Republic of the Philippines

SULTAN KUDARAT STATE UNIVERSITY

Kalamansig Campus

Course No. :
Course Description : METHODS OF RESEARCH
Course Objective :
This will carefully provide the students adequate knowledge in the design, formulation,
implementation, analysis and presentation of a research work.
1. Nature and Characteristics of Research
Meaning of Research
Characteristics of the Researcher
Qualities of a Good Researcher
Man’s Major Problems Demand Research
Research Standing of the Philippines
Values of Research to Man
Characteristics of Research
Types of Research
Classification of Research
Meaning of Variable
Types of Variable
Components of the Research Process
2. The Research Problem and Objectives
The Research Problem
Characteristics of a Research Problem
Sources of Research Problem
Criteria of a Good Research problem
Justifying the Research Problem
The Research Objectives
Statement of Research Problem/Objectives
The Hypothesis
Types of Hyphothesis
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Assumptions
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Difination of Terms
3. Review of Related Literature
Functions of the Review
Why the Review?
Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies
Guides in Design the Review
Approaches in Presenting the Review
Definition of Terms
4. Footnotes and Bibliography
Taking Notes
Footnotes
Rules and Suggestion for handling Footnotes
Making Bibliographic Card
Rules and respet to Bibliography
5. Research Designs
Research Design
Important Considerations in Selecting a Research Design
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 Appropriates of the Research Design
Types of Research Design
Historical Research
Guidelines to Effective Writing of Historical Research
Deficiencies in Historical Research
Characteristics of Historical Research
Importance of Historical Research
When to Use Historical Research
Descriptive Design
Types of Descriptive Research
Experimental Designs
Types of Experimental Design
Case Study
The Cycle of Case Study
6. Qualities of a Good Research Instrument
Validity
Types of Validity
Content validity
Concurrent validity
Predictive validity
Construct validity
Reliability
Methods in Testing the Reliability of Good Research Instrument
Test-re test method
Parallel forms Method
Split half method
Internal Consistency Method
Usability
Factors that determine Usabiliity
7. Sampling Designs
Advantages of Sampling
Limitaton of Sampling
Planning a Sample Survey
Guidelines for determining Adequate Sampling
Steps in Computing The Size Of The Sample
Sampling Concepts and Terminology
Representative Sampling
Confidence Level
General Types of Sampling (Calderon and Gonzales)
Probability Sampling
Types of Probability Sampling
Non- Probability Sampling
Types of Non- Probability Sampling
8. Data Gathering Procedure
Methods of Data Collection
Observation method
Interview
Questionnaire
Objective method
Test construction
Content validation
Face validation
9. Statistical treatment of data
10. Analysis of Data
11. Presentation and Interpretation of Data
12. Findings
13. Conclusions
14. Recommendations

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Chapter I – Nature and Characteristics of Research

Research is the key to development. There can be no development without research in

almost if not all human endeavors. In government, in education, in trade and commerce, and in
all kinds of industries, research is a very significant activity. However, research activity could
not provide baseline information without analyzing the accurate data statistically. Therefore, the
methods and statistical analysis must be taught and learned. This is imperative because students
in the graduate and undergraduate studies are the ones who are expected to undertake research
activities.
Due to the foregoing reasons, it is the purpose of this write-up to make the study of
research methods and statistical analysis more practical and comprehensive.
Meaning of Research
Several authors give different definitions of research, as follows:
Research may be defined as a scientific investigation of phenomena which includes
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that links man speculation with
reality.
Good defines research as a “careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in techniques
according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification
or resolution (or both) of a problem.”
Parel defines research as “a systematic study or investigation of something for the
purpose of answering questions posed by the researcher.”
According to Aquino, “research is simply, the systematic search for pertinent information
on a specific topic or problem.”
Manuel and Medel define research as “the process of gathering data or information to
solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner.
Karlinger defines scientific research as “a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.”
Treece and Trecee commented that “research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain
solutions to problems. It is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the
purpose of predictions or explanations.
Calderon and Gonzales define research in a more comprehensive forms as “a purposive,
systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting, and
interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of
truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and
improvement of the quality of human life.
Calmorin and Calmorin define research as a scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation
with reality.
Characteristics of the Researcher
1. Intellectual curiosity -A researcher undertakes reflective thinking and inquiry of the things,
situations and problems around him. He is eager to get information on these often due to novelty
and unusualness. He raises questions to seek answer, continues to read the related literature,
makes use of his experiences, and exercises his creativeness and inventiveness.
2. Prudence- there’s a saying that “Intellectual curiosity ends when prudence begins”. Once the
investigator has chosen wisely his research problem, his intellectual curiosity ends. The
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researcher is prudent if he conducts his research study at the right time and at the right place
wisely, efficiently, and economically. Likewise, the 4 M’s (Man, Money, Materials and
Machinery) are used effectively and economically.

3. Healthy criticism- The investigator is always doubtful as to the veracity of the results.
Normally, the researcher always doubts the truthfulness of his findings even if the data are
gathered honestly.

4. Intellectual honesty -An intelligent researcher is honest in collecting or gathering the data or
facts in order to arrive at honest results. Honesty is the best policy for an intelligent investigator
because the success or failure of his research lies on his hand.
Qualities of a Good Researcher
R – esearch – oriented
E – fficient
S – cientific
E – ffective
A – ctive
R – esourceful
C – reative
H – onest
E – conomical
R – eligious
Man’s Major Problem Demand Research
Research is sometimes thought as concerned only with the physical phenomena but man
cannot do a way on these things because the physical phenomena have domain properly
emphasized on materials cause and effect. It also true that materials factorsare the basis which
affect man’s life because men are more materialistic that idealistic. However, man has to balance
his spiritual and material services in order to achieve both material and spiritual gifts. If spiritual
and material services should go hand on hand, reach can be smoothly conducted.
Before research conducted, it must be understood. But before one can understand, one
must learn. If man understood, learn and does research, progress can become possible because
research is a contributing factor of progress. It moves such progress towards goals. It also
provides challenges for achieving such goals. Sometimes, crises occur in conducting research,
and one may have to sacrifice and face the difficulties because success in reach is sweet if spice
with sacrifice.
Mans major problems which demand research include how to reduce his burden of work,
how to relieve suffering and how to increase satisfaction in fulfilling his cravings and
satisfaction. For instance, mans suffer for shortage of rice. To solve this problem, an agronomist
researcher should research on the modern methods and techniques in planting rice and such as
using a good variety that can be harvested within the short period of time and with high yield. If
he is successful in his research, then he can supply more rice to the consumer.
The following are examples of man’s problem for which product of research was born.
1. In Metro Manila, employees, teachers, students, business man and many other find
difficulty in commuting everyday due to heavy traffic, hence, the LRT (Light Rail
Transit) is constructed to ease the problem.

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 2. Three decades ago, businessman, engineers, and accountants found difficulty in
computing so calculators were invented to solve the problem.
3. In the early 20th century, rural folks found difficulties in seeing events far distance, hence,
television, movies and betamax were invented to solve the problem thereby enabling man
to see and hear events that happen at great distance.
The foregoing examples of research products were born out of mans problems, thus, research
is addressed to such problems, giving a man strong determination to solve in.
Research Standing of the Philippines
In the 1950’s, the Philippines was second to Japan economically. Forty five years ago,
the Philippines were scientifically ahead to most of the Southeast and East Asian nation as well
as to Japan. But now, “the Philippines is less than a squeaky one tenth of one percent.” (Arroyo
1989)
This fact is, indeed, embarassing. One relevant indicator is the number of scientist,
teachers, engineers engaged in Research and Development (R & D) per 10, 00 population. “The
figure for Japan is 40; Korea, 7; and the Philippines, 1.5.” (Arroyo 1989) Arroyo stressed further
that Japan, the number of patents granted per year is around 45, 000; Korea, 245; in the
Philippines, 52. According to science officials, the Philippinesis among the cellar dwellers as
regards the so called technologyn index. If the United States assigned 100 points, the Japan gets
87; West Germany, 45; and Philippines-a blushing negative 0.1. All these result to inadequate
research.

Values of Research to Man

Research is great value to man. Through research, the quality of mans life is improved
from conventional to modern because life not only become meaningful but enriching as well.
Research is valuable for;
1. Research improves the quality of life– research has led man to search for a way in
improving his life. It has led him to focus on improving process and means by which he
must love. The quality of life has improved through research because man is a dreamer, is
ambitious, and is industrious in achieving his dreams.
2. Research improve Instruction– research has no beginning and no end. It is a never
ending task. Educators, policy makers and educational researchers continue to conduct
research to improve instruction. Studies on the different strategies and approaches in the
various subject areas and year levels have been conducted to determine which strategy or
approach is best and most effective in teaching. Several innovations have been introduced
to improve instruction. Conventional teaching is no longerpracticed and only modern one
is applied. The modern teachers is expected to posses the 3 E’s (Effective, efficient,
Economical)
3. Research improve students achievement - the student achievement could be improve
through reach if Modern Teacher studies and understand the students characteristic,
problems and needs on the basis of which he fits his methods accordingly.
4. Research satisfies mans needs– in the 19th century, the needs of man were not as fully
satisfied as they are today. Mans suffered from conventional ways of living. For instance,
no electrification, no vehicles, no communication facilities, no moviehouses and many
others due to advanced science and technology, mans conventional way of living have
become modern. Electrification, communication, facilities, moviehouse, betahouse and
many others are now available.
5. Research reduces burden of work – modern devices such as calculators, computers,
copeir machines, fax machines, washing machines, gas range, refrigerator, freezer and
many other are some of the product of research which lessen mans burden of work.
6. Research has deep-seated physiological aspects – research stimulates and ennobles the
human spirit. It challenges man to remove the threat of stagnation. It is an open door to a

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 better future and it guides him in his effort to obtain good results which contribute to his
satisfaction and self fulfillment.
7. Research improves the exportation of food products – through research the exportation
of food products has improved. The product being exported to other countries are
bananas, pineapples, rice, mangoes, frozen yellow fin tuna (fish), frozen prawn (sugpo)
and many others
Characteristics of Research
1. Research is empirical - All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived
in the same manner by all observers.
2. Research is Logical – it is based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific
investigation is done in an orderly manner so that the researcher has confedence on the
results. Logical examination of the procedure used in the research enables the researcher
to draw valid conclusion. Thus, the logic of valid research makes it important for descion
making.
3. Research is Cyclical – it starts with a problem and ends with a problem. For instance, a
researcher who completes his study states his findings and draw up his conclusion amd
recommendation. In his recommendation, many problems may crop up as other subjects
for study hence, the cycle is repeated.
4. Research is analytical - There is a critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no
error in their interpretation.
5. Research is Replicability– the reasrch design and procedures are replicated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results. Similarities and differences of
replicated researches can be compared. The more replication of researches, the more
valid and conclusive the result would be.
6. Research is critical – research exhibit careful and precise judgement. A higher level of
confedence must be established, i.e., at 1.0 percent or 5.0 percent level of confedence.
Based on these levels of confedence, the researcher is confedently precise in his
interpretations on wether the result is significant or insignificant, or wether to reject or
accept the hepothesis.
7. Research is systematic- It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the
discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.
8. Research is controlled-All variables except those that are tested or being experimented
upon are kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) so that the changes made on the
subjects of the study can be attributed only to the experimental variable.
9. Research is objective, unbiased, and logical- All the findings and conclusions are
logically based on empirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of the research.
10. Research employs hypothesis- This is to guide the investigation process. In experimental
studies, hypotheses are expressly stated but in descriptive studies, the specific
subproblems or specific questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested
and not proved.
11. Research employs quantitative or statistical methods- Data are transformed into
numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or
usefulness.
12. Research is original work- Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary
sources or first – hand sources and not from secondary sources.
13. Research is done by an expert- The researcher uses valid and carefully designed
procedures, valid data gathering instruments; he subjects his data to expert scrutiny.
14. Research is accurate investigation, observation and description- In fact, every research
activity must be done accurately so that the findings will lead to the formulation of
scientific generalizations. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.

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 15. Research is patient and unhurried activity- This is to ensure accuracy. Research that is
hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing against time may lead to shaky
conclusions and generalizations.
16. Research requires an effort –making capacity -No research can be conducted without
the exertion of much effort. No one without any effort – making capacity can conduct a
research because research involves much work and time.
17. Research requires courage- Research requires courage because the researchers
oftentimes undergo hazards, discomforts and the like. At times the researcher encounters
public and social disapproval.
Types of Research
Generally, there are two types of research, the pure or theoretical and the applied or
practical. (Ardales, 1992 ).
1. Pure or theoretical type of research - is conducted for the sake of knowing. Its main
objective is to test or arrive at a theory with the ultimate goal of establishing general
principle. Whatever knowledge it gains is not intended for any practical purposes such as
improving the acceptability of the finished product, increasing the survival rate of fish in
ponds or solving a business management problem. The knowledge is gained so as to
improve on what man already knows and thus expand the frontier of human
understanding. It is therefore in search of knowledge for knowledge’s sake. Examples of
this type of research would include these intended to test or construct theories and those
conducted to establish facts or issues which are debatable because they are not
determined or well-defined.
2. Applied or practical research - is to be done so as to obtain knowledge for useful ends.
In this kind of research, the intention is not just to obtain knowledge but to use that
knowledge to solve certain difficulties or discomfort, or to improve the prevailing
condition which, in the present state, may be satisfactory but which has still room or
possibility for improvements. Its purpose is to apply, test and evaluate the usefulness of a
theory or knowledge arrived at in solving problems. Examples which could be cited are
the study of substitution, and recycling of wastes which contribute to our country’s
economic growth. The findings of such investigations will be useful in understanding the
phenomena and in finding effective solutions to increase national economic growth. E.g.
the problem about population explosion.
3. Action Research – this is a decision oriented research involving the application of the
steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve existing
practices.
Classification of Research

1. Library research - This is done in the library where answers to specific questions or
problems of the study are available. E.g. historical studies
2. Field research - Research is conducted in a natural setting. No changes are made in the
environment. Field research is applicable to descriptive survey and experimental
methods. E.g. field research using the experimental method.
3. Laboratory research - The research is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions by
isolating the study in a rigorously specified and operationalized area. e.g. “descriptive
and experimental studies.

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The Variable
There’s a saying that “no two individuals are alike and even identical twins are different.”
Though twins have the same sex, their personality, character, attitudes, values, skills, abilities,
and many others differ. This stems from the fact that people are different.
A variable is defined as quantity or a “characteristics that two or more mutually exclusive
values of properties.” (Sevilla et. al., 1992) Numerical values or categories represent these
quantities or characteristics.
Types of Variable
There are five types of variables. These are the;
1. Independent Variable – this is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to
determine its relationship to an observe phenomenon.
2. Dependent Variable –this is the response variable which is observed and measured to
determine the effect of the independent variable.
3. Moderate Variable – this is a secondary or special type or independent variable chosen
by the researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationships between the
independent variable and dependent variable.
4. Control variable – this is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effect can
be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.
5. Intervening variable – this is a variable which interferes with the independent and
dependent variables
Illustration 1

Independet Variable Intervening Dependent Variable

Educational Qualification Variable
Performance
Age, Sex, Civil
status,
Experiences,
Socio economic
status, Values,
Attitude towards
works, etc

Illustration 2

NCEE Percentile Rank Age, Sex, Achievement

Experiences,
Socio- economic
backgrounds,
Values, Attitude
towards works, etc
Figure 1. Illustration of Independent, Intervening and Dependent Variables
Component of the Research Process
The research process involves the following stages:
1. Problem / Objectives - The beginning of the process which the investigator has
experienced is experiencing or which has identified for purposes of finding solutions and
applying them to it. Or the basis of this identified problem, he formulate the objectives or
goals of his study.

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 2. Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework - this shows the relationships of variables being
studied and which will guide his analysis.
3. Assumptions – to provide the foundation of the study.
4. Hypothesis - These are statements about an expected relationship between two or more
variables which permit empirical testing.
5. Review of Related Literature -to determine the similarities and differences of the
findings of the past studies and to gain insights into the aspects of the problem
6. Research Design - this is decided most appropriate to the study. Designs say either be
historical, descriptive, or experimental.
7. Collection of Data -this is done in the right method or technique. Using appropriate data
gathering instrument either questionnaire or a test.
8. Data Processing and Statistical Treatment - this is done either manual or machine
processing, whichever is moreeconomical and accurate, using the correct statistical tools.
9. Analysis and Interpretation -the results which are usually statistics in tabular form will
be analyzed and interpreted by the researcher.
10. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations/ Implications -After analysis and
interpretation, finally the investigator summarize his study, draws his conclusions based
on findings and hypothesis tested and make recommendation for further research. Such
recommendation should dovetail with the conclusion.
The number of stages in the research process given is not standard or true for all scientific
investigations. Some researchers may have fewer requirements depending on scientific or
practical demands.
It should be noted that the stages in the research process are interrelated. The problem that
has been identified will determine the objectives, the framework of the study and the rest of the
stages. Also, it should be remembered that even in the early stage of the process, the subsequent
activities should be taken into account; failure to do so may result in some difficulties which may
endanger the quality or even the completion of the study.
Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of the Research Process
Problem / Objectives

Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework

Assumptions

Hypothesis

Review of Related Literature

Research Design

Collection of Data

Data Processing and Statistical Treatment

Analysis and Interpretation

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations/ Implications

Chapter 2. The Research Problem and Objectives

It cannot be denied that majority of the thesis writers and beginners in research find
difficulty in formulating research problems and objectives. Sometimes, they do not see the
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simple question may actually be a research problem stated in an interrogative form. Likewise,
they are misled into thinking that research objectives are the same as instructional objectives.

