treatment as case (a)

Cases (a) and (b)  like a pn junction

 Rectifying
(c) n-type φm < φs

Initially – Fermi levels not aligned

Upon contact – alignment of Fermi levels
 transfer of electrons (majority carriers) from M to S
 +ve charges on M side, -ve charges (excess electrons) on S side
 accumulation region formed region formed in the S side
 no/slight band bending

Consequence –
barrier to electron flow in
either direction is small

 ohmic behavior
(d) p-type φm > φs

Analysis similar to case (c)

Cases (c) and (d)

 Ohmic
Summary:

•MS contact –
(as in SS contact)
charge carriers diffuse across junction to equalize chemical potential

•Depending on φm and φs –
accumulation or depletion of the majority carrier in S near the junction occurs

•Nature of contact is –
rectifying – if depletion (as in a p-n SS junction)
ohmic – if accumulation