It is a must that theses/dissertation writers and amateur researchers should know how to
formulate research problems and objectives as well as how to determine what problem/objectives
is researchable. They should also see those even simple questions are research problems stated in
the interrogative forms. Furthermore, they should see the differences between research objectives
and instructional objectives.

The Research Problem

The research process begins with a problem which is perceived difficulty, a feeling of
discomfort with the things are, or a discrepancy between. . .
What should be and what is. . .
According to Andales (1993) a problem is researchable when:
1. There is no known answer or solution to it such that a gap in knowledge exists;
2. There are possible solutions, the effectively of which is untested or unknown yet;
3. There are answers or solutions, the possible result of which may seem or may be
factually contradictory;
4. There are several possible and plausible explanations for the undesirable condition;
and
5. When the existence of a phenomena requires explanation.

Characteristics of a Research Problem

A good research problem should be SMART.

Specific - The problem should be specifically stated.

Measurable -It is easy to measure by using research instruments in collecting data.
Achievable -The data are achievable using correct statistical techniques to arrive at precise
results.
Realistic - Real results are not manipulated.
Time – bounded - Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the
activity the better.

Sources of Research Problem

It is said that “Research was born out of man’s problems and man’s problem demands
research.”(Good &Scates, 1972)

The following are sources of the problems:

1. Personal Experience -What are required of him are awareness and sensitiveness to the
prevailing conditions of his time and place. A sensitive person can easily discern the difficulties
or abnormalities that affect not only him but others as well.
2. Symposia - dialogues or Ordinary Meetings - In any of these activities, it is likely that
problems will just crop up or be brought to the attention of participants. What the researcher
needs to do is to formulate the statement of the problem into one which satisfactorily meets the
requirements of a good research problem.
3. Journals, books, theses or dissertation, and the mass media -In these materials are issues or
concerns which require scientific investigation. Authors of these materials usually and explicitly
recommend topics or problems for investigators to look into.
4.Theories - A theory is tentative or hypothesized statement or relationship of things. It usually
presents generalizations and principles which the results of a study may validate or reject.
Criteria of a Good Research Problem
The following criteria are useful in judging a research problem:
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1. Interesting -A problem should be of great interest to the researcher. To have met this
important criterion, is to have already “won half of battle”. With much interest on the topic, the
researcher is motivated and determined to work on it until its completion.
2. Relevant to the needs of the People -A problem should be relevant and useful to a specific
group of people. The knowledge that the result of ones work will be of much use to a group of
people and provides the researcher an input or drive with which to pursue the problem until
solution will be discover or known.
3. Innovative -A good problem is novel; it possesses the element of newness or freshness. This
implies doing a study on topics which have been over studied, and pursuing those which were
not subjected to many investigations, or if were not thoroughly studied.
4. Cost effective – the 4M’s. Man, Money, Materials and Machinery are needed in conducting
research. A research problem should be economical and effective in solving the problem of the
society; it should be augment social, economical, and health conditions of the people and many
others.
5. Measurable and Time Bounded -A problem should be measurable. If the variables involved
in the problem do not allow measurement, the researcher will have an impossible task of
reporting the results or findings of his study.
Justifying the Research Problem
There are various ways of presenting the researchers justification for his particular study.
It would be to his advantage to present all supporting factors so as to convince and to get the
approval of the screening committee. The following guide questions will be helpful:
1. Is the problem a current and timely one?
2. Is it pervasive or independent?
3. Does it affect a special group of people such as fish processors, fish farmers and
managers?
4. Does it relate to on-going programs such as aquaculture nutrition, coastal resource
management, etc.?
5. Does it relate to broad social, economic, and health issues, such as unemployment,
mismatch of needed manpower, etc.?
6. Who else concerned about the problem- top government officials or other
professionals?
7. What are its direct and indirect, short- and long-ranged contributions, to the welfare
of a group of people or to the whole society?
The researcher should review his answers to these questions and arrange them into
paragraphs that justify the importance of the research problem.
The Research Objectives
The researcher should bear in mind that research objectives are different from
instructional objectives. While the characteristics (SMART) of the former is similar in stating
instructional objectives, the latter requires objectives express in three domains of behavior,
namely cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (skills) and effective (values).
In the research paper, thesis or dissertation, either a problem or objective is used. It is
inadvisable to used both problems and objective in a research paper, thesis or dissertation
because each problem/objective stated in chapter 1 is answered in chapter 4 (Result and
Discussion) of the study.
A research objective is defined as “statement of purpose for which the investigation is to
be conducted.” (Andales 1992) Research objectives also have the same characteristics, SMART
with Research problem.

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 Similarly, the research objectives are stated specifically in simple language in order that
the researcher finds them easy to measure by using research instrument (i.e. questionnaire, test,
interview, rating scale, checklist, etc.) in collecting data and these date are achieved when correct
statistical techniques are used to arrive real result (not manufactured), but for every activity be
done time frame is required because the shorter the completion the activity the better.
Statement of Research Problem/Objectives
The following are the guidelines in formulating the statements of the problem:
1.) It must be formulated first before conducting the research.
2.) It must be stated in interrogative form.
3.) It must be clear and has only one meaning.
4.) It is researchable apart from the other questions.
5.) It must be based upon known facts and phenomena.
6.) Answers to each question can be interpreted apart from the answers to other specific
questions.
7.) Answers to each question must contribute to the development of the research
problems.
8.) Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give a complete
development of the entire study.
9.) The number of questions should be enough to cover the development problem or
study.
Let us have a study entitled “PROBLEMS MET BY SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
TEACHERS IN DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (DEPED) IN SULTAN KUDARAT
PROVINCE IN SCHOOL YEAR 2005 – 2010”
Problem- the main problem of this study is to determine the Problems met by Science and
Mathematics Teachers in Department of Education (DEPED) in Sultan Kudarat Province in
School Year 2005 – 2010. Specifically it attempts to answer the following questions;

1.What are the problems met problem met by the Science and Mathematics teacher in
Department of Education (DEPED) in Sultan Kudarat Province in School Year 2005 - 2010
a. administration and supervision
b. instructional materials
c. facilities
d. teacher factor
e. student factor
2. What is most pressing problem met by the Science and Mathematics teacher in Department
of Education (DEPED) in Sultan Kudarat Province in School Year 2005 - 2010
a. administration and supervision
b. instructional materials
c. facilities
d. teacher factor
e. student factor
3. Is there a significance difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by the Science
and Mathematics teacher in Department of Education (DEPED) in Sultan Kudarat Province in
School Year 2005 – 2010” in relation to
a. administration and supervision
b. instructional materials
c. facilities
d. teacher factor
e. student factor

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objectives – the main purpose of this study is to determine the problems met by the Science and
Mathematics teacher in Department of Education (DEPED) in Sultan Kudarat Province in School
Year 2005 – 2010” specifically, it attempts the following objectives;
1. To identify the problems met by the Science and Mathematics teacher in Department of
Education (DEPED) in Sultan Kudarat Province in School Year 2005 – 2010” in relation
to
a. administration and supervision
b. instructional materials
c. facilities
d. teacher factor
e. student factor
2. To find out the most pressing problem met by the Science and Mathematics teacher in
Department of Education (DEPED) in Sultan Kudarat Province in School Year 2005 –
2010” in relation to
a. administration and supervision
b. instructional materials
c. facilities
d. teacher factor
e. student factor
3. to identify the significance difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by the
Science and Mathematics teacher in Department of Education (DEPED) in Sultan
Kudarat Province in School Year 2005 – 2010” in relation to
a. administration and supervision
b. instructional materials
c. facilities
d. teacher factor
e. student factor
The Hypothesis
Hypothesis is an educated or intelligent guess or prediction about the existence, attribute
or relationship between variables (characteristics or phenomena) covered by a study. It is
described as educated or intelligent since it has been formulated on the basis of well- thought of
objectives and a theoretical or conceptual framework. The foundations of which require critical
reviews of literature and studies related to the subject under study. The phenomena, or the
aspects of it, which are the focus of guess or predictions, may be prevailing at the time the study
is to be conducted, have occurred, or may still occur.

Types of Hypothesis:
1.) Null Hypothesis - It is a denial of an existence, as attribute, a relationship, a
difference or an effect. As such, it is stated in the negative form of statement.
2.) Alternative hypothesis - If affirms the existence of a phenomenon, that this group of
people has such and such characteristics. E.g. 1. There is a relationship between
educational attainment and level of skilled-manpower. 2. There is a significant
difference between growth and survival rates of milkfish at different stocking ratios.
In practice, the null hypothesis is popular since, with its use, errors in accepting or
rejecting the hypothesis can be easily avoided. Moreover, the null hypothesis is easier
to reject that the alternative hypothesis when the statistical measure is applied in
testing the existence of difference or relationship. However, the recent trend is

13
 towards the use of alternative hypothesis. The basic argument for it is that, stated in
the positive form of a statement, it provides more motivation to carry out the study.
Hypothesis serves the following functions:
1.) They provide guide and direction to the research.
2.) They indicate the major independent and dependent variables being considered.
3.) They suggest the type of data that must be collected.
4.) They also suggest the type of analysis that must be made.
5.) They indicate the type of statistical measures, appropriate to various tests to be
conducted.
Example of hypothesis is based on a statement of the problem is:
There is no significant relationship between productivity and:
a. socio-economic status of aquaculturists;
b. level of educational technology;
c. level of intensification; and
d. farm size
Characteristics of a good hypothesis:
1.) It be should be reasonable in that they offshoots or results of critical thought tentative
judgment or explanation of phenomenon. They have been formulated with valid
basis.
2.) It should be testable in that use of statistical tools, it would be known whether there is
relationship or difference between two or more variables, or whether a variable has an
influence or effect on another.
3.) It should conform to the findings of previous studies. If a related study disclosed that
Filipinos in general favor pork tocino over fish tocino, it would be without any basis
to predict that Aklanos or Ilongos like eat fish tocino.

The Theoretical and the Conceptual Frameworks

The theoretical and the conceptual frameworks provide explicit explanations why the
problems under study exist by showing how the variables involved in the problem are related to
each other.
The theoretical framework makes use of theories in explaining why a certain
phenomenon, the subject of the study, occurred. Basically, a theory is a set of concepts and their
relations which explains, predicts and interprets how a particular phenomenon exists and
operates. The theoretical framework uses abstract concepts, although in some instance, it is a
combination of abstract and well-defined concepts, but more of the former. A research may adapt
existing theories on which to anchor or link his particular study. In cases where no applicable
theory exists, the researcher is compelled to formulate one. This task is facilitated by reviewing
related literature and studies.
The conceptual framework has the same function as the theoretical framework. The
difference lies in the types of concepts which they use. While the theoretical framework makes
use of abstract concepts, the conceptual framework utilizes specific or well-defined ones which
are called constructs. If the researcher has in his study theoretical as well as conceptual
framework, he should see to it that the conceptual level should have been devised from abstract
concepts given in the theoretical level. Some researchers, however, utilize either one of the two.
More often than not, researchers provide a schematic diagram of the relationship of the
variables mentioned in their theoretical or conceptual framework. Such pictorial illustration

14
makes the relations under study more vivid providing the researcher directions as basis data
analysis. The following illustrationis a conceptual paradigm.

Conceptual Paradigm

Fishery Education Aquaculture Industry

Production Characteristics
Instruction
Socio Economic Status of
Aqua culturists
Productivity
Level of Educational
Technology
Research
Level of Intensification

Farm Size Income for

Extension Services Aquaculture
Availment
Marketing
Number of years of
availment

Level of adoption
ofextension services
Distribution

The explanation of the paradigm:

This study was premised on the concept that productivity is influenced by production
characteristics such as socio- economic status of aquaculturists, level of educational technology,
level of intensification and farm size. Likewise, it theorized that productivity is influenced by
instruction and research in terms of the number of fishery graduates employed in the aquaculture
industry and the researches conducted by the student- trainees which are relevant to the need of
the community. It was theorized further that productivity is influenced by the adoption of
extension services as indicated by availment of extension services, number of years of availment
of extension service, and level of adoption of extension delivery service. Moreover, it was
hypothesized that income derived from aquaculture is dependent on the levels of productivity.

Assumptions

Assumptions are statements of facts related to the research problem which are presumed
to be true on the basis of observations and experience although not actually verified. They are
stated so as to provide foundation from which the study will proceed, and an additional basis for
validation of variables of interest to the study. As the term suggests, assumptions do not require
testing or confirmation.

Not all investigations, however, have a section on assumptions. This is so because, in

some assumptions are integrated in the introductory portion of the report where the researcher
discusses the background of the problem being investigated.
The following are examples of assumptions which investigators have used in their study:
1.) People have certain levels of acceptability toward the finished products.

15
 2.) There are several factors that contribute to fast growth and survival rates of fish in
ponds.
Example of assumption based on statement of the problem is: All respondents have
availed the fishery education progress in:
a. Instruction;
b. Research; and
c. Extension

Significance of the Study

It is this where the researcher expresses his persuasions about the value of the study so as
to get approval of the screening and approving committee and the support of the funding
institution. The researcher shall state the following significant contributions that his study will
make:
1.) Contribution to the accumulation of knowledge, or to filling up a knowledge gap;
2.) Contribution to building, validating or refining prevailing theories;
3.) Contribution to meeting a pressing need of a specific group like solving a problem
or improving certain conditions;
4.) Contribution to refining concepts, improving research instrumentation and
methodologies; and
5.) Contribution to meeting the concerns or priorities of funding institution like
improved income, health, interrelations, and the like
Scope and Limitations
Scope and limitations comprise one important section of a research report. The scope
defines the coverage or boundaries of the study in terms of the area or locality and subjects or
population covered the duration or period of the study, and the research issues or concerns to
which the investigation is focused.
The limitations are statements which alert the reader of the research report to certain
constraints over which the researcher has no control. Such factors or constraints have direct
bearings on the result of the study such that, without them, the study would be more
encompassing, definitive or conclusive. Stating the study limitations not only provides extra
credence to the study but provides the reader caution not expect beyond what the study can and
promises to deliver, notwithstanding certain constraints.
Examples: The study covers all the aquaculturists in the three (3) coastal municipalities
of the province of Sultan Kudarat. The study focused on the production characteristics as
described by socio- economic profile of the respondents level of educational technology, level of
intensification, and farm size; fishpond practices; productivity and income derived from the
aquaculture industry; marketing characteristics; channels of distribution; fishery education
programs; and relationship of productivity to characteristics; extension service programs and
income derived from the aquaculture industry (Scope).
The study would be more comprehensive, meaningful and far- reaching if it covers more
areas including other municipalities, which will provide basis for comparison. This, however,
would mean more time, money and manpower, which the researcher does not have.(
(Limitation).
Definition of Terms
This section facilitates understanding of the problem investigated for. The key concepts
are defined according to how they are used in a particular study.
There are two functions which the definition of terms serves as follows:
1.) It establishes the rules and procedures the investigator will use to measure variables.
2.) It provides unambiguous meaning to terms that otherwise can be interpreted in
different ways.
16
There are two major types of definitions:
1.) Conceptual definition. This is universal in that it is the meaning understood by
people. It is distract and most general in nature. The usual source of the
conceptual definition is the dictionary, which is the reference book of everyday
language.
2.) Operational definition. It is the meaning of the concept or term as used in a
particular study.
Unlike the conceptual definition, it is concentrate in that it is subject to measurement. The
usual practice when using both types of definition is to state first the conceptual, followed by the
operational.
Review Guide
1.) Be able to define the following terms:
a. research problem
b. hypothesis
c. assumptions
d. theoretical/ conceptual frameworks
e. conceptual paradigm
f. variableIn what way
g. scope and limitation
2.) In what ways can we say that a problem is a researchable one?
3.) What are the criteria useful in judging a research problem?
4.) What are the sources of a research problem?
5.) In what ways can we justify a research problem?
6.) What are the guidelines in formulating a statement of the problem?
7.) What are the two kinds of hypothesis? Differentiate each.
8.) What are the characteristics of a good hypothesis? What are its functions?
9.) What are major types of variables? Differentiate each.
How will you state your significance of your study?
10.) What are the two major types of definition? Differentiate each.
11.) Make your own research problem showing the following parts:
a. Introduction
b. Statement of the Problem
c. Hypothesis
d. Assumption
e. Theoretical/ Conceptual framework
f. Conceptual paradigm
g. Scope and Limitations of the study
h. Significance of the study
i. Definition of Terms
Chapter3 - Review of Related Literature

The review of related literature and studies is the major process that leads the research to past
theory. This includes the systematic identification, location, and analysis of documents
containing information related to the research problem.

The wordrelatedmeans the readings, literature and studies which have direct bearing or
relation to the present study.

Related readings -are laws and department directives such as circulars, orders, memoranda,
and others which are related to the present study.

Related literature -literature may be defined as “written works collectively, especially,

those of enduring importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill which are written
in a particular period, language, and subject. Any written materials such as book, journals,
magazines, novels, poetry, yearbook, and encyclopedia are considered as literature.

17
 Related Studies -are published and unpublished research studies that are sources of materials.
The research studies which have direct bearing to the present study are segregated into foreign
and local studies.

The following are reasons for making the review:

1. The review of related literature provides the researcher knowledge and background on the
subject under study. By reading what has been done in the past on the issue, he will come to
know what progress has been made in terms of human inquiry on said concern.

2. The review will enable the researcher to avoid duplicating or doing the study that was already
done before. Unless the researcher’s objective is to find out the change over time on the same
issue, it would be a waste of efforts, time and resources to do the same study.

3. If a study on the same topic has been conducted before, the review provides the researcher
information about the aspects of the problem which have not been investigated or explained
before. Knowledge on this will give him a basis for deciding what new problem to work on,
on the same subject.

4. By reviewing related literature, the researcher will be helped in developing various parts of his
study such as definition of problems and terms, research design, data techniques and
instrument, level and statistical tools for analysis, and form and style of report presentation.

5. The review provides the researcher insight on the weakness and problems of previous studies.
It will give him ideas on how to handle or avoid the same problems which he may encounter
in his own study.

6. It also provides the researcher ideas on how to proceed with his investigation. It will give him
guidance on how and where to start, who and what direction should be headed to.

7. In relational and explanatory study the review provides the researcher basis in determining
what variables are related with each other, the types of this relationship, and how to analyze
and measure these relationships.

8. The review provides findings and conclusions of past studies which the researcher may relate
in his own findings and conclusions.

9. Finally, studies reviewed will provide the researcher motivation and inputs that will ensure a
good progress toward the goal of completing his study.

Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. This is importance because of the rapid
social, economic, scientific and technological changes. Findings several years ago may be of
little value today because of the fast changing life style of the people.

2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or subtly
one sided, political or religious, etc. Comparison with these materials cannot be made
logically and validly. Distorted generalization may result.

3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some bearing or
similarity to the research problems at hand should be reviewed.

18
4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to
make them valid and reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied just to
complete a research report. Of course, this kind of deception is hard to detect and to prove.
Thus, this problem to honest researchers.

5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor too many. They must be sufficient enough to give
into the researcher or to indicate the nature of the present investigation.

Sources of Related Literature and Studies

The sources of related and studies may include the following:
1.) Books, encyclopedias, almanacs, and other similar references.
2.) Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals newspapers, and other
publications.
3.) Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters, and diaries.
4.) Unpublished thesis and dissertations.
5.) The constitution and laws and statutes of the land.
6.) Bulletins, circulars and orders emanating from government offices and departments,
especially from the office of the President of the Philippines and the DEPED.
7.) Records of schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities.
8.) Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.
9.) Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological, political,
etc. from the government and other entities.
Guides in Doing the Review
1. The investigator should examine what is already on hand what has been stored in his memory
and those available in his personal bibliography and library. This he should do so as to
segregate materials that are useful to the problem which he investigates.

2. The investigator should list all the titles of said materials and to add to it titles of relevant
references obtained from other sources.

3. The investigator examines each material. His first reading may be done superficially, that is,
without giving attention to details since the goal here is from to identify those sections,
paragraphs of lines of articles or books which related to his research topic or problem.

4. The investigator examines carefully and critically these parts of articles or books which have
bearing or connection to his particular study. As he does this, he makes notes all along so as to
accumulate those ideas pertinent to his topic

Approaches in Presenting the Review

The investigator has the option to choose from among the following approaches:

1. Chronological approach, in which the literature is presented according to the time they were
written, that is, following the time sequence pattern.

19
2. Findings or theme approach, wherein literature of similar findings or they are grouped
together.

3. Country approach, where literature are classified by country or site a specific country and into
foreign countries.

Review Guide

1. Be able to define the following terms:

a. Literature
b. Review of related literature
c. Chronological approach
d. Theme approach
e. Country approach
2. What are the reasons for making the review?
3. What are the characteristics of related literature and studies?
4. What are the sources of related literature and studies?
5. What are the guides in doing the review?
6. What are the approaches in presenting the review?

20
Chapter 4 - Footnotes and Bibliography
Taking Notes
Below are some pointers of note – taking procedures which have proven to be more
efficient.
1. Keep notes in a flexible form, so that they can be sorted out, arranged and re arranged as the
need arises. For the reason, it is inadvisable to write notes either on long sheets of paper or in
notebooks; instead, use index cards.
2. Use a uniform size of index cards. There are different sizes of index cards but the most
practical are the 4” x 6” ones which, besides being, or economical than the larger sized ones,
are also easier to handle.
3. Store your index cards in a portable case, preferably in a strong envelope with an elastic band
that can be secured around it.
4. When taking notes, use only one side of the card, this will have the advantage of a.) Enabling
you to “take in” the data contained in the note at one glance; b.) Helping you to avoid the
frustration of searching for a “lost” item of information – ( “I know that data is in here
somewhere but I just can’t find it ‘), only to discover when it is too late that the data was
jotted down on the revise side of the index card.
5. Write only one entry – items on information constituting a single point – per card, regardless
of whether the note is brief or not. You will be frequently tempted to cram several entries on
one card (especially when you are in a hurry or when you forget to bring along enough blank
cards). But don’t give in. As your note cards increase in number, it will become increasingly
difficult to retrieve a particular item of information, especially if it is “ tucked in” among a
mass of other items on the same note card.
If the notes you need to take cannot be contained on one side of the notecard, use another
notecard but take care to a) write down the source on second and subsequent cards, and b)
indicate that it is the continuation of the preceding note cards, and clip or staple the cards
together.
There are different types of notes to suit different purposes: (Aquino, 1979)
1.) Direct Quotation (Verbatim)
A Filipino educator gives the opinion that the two great stumbling blocks to educational
progress in this country today are poor teaching and ineffective supervision. He states: But… the
teacher cannot rise above the level of her supervisor. As the supervisor, is so is the teacher.”
The above example is a short direct quotation (that is, not over three typewritten in
length). The quoted material is enclosed in quotation marks and is run into the text.
2.) Indirect Quotation (Paraphrase)
The supervision of instruction is carried out in many ways, one of which is through
classroom visitation. Bent and McCan state that in order to aid a teacher, it is necessary that first
hand, information be gathered concerning her techniques of teaching and her problems, and that
to acquire this information, there is no substitute for classroom visits.
The above example is an indirect quotation (paraphrase). The exact words of the authors
are not used, but their ideas are; hence full credit is given to them for their ideas. It can be seen
that the direct quotation a paraphrase is not enclosed in quotation marks.
An ellipsis (three dots alternating with spaces) is used in the first sample. The sign of
ellipsis indicates omission of material a word, a phrase, or a clause- in the sentence.

21
 Quotations have 3 important purposes in thesis writing: (1) to convey information, (2) to
substantiate a point by presenting the thinking of those who hold the same or differing regarding
the point being made.

Footnotes
There are two kinds’ footnotes: content and reference. They serve fair purposes,
according to Campbell:
To amplify the ideas or information beyond the point deemed sufficient for the text.
1.) To establish the validity of evidence.
2.) To acknowledge indebtedness.
3.) To provide cross-reference to various parts of thesis.
The following standard footnote abbreviations, which are conveniently used in footnotes:
Ibid, Ibidem: in the same place. When two or more successive footnotes refer to the same
work, it is not necessary to repeat complete references for the second footnote. Ibid. may be
used. If different pages are referred to, pagination reference must be shown.
1.) loc. cit., loco citato: in the place cited: used as op. cit., when new reference is made to
the same pagination as cited in the previous note.
2.) op. cit., opera citato: in the work cited .If references has been made to a work and
new reference is to be made ,ibid., may be used, if intervening reference has been
made to different works. Op. cit., must be used. The name of the author must
proceed.
3.) ed., editor, edition, edited.
4.) et.al., and others.
Rules and Suggestion for Handling Footnotes.
The presence of a footnote is indeed by the use of a subscript numerical placed outside of
the punctuation marks. The numerals superscript character may be indicated in the manuscript by
a V drawn under it.
In table’s charts, where the use of numerals might be confusing, footnotes are indicated
by the use of letters, or symbols, such asterisks, daggers, and so forth.
The numeral indices may be consecutive for each page or a usage preferred by some writers- for
each chapter or article.
1.) It will avoid annoyance to the reader distraction or his attention if the reference
indices are placed at the ends of sentence whenever this can be done without
likelihood of confusion. The index always stands at the end of a quoted excerpt
2.) Footnote entries should contain information about the reference as follows:
A.) Books:
Guidance V. Aquino, Curriculum Development:Principles and
Techniques ( Quezon City: Alenar- Phaix Publishing Home, Inc.., 1971), 32.
B.) Magazines:
Jesus I. Martinez, “ Criteria for the Selection of Subjects for Master’s
Thesis on Directorial Examination”, PAGE journal, , II, I ( January-
June,1964), 34-41.
C.) Unpublished Materials:

22
 Gaudencio V. Aquino. “ An Analysis of the Contents and Use of BPS Form 178
by Elementary School Supervisors in the Division of Pangasinan”, Unpublished
Master’s Thesis. University of the Philippines, Quezon City, 1964. 42.

Bibliography
A bibliography lists the books, periodicals, and newspapers and documents used in the
preparation of a research papers.
A bibliography serves several functions:
1.) It enables the reader to verify the documentation provided in the paper.
2.) It provides the reader with a list of further readings on the subject.
3.) It enables the reader to estimate the probable value of the paper on the bases of the
range, up- todateness and reliability of the sources used, (the assumption here of
courses is that writer of the paper was intellectually honest enough to list down only
those sources which he actually read, not just “ looked into”).
Making Bibliography Cards
To make a bibliography card for text, list down or a 3” x 5” index card the following
bibliographical information:
a. Full name of author ( or editor, translator, or compiler, as the case may be)
b. Complete title ( and subtitle, if any)
c. Place of publication
d. publish
e. year of publication
f. ( in the case of a periodical or newspaper) inclusive pages of periodical or newspaper
g. Call number

Sample Bibliography Cards

A. Book

HN 980 H37Harrison, Paul. The Third World Tomorrow.

New York: Penguin Books, 1980

B. Article in a Periodical

Quezon, Mario and Morella, Cecil. “ communityBased Health

Programs: Struggling for Health as a Basic Human right”. The
Diliman Review, Jan. - Feb1983, pp 16-19.

Rules in Respect to Bibliography

23
 In general, authorities on research and thesis writing agree on the following rules in
respect to the bibliography:
1.) References are arranged in alphabetical order, the last name of the author listed first.
2.) Each entry is placed flush the left margin, of the page and subsequent lines are single-
spaced and identified five spaces.
3.) A double space separate entries.
4.) The bibliography may be divided into parts: a.) Books ; b.) Magazines c.) Unpublished
Materials.
5.) Bibliographic entries should contain factual information about the references, as follows:
A.) Books:
Aquino, Gaudencio V. u Curriculum Development: Principles and Techniques.
Quezon City: Alemanar-Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1971.
B.) Magazines:
Martirez, Jesus I. “Criteria for the Selection of Subjects for Master’s thesis or
Doctoral Examination.” PAGE Journal, II, I January- June, 1964), 43-41.
C.) Unpublished Materials:
Aquino, Gaudencio V. “An Analysis of the Contents and Use of B. P. S. Form
178 by Elementary School Supervisors in the Division of Pangasinan”.
Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of the Philippines, Quezon City,
1964.

Review Guide

1.) Be able to define the following terms:

a. Footnotes
b. Bibliography
c. Quotations
d. Ellipses
e. Bibliography cards
2.) What are the pointers of note- taking procedures?
3.) What are the different types of notes to be taken? Differentiate each.
4.) What are the two kinds of footnotes? Differentiate each.
5.) Give the purposes of footnotes.
6.) What are the standard footnotes abbreviations used in footnotes? Give examples.
7.) What are the rules and regulations for handling footnotes?
8.) What are the functions of bibliography?
9.) How do you make bibliography cards? Give examples.
10.) What are the rules in respect to bibliography?
11.) Be able to provide footnotes and bibliographical entries of your research proposal.
Chapter 5 - Research Design
Research Design

24
 The choice of a research method or design is one important decision that to be made in
any research undertaking. Failure to select the most appropriate design for a particular study will
bring to nothing all the preparations and other efforts for a quality research output.
Important Considerations in Selecting a Research Design
1.) Reliability - This refers to the consistency, stability or dependability of the data. A
research method that will give the same results, even if conducted twice, is reliable? It is
unreliable when used the second time, the research yields results different from those of
the first time.
2.) Validity -This refers to the data that are not only reliable but also true and accurate. In
another sense, it refers to the extent to which an instrument is to actually assess what it is
supposed to measure. Thus, in research one hears about valid instrument and valid
results.
3.) Usability – means the degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used
by teachers, researchers, supervisors and school managers without undue expenditure of
time, money and effort. In other words, usability means practicability.
Appropriates of the Research Design
Research design refers to a scheme, a plan of action for meeting the objectives of the
study. A number of research designs have been developed by researchers. Each design has its
own applicability depending on the problems and objectives of the study and several other
factors, like the investigators capability, resources and time. From the available research designs,
the researcher is to select which is appropriate and effective in attaining his study goals. This
implies that there is no best or versatile research design in the sense that is applicable to any
investigative study. The appropriateness of a research design will depend largely on which
method will help the investigator attain his research objectives.
Types of Research Design
There are four kinds of Research Design. These are;
1. Historical Design
This is a process of selecting the area on topic to write the history about, collecting data
about events that occurred in the area or about the topic, collecting the data, sifting the
authentic from non- authentic, and then making an interpretative narrative about or critical
inquiry into the whole truth of the events. It describes what occurred in the past and then makes
a critical inquiry into the truth of what was occurred.
History – a branch of knowledge concerned with past events, especially those involving
human affairs ( Funk and Wagnalls, 1976). Historical design - the study is focused in the past
(what was).
Historical research – is a systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events
using the critical method in the understanding and the interpretation of facts which are
applicable to current issues and problems.
Guidelines to Effective Writing of Historical Research
There are certain guidelines to an effective writing of historical research among which
are: (Good and Scates)
1.) Mastery of Materials - Effective modern historical writing shows evidence of
scholarship, research, and mastery of materials, presented without ostentation.
2.) Working Outline -A working outline shows the duration toward which the writing is
heading to. It gives continuity to the writing of the historical report.
3.) Progression - History moves forward, although it does not show in mechanical
fashion to the original condition, the action, and the results. In writing history, there

25
 must be logical sequences of events. The causes and their effects; the effects and their
causes must be given due emphasis. The why’s of events must be stressed.
4.) Emphasis on major elements - This frequently means that painstakingly gathered
data must be discarded to promote condensation and precision, and to prevent too
many details from crowding off the scene, the actors and events of the narrative.
5.) Art of narration - The concept of history is an art, however should not be pushed to
the point of filling in missing details through sheer play of the imagination, merely
for the sake of completeness and symmetry, as does the painter or the poet, therefore,
certain gaps or missing links may be a characteristic of authentic history.
6.) Dramatization, rhetoric and style - Historical writing should posses the
characteristics of good story. Dramatization and rhetoric are frequently overdone
when narrating the splendor of kings and the noise of battle in political and military
history.
Deficiencies in Historical Research
1.) A research area is selected in which sufficient evidence is not available to conduct a
worthwhile study or test the hypothesis
2. Excessive use of secondary sources of information is frequently found in studies not
dealing with the recent events.
3.) Attempts to work on a broad and poorly defined problem.
4.) Historical data are poorly and inadequately evaluated.
5.) Personal bias tends to influence the research procedures
6.) The facts are not synthesized or integrated into meaningful generalizations.
Characteristics of Historical Research
1.) Observations in historical research cannot be repeated in the same manner as in
laboratory experiments and descriptive surveys.
2.) The researcher must find satisfaction in spending vast amounts of time in the library
and in pursuing private details in relation to the topic under study.
3.) A historical project is usually conducted by one person.
4.) A hypothesis is not always necessary in historical research; inferences are made
more often from the bits of information gathered to produce the general description of
the events or the situation.
5.) The writing style of the written report tends to be more flexible because the research
wishes to present the facts and information in an interesting manner.
6.) The data are often ideas, concepts and opinions and hence, conclusions,
generalizations, and inferences become subjective. No two investigations reach the
same conclusions in a given instance.
Importance of Historical Research
Historical research is important due to the following:
1.) A study of the past makes people understand the present better, especially the factors
affecting the present.
2.) Historical information serves as a preliminary to reform. Mistakes of the past may be
avoided if we have knowledge of them.
3.) People become more open to change if they are well informed about the past, especially
about tragic events.
4.) People are motivated to respect the contributions of the people of the past to the present state
of things, especially those of heroes.
When to Use Historical Research

26
 Historical research may be utilized when it is desired to write a history of any of the
following:
1.) Any geographical area or place, say, a historical site, barangay, town, province,
region, or world for that matter.
2.) Any institution, say a school a club, or association, courtship and marriage or any
other custom, the army, Christmas, government, communism, Christianity ,etc.
3.) Any important historical event say, the battle of Bataan, Leyte landing, the Liberation
of Manila, all of which occurred during the occupation of the Philippines, by the
Japanese during the World War II, etc.
2. Descriptive Design
According to Manuel and Medel “descriptive research describes “what is”. It involves the
description, recording, analysis and interpretation of the present nature, composition or processes
of phenomena. The focus is on prevailing conditions, or how a person, group, or thing behaves or
functions in the present .It often involves some type of comparison or contrast.
Aquino defines descriptive research as fact- finding with adequate interpretation. It is
something more and beyond just data-gathering the latter is not reflecting thinking nor research.
The two meaning of the data collected should be reputed from the point of view of the objectives
and the basis assumption of the project under way. This factor logically after careful
classification of data. Facts obtained may be accurate expressions of central tendency, or
deviation, or of correlation; but the report is not research unless discussion of these data is not
carried up to adequate interpretation. Data must be subjected to the thinking process in terms of
ordered reasoning.
In order words, descriptive research may be defined as a purpose process of gathering,
analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs,
processes, trends and cause-effect relationships and then adequate and accurate interpretation
about such data with or without the aid of statistical methods

Types of Descriptive Research

1. Descriptive Survey – “this approach is appropriate wherever the object of any class vary
among themselves and one is interested in knowing the extent to which different condition
obtain among these objects.” (Good and Scates, 1972). The word survey signifies the
gathering of data regarding present conditions. A survey is useful in:(1) proving the value
of facts and (2) focusing attention on the most important things to be reported. In
descriptive survey, it is necessary to determine the psychological and social aspects of
research by the way of application or implementation of evidence to recognize between
facts and influence.
2. Descriptive Nomarative Survey – Good and Scates1972 stressed that “the term
nomarative is sometime used because survey are frequently made to ascertain the normal
or typical condition (or practice), or to compare local test results with a state or national
norm”. In other words, in the descriptive –nomarative survey, the result/findings of the
study should be compared with the norm.
3. Descriptive Status – this approach to problem – solving seeks to answer questions to real
facts relating to existing conditions. This is a technique of quantitative description which
determines the prevailing condition in a group of cases chosen for study. Several
descriptive –status studies stress current conditions with the assumption that things will
change. They cover many traits or characteristics of the group.
4. Descriptive Analysis – this method determines or describes the nature of an object by
separating it into its parts. Its purpose is to discover the nature of things. In Chemistry,

27
 descriptive analysis means the determination of the kind, quantity, and proportion of
constituents forming a compound or substances. It aims to discover the nature of things
5. Descriptive Classification – this method is employed in natural sciences subjects such as
Botany, Zoology, Biology, Ichthyology, Conchology and the like. The specimens
collected are classified from phylum to species.
6. Descriptive Evaluated – the design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current
study.
7. Descriptive Comparative – it is a “comparative survey where the researcher consider
atleast two entities (not manipulated) and establishes a formal procedure for obtaining the
criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the two is
better. ” (De Jesus et al., 1984)
8. Correlational Survey – this is designed to determine the relationship of two variable (x
and y) whether the relationship is perfect, very high, high, mark or moderate, slight or
negligible. Perfect positive correlation with the value of 1.0 is seldom happened.
9. Longitudinal Survey – this involve much time allotted for investigation of the same
subjects as two or more points in time.

3. Experimental Designs
Experimental research is a design in which “ an investigator manipulates and controls one
or more independent variables and observe the dependent variable or variables for variation
concomitant to the manipulation of the independent variables”, (Kerbiger). The distinguishing
mark of true experimental research is the control which the investigator has “over the
independent variable and over the assignment, of subjects to different conditions,” (Selling and
others). Experimental research has been considered by Travers as the most prestigious method of
advancing scientific knowledge. Gay and Ary and others believe that experimental research is
the only method of research which can truly test hypothesis concerning cause-and-effect
relationship.
The “ideal true experiment” study is best done in a laboratory setting where the
investigate has full control in manipulating study variables and in ruling out confounding ones. It
is, however, possible to conduct experimental research in the “real world” if the researcher has
enough control environmental factors of significance to the study.
The following are the more commonly used experimental designs in educational, social,
psychological, biological, or even the agro-industrial fields:
Types of Experimental Design
There are nine types of experimental Design applicable in Natural sciences and
education. These are:
1. Single Group Design – this design involves a single treatment with two or more levels.
Illustration
A researcher wishes to study the effect of deferent levels of nitrogen in the yield of
peanut. In this experimental study, nitrogen as a single treatment used in different levels as
fertilizer in planting peanut can be 60-30-30 (NPK); 90-30-30 (NPK); 120-30-30(NPK) and so
on. N stands for nitrogen, P for phosporosand K for potassium.
Another example, an investigator wants to determine the effectiveness of teaching
Mathematics using different methods. Single group of subjects is exposed to three different
method of teaching Mathematics. ANOVA (analysis of variance) is used to determine the
significant difference of the achievement of subjects. Table 4.1 shows a sample test result of
teaching Mathematics in three methods using the single group design.
Table 4.1. Teaching Mathematics in Three Methods to a group of Subject
28
 (Fictitious Data)
Subjects Method One Method Two Method Three
1 70 75 80
2 80 83 85
3 75 79 80
4 83 85 90
2 81 87 89
6 77 80 85
7 79 82 87
8 85 89 92
9 80 84 87
10 79 84 88
11 81 87 90
12 87 90 95
13 73 77 82
14 84 88 93
15 80 85 90

2. Two Group design – to comparable groups are employed as experimental and control
groups

Illustration
Suppose a researcher wishes to study the growth rates of grouper (lapu-lapu) cultured in fish
cage with and without supplement feeds. Grouper cultured in fish cage with supplemental feeds
constitutes the experimental group and the other one cultured in fish cage without supplemental
feed constitutes the control group.
The T-test is used to determine the significant difference in the mean weight of grouper
cultured in fish cage with and without supplemental feeds. Table 4.2 presents a sample of two
group design.

Table 4.2. Sample of two Group Design

Weights of Grouper Mean X
Control Group (w/out xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx X1
supplemental Feeds
Experimental Group xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx X2
(w/supplemental feeds)

3. Two – pair Group Design – this design is an elaboration of the two group design
wherein there are two experimental groups and two control groups.
Illustration
Suppose an investigator whishes to study the acceptability, nutritive values and economic of
canned milkfish (ChanoschanosForska) in a Salmon and Spanish style with anh without
Sargassumas sea vegetable. Canned milkfish in Spanish style and Salmon without Sargassum are
two control Groups and canned milkfish in Spanish and Salmon style with Sargassum as sea
vegetable are the two experimental groups. The ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is used to
determine the significant difference on the acceptability of canned milkfish with and without
Sargassum in Salmon and Spanish stlye. Table 4.4 below is the sample of two pair group design.

Table 4.4 Sample of Two Pair Group Design on Acceptability of Canned Milkfish in Salmon and
Spanish style with and without sargassum as sea vegetable.
Canned Milkfish
Control Group (w/out Sargassum) Experimental Group (w/ sargassum)
Panelist Salmon Style Spanish Style Salmon Style Spanish Style
1 X X X X
2 X X X X
3 X X X X
4 X X X X

29
 5 X X X X
6 X X X X
7 X X X X
8 X X X X
9 X X X X
10 X X X X
4. Parallel Group Design – this is a design in which two or more are used at the same time
with only one single variable (control group) manipulated or change. The experimental
group varies while the parallel group serves as control for comparative purposes.
Illustration
For instance, a researcherwishes to determine the acceptability of canned short-bodied
mackerel (RastrelligerbrachyosomusBleeker) in salmon style with and without seaweeds as sea
vegetables. The control group is canned mackerel in salmon style without seaweed and has two
experimental groups, namely canned mackerel with sargassumand canned mackerel with
halymenia. All things are held constant except the experimental groups that have an addition of
seaweeds or sea vegetables. The ANOVA is used to determine the significance difference on the
acceptability of canned mackerel in salmon style with and without seaweeds. Table 4.6 presents
a sample of parallel group design on the acceptability of canned mackerel
(RastrelligerbrachyosomusBleeker) with and without seaweeds.

Table 4.6 Sample Of Parallel Group Design On The Acceptability Of Canned Mackerel
(RastrelligerBrachyosomusBleeker) With And Without Seaweeds.
Canned Mackerel (R. brachyosomus)
Panelist Control Group (w/out Experimental Group (with seaweeds
seaweeds) Sargassum Halymenia)
1 X X X
2 X X X
3 X X X
4 X X X
5 X X X
6 X X X
7 X X X
8 X X X
9 X X X
10 X X X

5. Pretest-Posttest Group Design – this design involves the experimental group and the
control group which are carefully selected through randomization procedure. Both groups
are given pretest at the beginning of the semester and posttest at the end of the semester.
But the control grou is isolated from all experimental influences.

Illustration
Suppose a researcher wishes to find out the effect of traditional and modern methods of
teaching Physics. He takes two groups which are carefully chosen through randomization
procedures. The control will undergo the traditional method of teaching Physics and the
experimental groups are given pretest at the beginning of the semester and posttest at the end of
the semester. The mean scores of the pretest and posttest of the control and experimental groups
are evaluated using the t-test. If the result show significance difference, this mean that the control
and experimental groups really differ from each other where one is better than the other. On the
other hand, if no significance difference exists, this means that both the control and experimental
groups are almost the same. Table 4.8 presentsthe sample of pretest-posttest group design on the
effect of teaching physics using traditional and modern methods.

Table 4.8 Sample Of Pretest-Posttest Group Design On The Effect Of Teaching Physics Using
30
 Traditional And Modern Methods
Pretest Posttest
X1 X2
Control group (Traditional) x x
Experimental Group (Modern) x x

6. Counterbalanced or Latin Square Design – this design is so called “rotation design”. It

involves an exchange of two or more treatments taken by the subjects during the
experiment. The arrangement employed in this design is Latin Square in which each
variable is a form of square occurring once in each row or column. This is also called
quasi-experimental design.
Illustration
A researcher wishes to determine the effectiveness of the four methods of teaching
Mathematics taught by four instructors to four groups of subjects. Each instructor is required
to use each method of instruction. The first treatment combination consists of M1 I1 S1 where
M stands for the method; I, instructors; and S, subject. The second combination is M1I2S2 and
so on. It will be noted that “S4” is the diagonal of the square and appears in each position
from the first method to the fourth method. ANOVA is use to determine the effectiveness of
the 4 methods of teaching Mathematics taught by 4 instructors. Table 4.9 presents the sample
of counterbalanced or Latin square design in teaching Mathematics using four methods
taught by four instructors.

Table 4.9 Sample of Counterbalanced or Latin Square Design in Teaching Mathematics

Using Four Methods Taught By Four Instructors

7. Complete Randomized Design (CRD) – this is a design in which a group of test plants
or animals is studied only once but subsequent treatment is applied to determine the cause
of change. There is no control in this design but subjects will undergo randomization
procedure.
Illustration
An investigator wishes to determine if there is a significance difference in the treatment
of pellets as supplemental feed upon the yield of prawn (sugpo) cultured in the fishpond. He
uses 300 pieces of prawn fry and three compartments in
the pond. The 300pieces of I1 I2 I3 I4
prawn fry are placed at random.
M1 S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4
Of the 300 prawn fry, 100 pieces are placed in each
M2 S 2 S 3 S 4 S 1
compartment. The weight of the prawn in each
M3 S 3 S 4 S 1 S 2
compartment should be M4 S 4 S 1 S 2 S 3 observed equally and
ecological parameter such as pH, salinity, oxygen, etc.,
should be taken into consideration. Different levels or proportion of pellets are applied
supplemental feed in each compartment.

8. Randomized Complete Block Design – this experimental design uses a group of test
plants and animals as subject of the study which are studied once but subsequent
treatments applied are replicated to determine the cause of change.There is no control in
this design but subjects will undergo randomization procedure.
Illustration
Suppose the researcher wishes to determine the effectiveness of cultivating milkfish in
the fishpond using fish meal, bread meal, and ipil-ipil leaves as supplemental feeds. There
31
 are four groups in this experimental study treated with different feeds. These are as follows:
(1) First treatment, control group, lab-lab only as natural food for milkfish; (2) Second
treatment, first experimental group, lab-lab and fish meal; (3) Third treatment, second
experimental group, lab-lab and bread meal; (4) Fourth treatment, third experimental group,
lab-lab and ipil-ipil leaves.
Each group is replicated three times. In other word, there are 3 compartments for the
control groups or first treatment (T1); 3 compartments for the second experimental group or
third treatment (T3) and three for the third experimental group or third treatment (T4). A total
of 12 compartments in all are under study. Table 4.11shows the RCBD sample of cultivating
milkfish in the fishpond using fish meal, bread meal, and ipil-ipil leaves as supplemental
feeds.

Table 4.11RCBD sample of cultivating milkfish in the fishpond using fish meal, bread meal,
and ipil-ipil leaves as supplemental feeds
Treatment Replications
T1 x x x
T2 x x x
T3 x x x
T4 x x x

9. Correlational Design – this experimental design is used to determine the relationship of

two variables (X and Y) on how they are manipulated by the independent variable.
Illustration
For instance, the researcher wishes to determine the weight and length relationship of
grouper cultured in a concrete tank using fish meal as supplemental feed. Fish meal is the
independent variable and weight (x) and length (Y) of grouper are the dependent variables. In
other words, the weight (X) and length (Y) of fish are dependent on feed used. Figure 4.2
presents the independent variable of Correlational design.

Figure 4.2. Independent and Dependent Variables of Correlational Design

Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Supplemental feed Weigth (X)
(Fish meal) Length (Y)

The correlation coefficientis the statistical tool used to determine the weight and length
relationship of grouper. If the significant relationship is very high and high relationship occur on
the X and Y, this means that the heavier the weight, the longer the fish and the lighter the weight,
the shorter the length. If no relationship exist, this mean that the heavier the weight the shorter
the length and the lighter the weight the longer the length of fish.

On the other hand, correlation coefficientis applicable statistical tool to both descriptive
and experimental designs.

4. Case Study
This is the appropriate design to use when the aim of the study is to have adeeper, more
thorough and more comprehensive undertaking of an individual or group. It is also useful when
the investigator wishes to know / capture the processes which explain the characteristics and
behavior of a person, group or institution under investigation.
In using a case study as an approach or method for a research project, the research has to
discover and verify all the important variables that have contributed to the development of the
case investigated into what it is at the time of study. This would involve a historical study of its

32
past, determining its present condition and knowing the environmental factors which individually
and collectively effect its development or growth.
The advantage of the case study over other research design is the opportunity it allows to
study in depth what interests the researcher. It also permits understanding certain processes
which other designs cannot capture in a one-shot survey or observation. Its advantage lies in its
“lack of breadth”, meaning, the investigator is limited to the study of one or few cases, the
finding of which cannot be generalized to the population from which those cases were
purposely drawn.
The Cycle of Case Study

Good and Scates (1972) presents the following steps as cycle of case study:

1. Recognition and determination of the status the phenomenon to be investigated.

2. Collection of data related to the factors or circumstances associated with the given
phenomenon.
3. Diagnosis or identification of casual factors as a basis for remedial or development
treatment.
4. Application of remedial or adjustment measures.
5. Subsequent follow up to determine the effectiveness of the corrective or developmental
measures applied.

Review Guide
1. Be able to define the following terms:
a. Research design
b. Reliability
c. Validity
d. Historical method of research
e. Descriptive method of research
f. Experimental method of research
g. Complete randomized design
h. Randomized complete block design
i. Latin square design
2. What are the important considerations in selecting a research design?
3. What are the threats to validity, Explain each.
4. What are the different types of research designs? Be able to differentiate each design.
5. What are the different forms of descriptive research? Explicate each.
6. What are the different experimental design under the single-factor and double factor?
Explain each.
7. Be able to present your own research. Why did you choose that design?
Chapter 6 - Qualities of a Good Research Instrument

The qualities of good research instrument are (1) validity (2) reliability and (3) usability.
1. Validity
Validity means the degree to which a test or measuring instrument measures what it
intends to measure. The validity of a measuring instrument has to do with soundness, what the
test or questionnaire measure its effectiveness, how well it could be applied.

Types of Validity
1. Content Validity – the extent to which the content or topic of the test is truly representative of
the content of the course. It involves, essentially, the systematic examination of the test content
to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to be measured.
It is described by relevance of a test to different types of criteria, such as thorough
judgment and systematic examination of relevant course syllabi and text book, pooled judgments
of subject matter experts, statement of behavioral objectives, analysis of researcher-made test
questions among others. Thus, content validity depends on the relevance of the individual’s

33
responses to the behavior area under consideration rather on the apparent relevance of item
content.
2.Concurrent Validity- is the degree to which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set as
acceptable measure. The criterion is always available at the time of testing. It is applicable to
tests employed for the diagnosis of existing status rather than for the prediction of future
outcome.
3.Predictive Validity – as described by Aquino and Garcia (1974), is determined by showing
how well predictions made from the test are confirmed by evidence gathered at some subsequent
time. The criterion measure against this type of validity is important because the outcome of the
subjects is predicted.
4.Construct Validity – the construct validity of a test is the extent to which the test measures a
theoretical construct or trait. This involves such tests as those of understanding, appreciation and
interpretation of data. Examples are intelligence and mechanical aptitude tests.

Threats to Validity

The validity of research results can be maximized by selecting a research design which is
not susceptible or subject to factors which can invalidate the study. While there are several
threats to validity, only most common ones are presented below. (Andales, 1992)

1. History. This factor refers to events which happen during the life of a project or study.
These events are not part of the study or these anticipated by the researcher. The procedure
affects that influence the outcomes of the study, either increasing or decreasing expected
results.
2. Selection.This factor occurs when subjects of the study are chosen not only by individuals
but by groups. If two groups are selected for comparison purposes, it could be that difference
between the groups, after one group has been exposed to an intervention, is not due to the
intervention but to the difference in their characteristics such as sex, age and education,
which were not considered during the selection process.
3. Testing. This factor refers to the protest given which results in improved performance in a
post test. People who are given a pretest are likely to remember some of the questions and
some of the errors they made they took the test. Thus, the likelihood of doing better on the
post test than on the pretest. One way to control this is by not giving a pretest. Another
measure is to use an alternate form of instrument.
4. Instrumentation . This factor refers to unreliability or lack of consistency in measuring
instruments which may result in an invalid assessment of performance. The change in the
instrument between the pretest and post test is likely to result in an effect not caused by an
intervention introduced.
5. Maturation. This factor refers to the changes – physiological and psychological in which
happen to the subjects involved in a study conducted over a period of time. In a training
program which lasts for a long period of time, it is likely that participants will experience
tiredness, hunger, or boredom. Any or all of these will affect the performance of the trainees
when measured at the ends of the training.
6. Mortality. This factor refers to loss of cases or subjects during the posttest stage of the
study. This is often true when the same group of people is the studied over a period of time.
By the time a follow –up study is made on the group, some members may have dropped out,
are nowhere to be found, or refuse to cooperate further in the study. If the members who
cannot be contacts are quite different from those who are available, there is likelihood to
have a great difference between the results of the first and the second studies. The difference
may be due to the lost case rather than to the effect to an intervention.

34
2. Reliability
Reliability means the extent to which a “test is dependable, self consistent and stable.”
(Merriam, 1975) In other words, the test agrees with itself. It is concerned with the consistency
of responses from moment to moment. Even if a person takes the same test twice, the test yields
the same result. However, a reliable test may not always be valid.

Methods in Testing the Reliability of Good Research Instrument

1. Test-retest method – the same research instrument is administered twice to the same group
of subject and the correlation coefficient is determined. The limitation of this method are;
(1) when the time interval is short, the subject may recall his previous responses and this
tends to make the correlation coefficient high; (2) when the time interval is long. Such
factors as unlearning, forgetting, among others, may occur and may result in low correlation
of the test; and (3) regardless of the time interval separating two administration, other
varying environmental conditions such as noise, temperature, lightning and other factors
may affect the correlation coefficient of the research instrument.
A Spearman rank correlation of Coefficient of Spearman rho is a statistic used to measure
the relationship between paired ranks assigned to individual scores on two variables. Thus,
this is used to correlate the scores in a test-retest method. To obtain the value of Spearman
rho (rs) consider this formula:
6∑ D2
rs= 1 -
N3- N

where rs = Spearman rho

∑ D2= sum of the squared differences between ranks
N = Total number of cases

To apply the foregoing formula (5.1), the steps are as follows:

Step 1. Rank the scores of subjects from the highest to the lowest in the first set of
administration (X), and mark these ranks as Rx. The highest score receive the rank of 1;
the second the highest, 2; third highest, 3 and so on.
Step 2.Rank the second set of scores (Y) in the same manner as in step 1 and mark asRy.
Step 3.Determine the difference in ranks for every pair of ranks.
Step 4.Square each difference to get D2.
Step 5.Sum the square difference to find ∑D2.
Step 6.Compute Spearman rho (rs) by applying the formula (5.1)
For example, fourteen respondents are used as pilot sample to test the reliability of an
achievement test in Biology. Table 5.1 shows respondents scores and reliability coefficient in
two administrations using the Spearman rho. These fourteen respondents are not subjects of the
Study.
Table 5.1. Spearman rho Computation of the first and second administration and achievement
test in biology.
Respondents X Y Rx Ry D D2
1 90 70 2.0 7.5 -5.5 30.25
2 43 31 13.0 12.5 0.5 0.25
3 84 79 6.5 3.0 3.5 12.25
4 86 70 4.5 7.5 -3.0 9.00
5 55 43 11.0 10.5 0.5 0.25
6 77 70 8.5 7.5 1.0 1.00
7 84 75 6.5 4.0 2.0 4.0
8 91 88 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.00
9 40 31 14.0 12.5 1.5 2.25
10 75 70 10.0 7.5 2.5 6.25
35
 11 86 80 4.5 2.0 2.5 6.25
12 89 75 3.0 4.5 -1.5 2.25
13 48 30 12.0 14.0 -2.0 4.0
14 77 43 8.5 10.5 -2.0 4.0
Total ∑D = 82.00
2

6∑ D2
rs= 1 – 3
N -N
6 (82)
= 1-
143- 14
rs= 0.82 (High Relationship)
2. Parallel – Forms Method – Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be administered to
the group of subjects, and the paired observations correlated to the group of subjects, and
the paired observations correlated. “In estimating reliability by the administration of
parallel or equivalent forms of a test, criteria parallelism is require.” (Ferguson and Takane,
1989). The two forms of the test must be constructed so that the content, type of item,
difficulty, instruction for administration and many others, are similar but not identical.
3. Spilt Half Method – the test in this method may be administered once, but the test items
are divided into two halves. The common procedure is to divide into two halves a test into
odd and even items. The two halves of the test must be similar but not identical in content,
number of items, difficulty, means and standard deviations. Each student obtains two
scores, one on the odd and other on the even items in the same test. The scores obtained in
the two halves are correlated. The result is a reliability coefficient for half test. Since the
reliability coefficient for a whole test may be estimated by using the Spearman-Brown
formula.
this formula is:
2 (rht)
rwt=
1 + rht

Where: rwt - the reliabiltyof the whole experiment

rht – reliability of a half test.
4.Internal – consistency Method – this method is used with physiological tests which consist
of dichotomously scored items. The examinee either passes in an item. A rating of one (1) is
assigned for a passes and for 0 (zero a failure. The method of obtaining the reliability
coefficient in this method is determined by Kuder-Richardson. Formula 20. This formula
measure of internal consistency or homogeneity of measuring instrument. The formula is:

rxx =
N SD2 -p∑iqi
N–1 SD2
∑ (X - X)
Where N is the number of items; SD2is the variance of scores on test as test defined as ( N- 1 )
; andpiqiis the product of proportion passing or failing in item i.
The proportion of individuals passing item i is denoted by the symbol pi, and the
proportion failing, by qi, where qi = 1 = pi. If all items are perfectly corrected, a situation which
can only arise when all have the same difficulty, rxx = 1.0.
The steps in applying the Kuder-Richardson formula 20 are as follows;

Step 1. Compute the variance (SD2) of the test scores for the whole group.
Step 2. Find the proportion passing each item (pi) and proportion failing each item (qi).

36
Step 3. Multiply piandqi for each item, i.e., 0.86 x0.14 = 0.1204; and sum for all items this gives
the ∑piqivalue.
Step 4. Substitute the calculated values in formula 5.3

For illustration purposes, consider the following example; suppose a test of 10 items has been
administered to a group of fourteen subjects. Table 5.3 shows the computation of Kuder-
Richardson formula 20.

Table 5.3.Computation of Kuder-Richardson Formula 20.

Students
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 f pi qi pi qi
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 12 0.86 0.14 0.1204
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 12 0.86 0.14 0.1204
3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 11 0.79 0.12 0.1659
4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 0.71 0.28 0.1988
5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 0.71 0.28 0.1988
6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 0.71 0.28 0.1988
7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 9 0.64 0.36 0.2304
8 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 8 0.57 0.43 0.2451
9 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0.57 0.43 0.2451
10 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 0.29 0.71 0.2059
total 7 9 10 9 9 10 0 9 10 6 4 2 0 0 1.9296

Variance (SD2) Computation

Student X (X-X) (X-X) 2

1 7 0.29 0.0841
2 9 2.29 5.2441
3 10 3.29 10.8241
4 9 2.29 5.2441
5 9 2.29 5.2441
6 10 3.29 10.8241
7 9 2.29 5.2441
8 9 2.29 5.2441
9 10 3.29 10.8241
10 6 0.71 0.5041
11 4 2.71 7.3441
12 2 4.71 22.1841
13 0 0.00 0.0000
14 0 0.00 0.0000
Total 94 88.8092

∑X ∑(X−X)2
X= SD2=
N N−1
94 88.8093
= =
14 14−1

37
 = 6.71 SD2= 6.83

Kuder – Richardson Formula 20 Computation

rxx =
N SD2 -p∑iqi N = 10 items
N–1 SD2 SD2 = 6.83
∑piqi = 1.9296
rxx =
10 6.83 –1.9296
10 – 1 6.83
4.9004
= 1.11
6.83
= 1.11 (0.7174819)
= 0.796 or 0.80 high relationship
The reliability coeffecient (rxx) value obtained is 0.80, which means that the test is
reliable. Moreover it can be gleaned that responses of subjects on table 3.5 are internally
consistent where students 13 and 14 failed the easiest item (item 1) with a difficulty value of 86
percent and failed the rest of the items. On the other hand, student 2,4,5,7 and 8 past the items 1
to 9 but failed the most difficult item (item 10) with a dificulty value of 0.29 or 29 percent.
According to Ferguson and Takane (1989), “if an individual obtains a passing score on the easier
items of the test and fails in more difficult ones, his performance contains no inconsistencies. If
all the individuals taking a test obtain their scores in this way, and no inconsistencies are present
in the response pattern, the response may be spoken of as an internally consistent pattern”.
Interpretation of Correlation Coeffecient Value
To interpret the correlation coeffecient value (r) obtained, the following classification
may be applied:
An rfrom 0.00 to + 0.20 denotes negligible correlation
An r from + 0.21 to + 0.40 denotes low or slight correlation
An r from + 0.41 to + 0.70 denotes mark or moderate relationship
An r from + 0.71 to + 0.90 denotes high relationship
An r from + 0.91 to + 0.99 denotes very hogh correlation
An r from + 1.00 denotes perfect correlation
3. Usability
Usability means the degree to which the researcher instrument can be satisfactorily used
by teachers, researchers, supervisors, and school managers without undue expenditures of time,
money, and effort. In other words usability means practicability.

Factors that Determine Usability

There are five factors that determine usability, namely; (1) ease of administration, (2)
ease of scoring, (3) ease of interpretation and application, (4) low cost, and (5) proper
mechanical make up.
1. Ease of Administration- instruction should be complete and precise. As a rule, group test are
easier to administer than idividual tests. The former is easier to administer because direction
are only given once and the instrument is simultaneously administered, to a group of students,
thus saving time and energy on the part of the examiner or researcher.
2. Ease of scoring –ease of scoring a research instrument depends upon the following aspects:
2.1 construction of the test in the objective type;
2.2 answer key are adequately prepared; and
2.3 scoring directions are fully understood.
3. Ease of interpretation and Application– result of the test are easy tointerpret and apply if
tables are provided. All scores must be given meaning from the neccesity of computation. As

38
 a rule, norms should be based bothon age and year level, as in the case of school achievement
test. It is also desirable if all achievement tests should be provided with separate norms for
rural and urban subjects as well as for learners of various degrees of mental abilities.
4. Low cost – it is more practical if the test is low cost. materials wise. It is more economical
also if the research instrument is of low cost and can be reused by future researcher.
5. Paper mechanical make-up – a good researchinstrument should be printed clearly in an
appropriate size for grade or year level for which the instrument is intended. Careful attention
should be given to the quality of pictures and illustration on the lower grade subjects of the
study.

CHAPTER 7 - SAMPLING DESIGNS

Sampling is defined as measuring a small of portion of something and then making a
general statement about the whole thing (Calderon and Gonzales). For instance, one is buying
mangoes. He picks up one mango from a crate of mangoes and tastes it. If the mango is sweet,
then he concludes and says that the mangoes in the crate are sweet although he tested only on
one mango.

Advantages of Sampling
1. Sampling makes possible the study of a large, heterogeneous population.
2. Sampling is for economy.
3. Sampling is for speed.
4. Sampling is for accuracy.
5. Sampling saves the sources of data from being all consumed.
Limitaton of Sampling
1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed subclassificaton because of smal
number of subjects.
2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the result may be misleading.
3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the result
could be erroneous.
4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely on population, e.g., teachers over 30
years of teaching experience.
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare
Planning a Sample Survey
1. State the objective of the survey.
2. Define the population.
3. Select the sampling individual.
4. Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the sample.
5. Decide the sampling design to be used.
6. Determine the sample size.
7. Select the method in estimating the reliability of the sample either test-retest, split half,
parallel forms or internal consistency.
8. Test the reliability of the sample in a pilo institution
9. Interpret the reliability of the sample.

Guidelines for determining Adequate Sampling

1. When the universe or population is more or less homogeneous and only the typical,
normal, or average is desired to known, a smaller sample is enough. However, if
deference is desired to known, a larger sample is needed.

39
 2. When the universe or population is more or less homogeneous and only the typical,
normal, or average is desired to known, a larger sample is needed. However, if their only
differences are desired to be known, a smaller sample is sufficient.
3. The size of the sample varies universally as the size of the population. A larger
proportion is required of a smaller population and a smaller proportion may be for a
bigger population. For a population of 5,000, a sample of 10% may be but for a
population of 500, a proportion of 30% may be required.
4. For a greater accuracy and reliability of results.

Steps In Computing The Size Of The Sample

1. Determine the size of the study population. This is easily determined from the scope and
delimitation of the study.
2. Decides on the margins of error. As much as possible the margin of error should not be
higher than 5%. Probably 3% is an ideal one.
3. Use the formula n= N (Pegaso, et.al.) in which
1 + Ne2
n = the size of the sample
N = the size of the population
e = margin of error
4. If the sampling of the multistage or if the population is stratified, compute the samples
proportion (percent) by dividing the result in step no.3 by the population.
5. Multiply the number of sampling units in each final sampling stratum by the rate
(percent) to find the sample from each final sampling stratum.
6. Add the samples from all the final sampling strata to find the total sample.
Example: Suppose an investigation of the teaching of science in the high school of the
region is to be conducted., in to which science teachers are to be made respondents, there
are 2243 teachers handling biological sciences,1406 handling chemical sciences, and 992
teachers handling physical sciences, a total of 4641 teachers.

The sampling procedure follows:

1. The population is 4, 641.

2. The margin of error to be use is 3%
3. Using the formula

n= 4,641
1 + 4641 (.03) 2

= ___4641_______
1 + 4641 (.009)

= ___4641______
1 + 4.1769

= __46414____
5.1769

= 896.4825 (this may not be rounded to 900 for convenience) this is the
sample
4. The teachers are group into three categories according to the branch of science
they are handling, so we used stratified sampling.
40
 Sample proportion (%) = n = 900 = .1939
N 4641

.1939 may be rounded off .20 or 20% for convenience of computation.

5. And 6.
____________________________________________________________________
Teachers Handling : Number : % : Sample
Biological Sciences 2243 20 449
Chemical Sciences 1405 20 281
Physical Sciences 992 20 198
Total 4641 928
The total sample is 928.

Sampling Concepts and Terminology

Sampling is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population (Andales).
Population refers to the entire group or set of individuals or items which is the focus of an
investigation. It is also called universe. A population is further distinguished by its role in the
study, thus; the following types:
a. Topic population- may be people, thing, plants and animals. It is the group or set about
which the generalization will be made.
b. Respondent population - refers to a group or set of individuals who furnish the needed
information on which the generalization is based.
c. Target population- refers to the group or set of individuals or items from which or about
which representative information is originally desired.
Sample refers to a subset or position of the population on which is based the statement or
generalization about the population from which it is drawn.
Sampling unit is one of several other similar units which can be selected at any stage in
the sampling process. It may be an individual or a group of persons or items.
Sampling frame refers to an orderly and complete list of sampling units from which the
sample is drawn.
Sampling design refers to scheme of arriving at the sample which involves specification
of the target, the respondent population and the method of selecting them.
Parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population. The mean
income of all the families of a city is a parameter.
Statistics is the summary description of a given variable in a sample. Thus the mean
income computed from a sample and the age distribution of that sample is statistics.
Sampling error is the degree of error of a sample statistics when compared with the
population parameter. For instance if the population mean is 80 and sample mean is 40, the
sampling error is 40. The acceptable maximum sampling error is 5%.
Representative Sampling
A sample will be representative of the population from which it is selected if the
aggregate characteristics of the sample closely appropriate these same aggregate characteristics
in the population. Put in another way, a sample will be representative of the population from
which it is selected if all numbers of the population have an equal chance of being selected in the
41
sample. This means that all characteristics (differentiated groups or classes in the population),
must be proportionally represented. If there are 50% women in the study population, there must
be also 50% women in the sample. Suppose study population is 100, 60 of whom are women and
40 are men. If the sample is 20% of the population, then there should be 12 women and 8 men in
the sample.

Confidence Level
Is the degree of confidence that a sample statistic will accurately fall within a certain or
specified interval from the population parameter. The interval, called the confidence interval, is
the range within which the sample statistics should fall. The interval is expressed as plus and
minus the sample statistic suppose the sample mean is 75 and the confidence interval is plus or
minus 8, and the level of confidence is 95%. Then we say that we are 95% confident what the
population means falls within plus or minus 8 to or from 75. Hence, the confidence interval on
range is from 67 to 83. (75-8-67 and 75+8-83).

General Types of Sampling (Calderon and Gonzales)

There are two types of sampling, namely; (1)Probability Sampling, and (2)Non- Probability
Sampling
1.Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, the sample is a proportion (a certain percent) of the population
and such sample is selected from the population by means of some systematic way in which
every element of the population has a chance of being validated in the sample.

Types of Probability Sampling

1. Pure Random Sampling - One in which anyone in the population of the inquiry has an equal
chance of being selected to be included in the sample. This is also called the lottery or raffle type
of sampling. This may be used if the population has no differentiated levels, section, or classes.
A certain percent of the population is to be selected. This is decided upon beforehand.
Suppose there are 200 persons in the population and 20 percent is proportion to be chosen.
Hence, 20 percent of 200 equal 40. The names of all the 200 persons are each written each on a
piece of papers or if they are given numbers only their numbers are written. The pieces of papers
are then placed in a container convenient for the purpose, say a box. The pieces of paper which
are usually rolled for secrecy are mixed thoroughly and the 40 pieces are drawn by chance. More
whose names or numbers are drawn are included in the sample.
The main advantage of this technique of sampling is that, it is easy to understand and it is
easy to apply too. The main disadvantage is that, it is hard to use with too large on population
because of the difficulty encountered in writing the names of the persons involved. However, this
problem may be affect by the use of a table of random numbers. The use of a table of random
numbers is explained in good statistical books.
Pure random sampling is also called unrestricted random sampling, which means that
every individual in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to be included in the
sample.
2.Systematic Sampling - A technique of sampling in which every nth name in a list may be
selected to be included in a sample. This is used when the subjects or respondents in the study
are arranged in some systematic or logical manner such as alphabetical arrangement, residential
or house arrays, geographical placement from north to south, etc.

42
 The procedure follows: Suppose 20% of the population is the sample size. If 100% is
divided by 20%, the answer is 5. Hence, every fifth name in the list or array is selected.
However, there must be a random start. The researcher may close his eyes and run his finger
down the list and then stop. The number which his finger points to at this particular time is the
random start number. Suppose the number is 13. This is the first selection. The succeeding
numbers to be selected are found by adding 5 to its predecessor. So the next number to be
selected is 18 (13+5), the next is 23 (18+5), the next number is 28 (23+5), etc.
The main advantage of this technique of sampling is that, it is more convenient, faster
and more economical than the pure random sampling. The main disadvantage is that the sample
becomes biased if the persons in the list belong to a clan by themselves whereas the investigation
requires that all sectors of the population are to be included. Suppose the inquiry is about
agrarian reform and the investigator selected his respondents from a list of landowners or land
tax payers obtained from the Land Tax Office in town. Naturally, the people are against land
reform, unless the researcher wants to find out how many of the tax payers are in favor of
agrarian reform.
The systematic random sampling is a restricted random sampling because there are
certain restrictions imposed upon it.
3. Stratified random sampling - The process of selecting randomly, samples from the different
strata of the population used in the study. Thus, this is used when the population of the inquiry
has class stratifications or groupings either horizontally or vertically. Examples of horizontal
stratifications are sections in the same school grade or year such as section 1, etc., sex such as
males and females, college course such as AB, BSF, BSFED, etc. examples of vertical
stratifications are age such as y, 8, 9, 10 years old, grades in school such as Grade 1, Grade 2,
etc., economic status such as poor, average, rich, etc.
The procedure follows: determine a common stratum or class to which all the elements of
the population belong. Then divide or group the elements of the population according to the
characteristics inherent in the whole class or stratum that sake the elements of the population
different from one another. For example the respondents to a study are college students. The
common class stratum that all of them belong to its college or college studies. The characteristics
that made them different from one another are the causes they are taking, such as BEED, BSED,
BSN, etc. other characteristics are their curricular years, such as first, second, third, or fourth
year. Other factor is sex; still another is age. After stratification has been completed, apply either
the pure random or systematic random sampling in the astral selection of the sample in every
section or stratum and the selection must be proportional, that is, the same percent is used in
every section or class irrespective of the number in each section or class.
Suppose the students of a college are respondents in a study. The students are stratified
according to the courses they are taking, their sex, and the curricular years they are in. The
sample of 20% is taken from every stratum based on courses, sex and curricular year. See the
following table.
For instance, there are 50 male students in the first year taking education. The sample is
205 OF 50 IS 10. There are 380 female students in the second year taking commerce. The
sample is 20% of 380 are 76.

Curriculum Years
I II III IV
Sex F 20% Sex F 20% Sex F 20% Sex F 20% F 20%
Education M 50 10 M 40 8 M 32 6 M 28 6 150 30
F 75 15 F 60 12 F 53 11 F 50 10 238 48
Commerce M 300 60 M 270 54 M 250 50 M 240 48 1060 202

43
 F 400 80 F 380 76 F 350 70 F 330 66 1460 292
Nursing M 25 5 M 24 5 M 22 4 M 20 4 91 18
F 300 60 F 260 52 F 255 51 F 250 50 1065 213

Total 1150 230 1034 207 962 192 918 184 4064 813
Note : F- frequency, number of students ( pop), total- 4064
M- male students
F- Female students
20%- sample proportion, all frequencies under 20% are included in the sample, total-
813. The selection in every group or stratum, either the pure random sampling or the systematic
random may be used.
4. Purposive sampling - Purposive sampling is determining the target population. Those to be
involved in the study. The respondents are chosen on the basis of their knowledge of the
information desired. If research is to be conducted on the history of a place, the old people of the
place must be consulted. If methods and techniques of teaching are the subjects of an inquiry,
teachers are the ones contacted. If the topic of investigation is the production of fish, the
respondents must be fish farmers and aquaculturists. However, the actual selection of
respondents is done either by pure random sampling or systematic random sampling. If the
population is composed of differentiated groups, stratified random sampling must utilized.
5. Cluster sampling (multistage cluster sampling) - Cluster sampling or multistage cluster
sampling or simply multistage is used when the population is so big or the geographical area of
the research is so large. The general procedure in to divide the area or population into cluster
and then within the final cluster apply any of the different methods of selecting a sample.
Suppose a study is to be conducted to determine the standard of instruction in a certain region of
the country in elementary schools. Take for granted that there are some provinces in the region
and the proportion of the population to be the sample is 20%. The steps are:
a.) Make a listing of the sampling units, the primary sampling units (the first cluster to be
sampled),the secondary sampling units (the second clusters to be sampled within the primary
sampling unit), etc. Suppose the provinces are the primary sampling units, the town is the
secondary sampling units, and the barangays as the final sampling units. These are called
natural clusters.
b.) Since the sample is 20%, 20% of 9 provinces equal 1.8 or two provinces. Select these two
provinces by either pure random or systematic random sampling.
c.) Within each of these two provinces, select 20% of the towns either by pure random or
systematic random sampling.
d.) Within each town selected, choose 20% of the barangays. Since there is only one elementary
school in one barangays, this is the final sampling unit or cluster. The respondents in the
study are to be selected from these final clusters. The respondents may be stratified into
teachers, administrators, parents and pupils. The respondents have to be taken from these
stratified groups by either pure random or systematic random sampling.
The advantage of the multistage cluster samplings its efficiency. Its main disadvantage is its
reduced accuracy or representativeness, on account of the fact that in every stage there are is a
sampling error.
2. Non- Probability Sampling
The sample is not a preparation of the population and there is no system in selecting the
sample. The selection depends upon the situation.
Types of Non- Probability Sampling
44
1.) Accidental Sampling - There is no system of selection but only those whom the researcher or
interviewer meets by chance are included in the sample. For instance, the interviewer stands in a
street corner and he interviews everyone who passes by. The problem with this type of sampling
is its lack of representativeness. The sample might be a biased one. If the place where the
interviewer stands is a business section, most of the people who pass by are business and rich
people, hence, the respondents are only well- to –do people. If the place where the interviewer
stands is a slum area. Most of the people who pass by and interviewed are poor people. In
research, every section of the population being must be proportionately repres4ented in the
sample. Accidental sampling is resorted to only when there is no other alternative.
2.) Quota sampling - Specified numbers of persons of certain types are included in the sample.
Suppose the reaction of the people towards a certain issue is to be determined and a cross-section
of the population must be involved. It might be decided that ten doctors, eight lawyers, fifteen
businessmen, twenty vendors and twenty-five farmers should constitute the sample.
The advantage of quota sampling over accidental sampling is that many sectors of the
population are presented. However, It’s representatives doubtful because there is no proportional
presentation and there are no guidelines in the selection of the respondents. Anyone of the groups
selected to participate will do.
Quota sampling may be used only when any of the more desirable types of the sampling
will do.
3. Convenience sampling – the process of picking out of the people in the most convenient and
fastest way to immediately get their reaction to a certain hot and controversial issue. If there is a
hot and controversial issue, say the rising price of the gasoline, the most convenient and fastest
way of reaching people is by the telephone to be able to interview then at once.
This type of sampling is certainly biased and not representative considering that the
people who have telephones are a class by themselves and so their views cannot be considered as
views of the people. It should be noted that even in ordinary data gathering in research,
interviews can also be conducted through the telephone are only among those who are properly
selected to be included in the sample. It only happened that this people have telephone.

Review Guide

1. Be able to define the following terms

a. Sampling
b. Sampling design
c. Population
d. Respondents
e. Sampling unit
f. Sample
g. Sampling frame
h. Parameter
i. Sampling error
j. Statistician
k. Representative sampling
l. Confidential level

45
2. What are the advantages of Sampling?
3. What are the general type of sampling
4. What are the guidelines in determining the adequate sampling?
5. How will you compute the size of a sample?
6. Explain your own sampling design and why do you choose that design?

46
Chapter 8 - Data Gathering Procedure
Data refers to the “research results from which inferences are drawn,” (barlinger). Data,
plural for datum, are collection of, numbers, quantities, facts, or records, used as bases for
drawing conclusion or making inferences (Good).
Methods of Data Collection
1. The observation method
Observation is the process whereby the researcher or observer watches the research
situation. Observation may be done by actually participating to a certain extent in the activities of
a group being studied.
Types of observation
1. Structured Observation – the researcher knows what aspects of the group activity are relevant
to his or her purposes and is therefore in the position to develop a specific plan for the making
and recording of the observation before he or she begin collecting data. The researcher makes
use of an observation guide from which limits the focus of his observations to aspects of
behavior and activities or events relevant to the research problem and objective.
2. Unstructured observation is open flexible. It provides a richer and more direct description of
the phenomena under investigation. The researcher is not restricted of the observation guide.
He watches and records behavior, events and situation guided by the problem and objectives
of his investigation (Andales). As Selltuz and others put it the researcher does not impose this
or her structure on the situation”. The investigator is even free to change or modify the
objectives of his study as he accumulates more information about the problem under
investigation.
Reason for Using Obstructional Methods (Andales)
1. Obstructional methods tell great deal about behavioral patterns in certain kinds of
circumstances.
2. Obstructional may be the only feasible methods by which to gather data. This is rue when the
subjects of the study are individuals who are not capable for interview or for accomplishing
the questionnaires (as in the case of children or maybe unable or unwilling to cooperate.
3. Obstruction in the actual setting provide a more valid result than when the researcher relies
only in asking question about the behavior if individuals or group.
In doing the study of a social situation, the researcher observation should be founded on
these common elements.
1. The participants – who they are, how many, and how they are related with.
2. The Setting – location, appearance, and kinds of behavior it encourages, points, and
discourages or prevents.
3. The purpose – what purpose bought the participants together, how participants react to it with
acceptance or rejection?
4. The Social Behavior – what the participants do, how they do it, and with whom and with
what they do it.
5. Frequency and Duration – when the situation occurred, and what occasion gave rise to it.

2. Interview

47
 Interview is a “face-to-face interpersonal role situation in which one person, the
interviewer ask a person being interviewed, the respondents, question designed to obtain answer
pertinent to the research problem”. (Kerling)
The research tool employed in this method is called an interview guide, interview
schedule, and interview plan. This is a list of question prepared by the researcher considering
foremost the general and specific objectives of the research for which the questions are intended
for obtaining data.
Types of Interview
1. Structured or Standardized – the questions, there sequence and their wording are fixed. It
uses an interview schedule that the researcher carefully prepared to obtain the information
needed for his study. An interview scheduled is a research instrument made up by the set of
carefully prepared and logically ordered questions which the researcher ask of the respondents
with adequate space in which the interviewer notes down the responses to the questions.
2. Unstructured or Unstandardized – this is flexible and open. While the questions asked are
determined by the research problem and objectives, their contents, sequence and wordings are up
to the interviewer. Instead of an interview schedule, these types of interview make use of an
interview guide, which is listing of topics that will be taken up during the interview process.
Important Consideration in Using the Review
1. Ability of the researcher to established support with the respondents in order to him to elicit
honest and complete responses without influencing the nature of the interviewer’s responses.
2. System of Recording Data
Advantages of Interview
1. It can be use in all segments of the population
2. It usually yields a much better sample of the general population
3. It has greater sensitivity to misunderstandings of respondents.
4. It is the more appropriate techniques.
3. Questionnaire
The questionnaire is a set of carefully prepared and logically ordered questions. It is self-
administered by the respondent, meaning, he reads the question and write down his answers on
the space provided.
Advantages:
1. Is less expensive
2.Requires such less skills to administrator.
3.Can be administered to large numbers of individuals simultaneously.
4.Can be cover a wider area and obtain information from more people.
5.Places less pressure on the respondents for immediate responses.
6.Because of their greater confidence in their anonigmity
Disadvantage.
1. It cannot be used on a population which is made up of mostly of members who are not
educated enough to accomplished the questionnaire themselves.
2. There are questions or instruction in the questionnaire, which the respondents may
misunderstand or may not understand.
3. One cannot be so sure whether the questionnaire which the respondent himself for if he is
busy or is not interested at all, he may ask anyone in his household to accomplished it for
him.
4. For mailed questionnaire, the rate of return is so low, usually less than 50% that the
representative needs of the sample is questionable.

48
Guide for Questionnaire Construction:
On Content
a. Is the question necessary? How it will be useful in meeting the objectives of the
study?
b. Are several questions needed on the subject matter of the question?
c. Does the question need to be specific, concrete and closely related to the respondent
personal experience?
d. Does the question need to be specific, concrete and closely related to the respondent’s
personal experience?
e. In the question so specific such that it elicits inaccurate or misleading responds?
f. Do the replies express general attitudes and only seen to be as specified as they
sound?
g. Can the question be better asked in a more direct or amore indirect form?
On Form of Response
a. Can the question be best asked in a forum calling for check answer (a, short answer of
a word or two, or a number) free answer, or check answer with follow-up free
answer?
b. Is the question led up to in natural way? Is it correct psychological order?
c. Does the question come early or too late from the point of view of arousing interest
and receiving sufficient attention, avoiding resistance, etc.
Ethical Considerations
1. As much as possible, the people should be informed about their involvement n the
study, or their consent should be sought before subjecting them into an observation or
interview. They have to know about the true nature of the research and for what
purpose its findings to be used.
4. It is normally wrong to face people to participate in a research they did not wish to
involve in.
5. It is unethical to the researcher to expose people to physical dangers and/or rental and
emotional stress.
6. Invasion’s of the people privacy is another ethical issue in gathering date for research
purposes.
7. It is only ethical to the researcher to maintain the confidentiality of the information
shared with him by the person he interviewed.

Test Construction
The following are the steps in test construction.
Step 1. Content Validation – the degree to which test represents the essence, the topics and the
areas that the test is designed to measure. It is general reported in terms of non-numerical data
unlike the other types of validity.

Procedures and techniques of Achieving High Degree of Content Validity

a. Documentary Analysis or Pre-Survey
b. Development of table of specification
c. Consultation with experts
d. Item writing
Step 2. Face Validation – pertains to whether the test books valid, that is, if by face of the
instrument, it looks like it can measure what you intend to measure.
49
 Way of reinforcing the face validity of an instrument:
1. Item inspection
2. Inter-judge consistency
Step 3. First Trial Run – refers to the trying out of the test to sample that is comparable to the
target population of final examples. The try out sample should be large enough to provide
meaningful computation.
Propose Of the First Trial Run
1. Determine the language suitability of the items and ease in efficient direction from
the point of view of the examinees. Also the length of time to finish the test and other
problems relevant to taking the test are also determined.
2. The trial run is for judging good and poor items quantitatively.
Step 4. Item Analysis – this process check whether the item is “differentiation which means that
“the statement does not measure what the battery of items measure and hence to include it
contributes nothing to the scale”. (Likert)
In attitudes testing for instance , Likert further states that “item analysis can be used as an
objective check to determine whether the member of the group react differentially to the battery,
that is, item analysis indicate whether those person fall toward one end of the attitude
continuum on the battery do so on the particular statement, and vice versa.” Thus item analysis
reveals the satisfactoriness of any statement as far as its inclusion is given attitude, scale is
concerned.
1. The U-L Index method. This technique was advance by John Stocklein (1957) an is
appropriate for test whose criterion is measured along a continuous scale (e.g. scholastics ratings,
job ratings, performance records, achievement test scores) and whose individual item is score
right or wrong and positive or negative.
The technique employs the following steps:
1. Score the test
2. Arrange the papers from highest to the lowest scores.
3. That you had a try out sample of 70 cases, you would need the first 19 and the last 19
scores.
4. Prepare a tally sheet such as the one seen below. Tally the numbers of cases from each
group who got the item right for each of all the items.
_____________________________________________________________________
Item no Upper 27 (%) (N=19) Lower 27 %(%)(N=19)
1
2
3
______
5. Covert the tallies to frequencies and then to proportions.
6. Compute the difficulty index of each item using this formula.
Df= Pu + P1
2
Where Df = difficulty index
Pu = Proportion of the upper 27% group who got the item right.
P1 = proportion of the lower 27% group who got the item right.
7. Compute discrimination index of each item using this formula:
Ds = Pu – P1
Where Ds is the discrimination index
8. Deciding whether to retain or discard an item will be based on two ranges. Items with
difficulty indeces .29 to .80 and discrimination indices within .30 to .80 are retained.

50
 The Chung-The-Fan Item analysis Table can be used to obtain the discrimination indices’
of the items. The indices obtain through this table can be interpreted using Abel’s “rule of
thumb” (Stanley and Hopkins).
Index of discrimination Evaluation
.40 and up they good item
.30 to .39 reasonably good item but
probably subject to improvement
.20 to .29 Marginal item, usually needing
improvement
The summary of the item analysis should be presented in table like this;
Item No. Upper 25 percent Lower 27 percent Df Ds Decision
(N= 19) (N= 19)
F P F P
1 15 .79 5 .26 .53 .53 Good
2 12 .63 15 .79 .71 .16 Poor
3 10 .53 3 .16 .35 .37 Good
4 10 .53 6 .32 .43 .10 Poor

9. In achievement test of the multiple choice types, an analysis of the plausibility and
attractiveness of the distracters is also done. A sample of an analysis is presented on
the following page.
Item No. Options (Correct option is enclosed)
a b c d Remarks
1 3 (20) 5 10 All Good
2 0 10 10 (18) Revised (a)
3 5 6 (20) 7 All Good
4 9 8 2 (19) All good
5 (15) 15 4 4 Revise (b)
Some tips for writing option for multiple choice type tests are presented as follows;
a. Incorrect options should be plausibly related to the problem. If the incorrect options are
completely unrelated to the problem, the correct alternative can be easily spotted by the
examinee.
b. Correct alternative should appear similarly in sentence or phrase construction as the other
distracters. Sometimes correct answers are more
c. Alternative should be randomly presented in each item. Test develop often place the
correct option at the middle rather than the first or last.
d. Avoid using alternatives like “none of the above”, “both a and b” none of these, etc.
2. The Peason x Product – Moment Correlation Method - This item analysis technique is
used for tests of continuesscaling with three or more male points. The Likert scales or the bipolar
scales are of this kind. There is a total score which serves as an X criterion and an item score
which is the X criterion, This is done to each of all the items, Therefore if the draft consist of 60
items, there should be 60 correlation coefficients computed. Significant coefficients reflect good
items while insignificant ones reflect poor items. Most researchers consider a coefficient of .3O
and above as indicating good items. Here is an illustration,
Item No. 4. I am satisfied with the way I am treated by my friends.
1. Strongly agree.
2. Agree
3. Disagree
4. Strongly disagree

51
 This is item No, 4 of a test which is a 4—point Likert typecomposed of 60 items, hence,
the scoring assigns 4, 3, 2, or 1 point each item. Let us suppose that there are 10 subjects tested
in the trial run. The coefficient of correlation can be computed from these hypothetical data.
Subjects X (Total Score) Y (Item Score)
A 50 4
B 48 4
C 45 3
D 45 3
E 42 4
F 40 3
G 40 4
H 30 4
I 34 2
J 30 2
Using the formula for Pearson or, the coefficient for item no 4 can be computed.
3. Point – Biserial Correlation Method – this sis applied test with dichotomous scoring
system, example Yes/No, right/wrong, improved not improved. Unlike in the Pearson
Product method, the Y criterion is scored either 1 or 0. Correlations between the total
scores are tested. Items with low coefficient are considered poor and are usually
discarded or revised.
Used of the t-test – it is an alternative technique for item analysis is the use of the
independent t – test. Previous tryout, however, reveal that the use of the correlated or
dependent t- tests yields similar results. The simpliertest, which is the latter, is thus
suggested for this purpose. The use of this method is basically the same us the method
just described above.It also makes use of two criterion groups, 10 percent high group and
10 percent low group. Mean differences between the two groups in each of the items are
analyzed and determinedwhether the obtained is statistically significant or not.
Significant t-ratios indicate a good discriminatory index of the items while t - ratios
which are not significant warrant rejection of the items.

Presentation of the analysis can be presented in a summary table seen below.

Item Analyst Table using the t-test
Item Mean of High Low of 10 % Difference t-ratio Decision
No. 10%
1 3.5 3.0 0.5 1.60 Reject
2 3.3 3.2 0.1 1.42 Reject
3 4.2 2.0 2.2 2.89** Retain
4 3.0 1.8 1.2 2.22* Retain
5 4.1 2.1 2.0 2.49* Reatin

* < .05

52
 * < .01

Step 5.Second Run or Final Test Administration - this adrninistering the draft resulting
from the item analysis to the final sample. The test items at this point may have been
reduced considerably, and a check at the proportion initially planned in the TS is again
necessary. It may be wise to compare the original TS with the proportions of items left in
the final draft to find out if the emphasis originally planned is maintained in final draft.
Necessary adjustment can still be done before finally administering the instrument to the
final sample •

Step 6.Evaluation of the Test. After the final run, the test can now be evaluated
statistically in terms of its validity and reliability.

Review Guide
1. be able to define the following terms
A.data
B. data Collection
C. observation
D. Interview
E. Questionnaire
F. Content Validation
G.Face validation
h. Item analysis
2. What are the methods of data collection? Exp1ain each.
3. Differentiate the two types of observation.
4. Give reasons for using observational method.
5. Differentiate the type of interview.
6. What are theimportant considerations in using the interview?
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a questionnaire?
8. What are the guides for questionnaireconstruction?
9. What are the steps in test construction? Explain each.
10. What are the different methods of item analysis? Differentiate each.
11. Present your own method in Data Collection
Chapter - 9 StatisticalTreatments of Data

The kind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature ofthe problem, especially the
specific problem and the nature of the data gathered. The explicit hypothesis particularly
determine the kind of statistics to be used. The level, distribution, and dispersions of data also
suggest the type of statistical test to be used.

Scale of Measurement (Seville, et.al.)

1. Nominal Scale – data that are used to label or categorize observation, and which do not
have any greater that or less than relations to each other. A good example is the factor
sex, a naturally dichotomous factor. The numeral 1 may be assignedto every male
respondent and the numeral 2 to every female respondent. In as much asthere is no
greater nor less than relationship between the numerals 1 and 2 as assigned here, the
coding can be interchanged. What is importance is that once the code 1 is assigned to
53
 males, and 2 to females, assignment should be consistent through the analysis. The
responses yes and no treated in the same manner, if in principle, there is no higher than
nor lower than relationship between the two responses. Non parametric types of test are
appropriate for nominal data.
2. Ordinal Data – these are rank ordered data with respect to a trait or achievement or
performance. As much, ordinal data are characterized by greater than, equal to and less
than relations. A ten female applicants for a job wherein “personableness” is relevant
may be ranked from one to the most personable, to 10 for the least personable, or vice-
versa depending on the rules.
The problem with ordinal datais that they do not show the magnitude of the
difference between numeral points.Thus, you cannotsay that the difference in
personableness between the applicant ranked no 1 and the other applicant ranked no.2 is
equal to the difference between the ones ranked nos. 3 & 4. This is one of the reason why
data which are originally of a higher scaling like interval and ratio should not be
transformed to ordinal data if you can help it. Ordinal data are most appropriate for non
parametric test as are data that belong to the nominal category.
3. Interval Data and Rated Data – these are data which can be placed along a continuous or
scale wherein distances between points are equal. Needles to say, raw data that belong to this
category are characterized by greater than or equal to or less than relations plus the added
feature of equality of distances between intervals. The maindifference between interval data
and ratio data lies in the treatment of the zero point. Data that are interval level can be
assignedor flexible zero point which by no means does not mean absolute zero or none of the
trait a performance being measured. The average in a series of grouped scores, for example
may be considered a zero point for interval data. For data that are of the ratio scaling, the
zero point i absolute, that is, the factor being measured does not exist. Example of interval
data are scores obtained in through attitude test using libert scaling(strong, agree, undecided,
disagree, strongly disagree) are usually considered and treated as interval data
althoughbasically they are ordinal. Example of ratio data are kg, for weight, cms., for height,
and most other physical measures for mass, density, volume, speed, pressure and the like.
Parametric tests like the Z - test, t—test, and f-test are most appropriate for interval and ratio
data.
Same Statistical Tests and Their Uses(Padua,1995)
Given only the problem statement, we will not be able to tell the most appropriate statistics to
use. We will need to know.
1. What instrument was used to gather the data for the problem.
2. What kind of data were gathered?
3. How did the data behavior? Whatprobability distribution most appropriately described
the data behavior?
4. Arewe asked to compare? Are we asked to relate? Or are we simply asked to enumerate?
To illustrate the point more clearly, let us suppose that we have a problems.Suppose
further that this problem is: How thus the extent of employing the participative management
style differ among three heads of offices ( A,B, and C)in Aklan as perceived by their
subordinates?
Instruments Used
Suppose that a validated 5-points Likert scale was used to measure the extent of
employing the participative management method. This means that we would be expecting
answers in terms of numbers from 1to 5.
54
Type of Data
The data that were generated are obviously discrete. However, these can be transformed
into a continuous data set by an appropriate application of a central limit Theorem.
Data behavior
One way that we can describe the data behavior is the plat the data versus their
frequencies. This would then give us an appropriate graph of the probability distribution of the
data. The frequency distribution may look like the figure below:

Fig.1 Shows a symmetric probability distribution While fig.2 shows a

skeweddistribution.

Figure 1 shows the symmetric probability distribution while Figure 2 shows a skewed
distribution.It is well-known in statistical theory that for symmetric distributions, the approach to
normality of the sample means is faster than when the data is skewed. In other words, Fig. 1 can
be easily transformed to a normal- distribution while Fig. 2 will probably approach normality
slowly.
Comparative Analysis
We are asked to compare the participative management method of three exercises. Our
data come from the perception of their subordinates. At this point, we have two alternative.
Alternative 1- If all the three data sets look like Fig. 1, we might decide to use a Standard
One Way Analysis of Variance or ANOVA.
Alternative 2 - If the data sets differ in this shapes, we might consider comparing the
distributions instead by, using some non-parametric statistics. A Kruskal-Wallis test or a
simple chi-square test (thecolumn would be the three executives while the rows will be, the
options I to 5). In the latter case, we are trying to detect tf there are systematic pattern of
response among the three executives subordinates.

55
 The illustration above allows the usual stops performed by a Statistician in performing
data analysis. We can conclude from the illustration that in order to be able to analyze data
correctly, we need a thorough understanding of the assumptions that underlie all statistical
tests.
The Roleof the Normal Distribution in Statistics
The most important probability distribution in statistics is the normal distribution. To
illustrate, consider the data sot below which gives the frequency distribution of the student's
grades in English;
Grades in English

Interval Frequency Percentage

96 – Above 3 3.00

90 – 95 5 5.00

85 – 89 11 11.00

80 – 84 18 18.00

75 – 79 30 30.00

70 – 74 19 19.00

65 – 69 12 12.00

Below 65 2 2.00
Total 100 100.00

Let us now graph the data using a "bar graph. The X-axis or horizontal axis corresponds
to the midpoints of the interval while the Y-axis or vertical axis corresponds to the percentage
observed for each interval.

3 2 1m 1 2 3

Bar Chart far the Data on English Grades

A curve is passed through the corner points of the bar charts. Thiscurve resembles a
normal distribution. The normal distribution is symmetric about a fixed point m (called its
mean). Its horizontal axis is measured in terms of standard deviation(s) which and the average
distances of the data from the mean m of the distribution. The normal distribution has the
following characteristics;
1. The percentage of cases falling between m + 15 and m - 15is about 68%.
56
2. The percentage of cases falling between m + 25 and m - 25 is about 95%
3. The percentage of cases falling between m + 35 and m - 35 is about 99.9%
In the above example, the sample mean is X = 77.5 while the standard deviation is
roughly 5 = 4.3. Assuming that these are correct let us examine if our data conform to the
properties of a normal distributions.
X + 15 = 77.5 + 4.3= 81.8
X - 15 = 77.5 - 4.3 = 73.2
The number of cases falling between 73.2 and 81.8 is roughly 67% versus the
theoretical percentage of 68%. Next:
X + 25 = 77.5 + 2(4.3) = 86.1
X - 25 = 77.5 - 2(4.3) = 68.9
The number of cases between 68.9 and 86.1 is roughly 90% versus the theoretical
percentage of 95%. Finally;
X + 35 = 77.5 + 3(4.3) = 90.4
X - 35 = 77.5 - 3(4.3) = 64.6
The number of cases falling between 64.6 and 90.4 is 97% versus the theoretical
percentage of 99.9%.
We conclude that there is a good agreement between the theoretical framework normal
distribution and the observed probability distribution of the data. Since classical tests in
statistics rest on the assumption that the data have been generated from a normal distribution,
we are now well-advised to study any of these classical tests.

The Theoretical Framework and Statistical Models

We will now expand on the connection between Theoretical Framework of a study and
the various Statistical Models. The Theoretical Framework explains the interrelationships of
the variables found in the study. For example, if the theoretical framework asserts a
connection between a manager's sex, educational qualification, age, experience, mental ability
and his managerial effectiveness, the schematic diagram of the framework would look like:
Independent Variables Dependent Variables

X1= Sex
X2 = Educational Qualification
X3 = Age y = Managerial Effectivensss
X4 = Experience
X5 = Mental Ability

A graphical model such as on the one above is often employedin studies in the belief
that a picture is worth a thousand words". However, we have learned that it is bust to put the
same diagram in scientific mathematical notation so that we may be able to manipulate the
variables as mathematical quantities. Since we are postulating that managerial effectiveness
(Y) is influenced by several factors represented by the X’s, the same drawing- can be
represented ass
Y = f (X1, X2, X3 X4, X5) + e

57
 Wheree represents the random component in the model. A graphic model might be
simpler for the lay person to understand but it certainly is NOT advisable for scientific
research. The mathematical model has the district advantage of being manipulableand it
suggests the way in which the data must be gathered and inputted into the computer,, A
mathematical model can also be used to predict the behavior of the system in the long run
whereas a graphic model would be useless in this case a
Statistical Model for Theoretical Framework
I.Regression Models- This is employed in theoretical frameworks which postulate a
relationship between a dependent variable (Y) and a set of independent variables (X’s). This
is illustrated in the previous example. The simplest regression model is the linear regression
model given by:
Y = BO + B1X1 + B2X2 + … + BpXp + e
The constants B’s are called the regression coefficients and they represent the
magnitude of increase or decreased in Y per unit increase in the X’s. These constants are to be
estimated from the data.
Sample Question: Answered by this model:
1. To what extent is managerial effectiveness (Y) influenced by the mental ability (X1)
and experience'(X2) of the manager?
2. Analysis of Variance Model. The ANOVA is a statistical model which corresponds
to a framework that investigates the differences in scores among two or more groups of
respondents. The simplest one-way ANOVA model formulates a model for the questions. Are
there significant differences in the scores of a group of respondents? The model is.
(ANOVA One-Way): Yij =m + ai + eij
i = 1, 2, . . . , k
j = 1, 2, . . . , n
The model states that there are k groups to be compared, each grouphas n scores. The
observed score (Y) is a sum of an overall score (m) and the specific effects (a) which are
distinct characteristics of the groups. The specific effects corresponds to the group means. The
model can be extended to handle two—factor designs or k-factor designs. For instance, if it is
desired to compare the managerial effectiveness scores (Y) of a group of respondents grouped
by Age (A) and by Sex (B), then the AN0VA model takes the forms:
Yijk= m + Ai + 'Bj + eijk
The models state that there is a two-way classification of the scores (Y): according to
age (A) find according to sex (B). The specific effect (A) corresponds to the differential effect
of age while the specific effect (B) corresponds to the differential effect of sex. These effects
are to be estimated from the data.
3. General Linear Model. The various models can be generalized to the case of a General
Linear Model (GLM) which is discussed in advanced Statistics Courses.
Sample Solving Problems in the Area of Fisheries (Bautista, 1995)
A. The Z-test
1. Sample mean compared with the Population Mean Data show that the mean weight
of prawn is 45g with SD of 3 g. A sample of 100 prawns had a mean weight of 47 g.Are the
100 prawns really heavier than the rest of the prawns in the fishpond?
HO = The 100 prawns are not heavier than the rest of the prawns in the fishpond, (X ≠ M).

58
 Solution: Given:
X=X–M
SD X = 47 g
100
= 47 - 25 M = 45 g
3
= 100 SD = 3 g
100 = 10
N = 100 prawns
= 2
3 2 = 0.6666 (10) = 6.67 6.67 z is the rejection region both at
10 3
5% and 1% levels of significance
= 6.67

This is a one-tailed test, 5% = 1.64 z and 1% = 2.33 z. Since the absolute computed Z value is
greater than the absolute tabularvalue at 1%, then we can conclude that the difference is highly
significant.The null hypothesis is rejected.

2. Comparing two sample means. A researcher wishes to find out whether or not there
in a significant difference betweenthe daily catch of fishermen in day fishing and night fishing
by means of hook and line. By random sampling, he took a sample of 239 fishermen in day
fishing and found out that the mean catch was P142. In night fishing, he took a sample of 209
fishermen and found out that the average catch was P148. The SD of the total fishermen in
that coastal town is P40. Is there a significant difference between the twosamples?

Ho = there is no significant difference between the two samples.

Solution:
Given: X1 = P 142.00
z= X1– Xe
SD 1 + 1 f X2 = 148.00
n1 n2
N1 = 239.00
z = 142 – 148
40 1 + 1 N2 = 209.00
239 209
= -6 SD = 40.00
40 .0042 + .0048
This is two tailed test, 5% + 1.96z and
= -6 1% = + 2.58z. Since the absolute
40 .0090 computed z value is lesser than the
absolute tabulated value at 5% level of
= -6
3.80 significance between the two samples.
The null hypothesis is accepted.
= - 1.579ns

3. Comparing two sample proportions. A survey of putting up artificial reefs along the
Shoreline of the town of New Washington, Aklan shows that 80 out of 200 fishermen dislike
the idea. A researcher wants to decide whether significant difference exist between the two
sample proportions 80 and 75.
200 250
59
2.22Z is found at the acceptance region at 5% level but at the rejection level at 1% level of
significance.

This is a two-tailed test 5% = +2.58z and 1% = + l.58z. The computed z value is lesser
than the tabular z value at 1% but is greater than the tabular value at 5%. Therefore, we can
conclude that the difference is significant at 5% level.

B. The t-tests

4. A researcher in crabfattening knows that the average weight of a fourth month old mud
crab is 152 g. A random sample of 26 mud crabs wastaken having a mean weight of 156 g. and a
3SD of 10g.Is there a reason to believe that the 26 mud crabs in the sample are significantly
different from the others in weight?

Ho. The sample mud crab is not significantly different in weight than the others. (X=M)

This is a one-tailed test. In the appendix table with degrees of freedom of n-1 or, 26-1=
25, 5% level is 1.708 and 1% is 2.485. Since the computed t-value is lesser than the tabular t-
value at 1% but greater than the tabular t-value at 5%, then we can conclude that the difference
in significant at 5% level.

60
 5. A researcher wishes to test whether or not wild sugpo fry is better than that of sugpo
fry in hatcheries. He picks at random 18 wild sugpo grown in compartment A and 14
hatcherybred fry in Compartment B. The wild sugpo fry has a mean weight of 28.6g and a SD of
5.9g while hatchery-bred sugpo fry have a mean weight of 21.7g and SD of 4.6g.
Ho: Is there a significant difference in mean weightbetween the wildsugpo fry and the
hatcherybredSugpofry?

61
 This is a one—tailed test. In the appendix table, withdegree offreedom n1 = n2 – 2 = 30,
5% level is 1.697 find at 1% level is 2.457.Since the computed value is greater than the tabular
valueat 1% levelof Significance then we can conclude that the difference inweight of the fry and
hatcherybred fry is significant.
C. ANOVA (CRD)with Equal Replication
6. Consider the data below which represents the production of bangus in kg/ha at 120
days of culture using different kinds of artificial formulated feeds with 3 replication and stocking
density of 13,000 fish/ha.

Total SS = [(375) 2+ (360) 2+ (375) 2 + (375) 2 + (378) 2+ (372) 2 + (390) 2 + (380) 2+ (394) 2+
(380) 2 + (375) 2 + (385) 2 + (355) 2 + (365) 2 + (360) 2] – 2104077.4

62
= 2106579 –2104877.4 = 1701.6

3. Compute the treatment sum of squares (Treatment SS)

4. Compute the Error Sum of Square (Error 33) = Total SS - Treatment SS

Error SS = 1701.6 - 1329.6 = 372
5. Compute the Treatment Mean Square (Treatment MS) =Treatment SS
T–1
Treatment MS = 1329. 6 =1329.6 = 332.4
5-1 4
6. Compute the Error Mean Square (Error MS) -Error 3S
t (r- 1)
Error MS = 372 = 372 = 37.2
5(3-1) 10
7. Compute the F - Value for testing the significance of the treatment difference as F computed =
Treatment MS
Error MS

F Computed = 332.4 = 8.94

37.2
8. Determine the degrees of freedom(d.f.)
a) Total df= (t) (r) — 1 or n - l = 15 - 1= 14
= (5) (3) - 1
= 15 - 1
= 14
b)Treatmentdf= t - 1
= 5 -1
=4
c)Error df= t (r-l)
= 5(3 – 1)
= 5(2)
= 10
Notes The F value can only be computed if this error decree of freedom is not less than 6 to have
a reliable estimate of the error variance.

9. Construct and fill in the ANOVA Table

63
10. Make conclusion
Tabular F value is obtained in Appendix table.
The computed F value is larger than the tabular F at 1% level. Therefore, the treatment
difference issaid to be highly significant.
11. Compute the coefficient of variability (C.V.) =

CV = 37 .2 X 100 %
3746
= 6.10 x 100%
374.6
= 1.63
The computed coefficient of variation is highly consistent or has a very small variation.

D. ANOVA (CRD) with Unequal Replication

7. Consider the data below which represents the production of prawn in kg/ha fed with different
kinds of formulated feeds with unequal replication.
Treatment Sugpo Production kg/ha Treatment Treatment
total Mean
T1 326 348 352 350 1376 344
T2 340 344 363 1047 349
T3 350 380 374 1104 368
T4 371 362 365 362 1460 365
Grand Total
Grand Mean 353

Step 1: Determine the degree of freedom for each source of variation.

a) Total df = n- 1
= 18 – 1
= 17
b) Treatment df = t – 1
=5–1
=4
c) Error df = total df – treatment df
= 17 – 4
= 13
Step 2: Compute the correction factor (CF) = C2
n
2
CF = (6347)
18
= 40284409
18
= 2238023
64
Step 3: Compute the total sum of Squares (Total SS)

n
Xi2– CF
i=1
Total SS = [(326) + (348) + (352) 2+ … + (345)2] = 2238023
2 2

= 2241671 – 2238023
= 3648
Step 4. Compute the treatment Sum of Squares (Treatment SS) =
t Ti2= CF
ri
i=1
Treatment SS = [(1376) 2+ (1047) 2 + (1104) 2 + (1460) 2+ (1360) 2] = 2238023
4 3 3 3 4
= 2240319 – 2238023
= 2296
Step 5. Compute the error Sum of Squares (Error SS) = Total SS – Treatment SS
Error SS = 3648 – 2296
= 1352
Step 6. Compute the treatment Mean square (Treatment MS) = Treatment SS
t–1
Treatment MS = 2296
5–1
= 2296 = 574
4
Step 7. Compute the error Mean square (Error MS) = Error SS
Total df – Treatment df
Error MS = 1352
13
= 104
Step 8. Compute the F – value for testing the significance of the treatment difference as;
F computed = Treatment MS
Error MS
= 574
104
= 5.52
Step 9 Construct and compute the table for the ANOVA.
Source of Degree of Sums of Mean F Tabular f
Variance Freedom Squares Square Computed 5% 1%
Treatment 4 2296 574 5.52 3.18 6.20
Error 13 1352 104
Total 17 3648

Step 10. Make conclusions

Tabular F value is obtained in appendix table.
The result of the f-test indicate that there is a significant difference among the treatment
means.
Step 11. Compute the coefficient of variability (C.V) =Error MS X 100%
Grand Mean

Grand mean (GM) =C

n
= 6347
18
= 352.6

CV = 104 X 100 %
352.6
= 10.198 X 100%
65
 352.6
= 2.89%
The computed coefficient of variability is highly consistent or has very small variation

E. ANOVA (RCBD)
8. Consider the data below which represents the hedonic ratings from a consumer’s test
of four different species of fish canned in natural oil.

Rating of 1 = Dislike extremely

9 = Like extremely
Step1. Determine the degree of freedom for each source of variation.
a) Total df = n – 1 b) Replication df = r – 1
= 40 – 1 = 10 – 1
= 39 =9
c) Treatment df = t – 1 d) Error df = (r-1) (t-1)
=4–1 = (10 – 1) (4 – 1)
=3 = 27
2
2. Compute the correction factor (CF) = G
n
2
CF = (224)
40
= 1254.4
3. Compute the total sum of squares (total SS) =
t r z
∑ ∑ X - CF
i – 1 j-1 ij

Total SS = [ (6) 2 + (6) 2 + (5) 2+ … + (5)2] – 1254.4

= 1324 – 1254.4
= 69.6
4. Compute the Replication Sum of Squares (Replication SS).

66
5. Compute the treatment sum of squares (Treatment SS) =

6. Compute Error sums of squares (Error SS)

Total SS = [Rep SS + Treatment SS]
Error SS = 69.6 – 19.6 + 21.6
= 28.4
7. Compute Replication Mean Square (Rep MS) = Rep SS
r–1

Rep MS = 19.6
10-1
= 19.6
9
= 2.18
8. Compute Treatment Mean Square (Treatment MS) = Treatment SS
t–1
Treatment MS = 21.6
4–1
= 21.6
3
= 7.2

9. Compute Error Mean Square (Error MS) = Error SS

(r-1) (t – 1)
Error MS = 28.4
(10 – 1) (4 – 1)
= 28.4
(9) (3)
= 28.4
27
= 6.86
10. Compute the F-value for testing the treatment difference is;
F = Treatment MS
Error MS
= 7.2
1.05
= 6.86
11. Construct and Fill in the ANOVA table.

67
12. Make your conclusion following sections:
The result of the F-test indicates that at least one sample of the canned fish is highly
significant' from the other sample. Although the consumersrating are considered blocks, the
exception usually is that there is no significant difference effect to the other.
13. Compute the Coefficient Variation (CV) = Error MS x 100%
Gran Mean

F. ANOVA (Latin Square Design)

9. Consider the data, below which represents the production of prawn in kg/ha at 4
different stocking sizes (A = PL20; B = PL25; C = PL30; D = PL40 ;) fed with different formulated
feeds for 4 cropping

Step 1 Compute columns total (c), row total (R) and grand total (G)

2 Compute the treatment total (T) and Treatment Mean

3. Determine the degree of freedom for each sources of variation.

68
4. Compute the Correction Factor (CF) = G2
t2

5. Compute the total sum of squares (Total SS) =

6. Compute the row sum of squares (Row SS) =

69
7. Compute the column sum of squares (Column SS) =

8. Compute the treatment sum of squares (treatment SS) =

9. Compute the error sum of squares (Error SS) =

10. Compute row mean square (Row MS) = Row SS

t–1

11. Compute column mean square (Column MS) = Column SS

t–1

12. Compute the treatment mean square (treatment MS) = treatment SS

t–1
Treatment MS = 227.5
4–1
= 227.5
3
= 75.83
13. Compute Error mean Square (Error MS) = Error SS
(t – 1) (t – 2)
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Error MS = 25 = 25 = 4.17
(4 - 1) (4 – 2) 6

14. Compute the F value.

15. Construct and Complete the ANOVA table

16. Make conclusion:

Tabular F is obtained in Appendix table.

a) The result of the F-test indicates that there is no significant difference in the average yield of
prawn (row0 when different kinds of feeds were used.

b) Te result of the F test indicates that there is no significant difference in the average yield of
prawn (column0 due to the 4 cropping.

c) The result of the F test indicates that there is a significant difference in the average yield of
prawn (treatment) due to the different stocking sizes of prawn.

Note:

71
 If ever in our example the 4 different stocking sizes of prawn (treatment) was the only
case under study then the efficiencies of both the row blocking and column blocking in this Latin
square design will indicate the gain in precision in relation to either the CRD or RCBD design.
Because our computed F value (column and row) in the problem above, is both smaller than the
tabular F value at 5% level of significance then these result indicate, that row blocking and
column blocking is not successful in reducing experimental error.

Review Guide

1. Be able to define the following terms:

a. Nominal data

b. Ordinal data

c. Interval data

d. Ratio data

e. Normal distribution

f. Skewed distribution

2. Explain each of the scales of measurements?

3. How will you choose the most appropriate statistics?

4. What is the rate of the normal distribution in statistics?

5. Explain the theoretical framework and statistical models.

6. Explain the different statistical models for theoretical framework? Give example.

Chapter 10 - Analysis of Data

Analysis is the examination of data in terms of characteristics, patterns, trends, and
relationship so as to answer questions or to meet the objectives of the study. Analysis of data
72
 involves decision in the unit and level of analysis to utilize and the procedures and statistical
tools to employ (Andales, 1992).
According to Calderon, et.al, analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into
its constituent parts of categories according to the specific question under the statement of the
problem. This is to bring out into focus theessential feature of the study. Analysis usually
precedes presentation.
Example: In' the study of the status and implications of theAquaculture Industry to Fishery
Education in Aklan, the whole study may be divided into its constituent parts' as follows
according to the specific questions;
1.Production characteristics!
2.Marketing characteristics;
3. Channels of Distribution
4. Fishery Education Programs
5. Extent of Relationship of Productivity and Production Characteristics
6. Extent of Relationship of Income from Aquaculture and Productivity
Each constituent part may still be divided into its essential categories.
Example:The production characteristics may further be subdivided into the following!
1. socio-economic status of aquaculturists
2.Educational technology
3.Fishpond practices
4.Productivity
5. Income

Then, under socio-economic status of aquaculturists are:

1. High level socio-economic status;
2. Middle "levelsocio—economicstatus and
3. Low level socio-economic status
The other constituent part may also besimilarly divided and subdivided. The data are then
grouped under thecategories as parts to which they belong.
Classification of data – classification or grouping together data with similar characteristics.
Classification is part of analysis. The bases of classification are the following.
A. Qualitative (kind) - This having the some quality as are of thesame kind are grouped
together.The grouping of elements in thesamplesgivenunder analysis is qualitative.
b.Quantitative - Dataare grouped according to their quantity. Inage, if instance, people may be
grouped into age of 10 – 14, 15 – 19, 20 – 24. 25 – 29, etc.
C. Geographical - Data may beclassifiedaccording to their location. For instance, the school in
the secondarylevel in Province may be grouped by district, as district 1, district 2, etc.
D. Chronological - Data mayclassifiedaccording to the order of theircoherence likeenrolment
during the school year 1991—92; 1992 – 93.
Cross Classification - This is further classifying a group of data into subclass.For instance a
group of students may be classified as high school student as distinguished from elementary and
college students. Then they arefurthersubdivided into curricular years as first,second, third and
fourth years.Eachcurricular year may still be subdivided into and female.
Arrangement of Data or Classes of Data
a. Qualitative-alphabetically or fromthe biggest class to smallest class.
b. Quantitative - according to numericalmagnitude from thegreatestto thesmallestnumber.
73
 c. Geographical — according to geographical location or direction.
d. Chronological - listing down data that occurred first and lastthose that occurred last.
Classifications, cross-classification arrangement of data are done for purpose of organizing
the thesis report and in presenting then in tabular form. In tables, data are properly and logically
classified, cross classified and arrange so that their relationship are readily seen.
Group – Derived Generalization
One of the main purposes of analyzing research data is to form inferences,
interpretations, conclusions, and/or generalizations from the collected data.
1. From the finding are formulated conclusions in the form of generalization that pertain to
the particular groupof student.
2. These conclusions are called group-derived generalization designed to represent
characteristics of groups and are to be applied to groups, rather than to individual cases
one at a time.
Categories in Group derived generalizations (Good and Scates)
1. Generally, only proportional prediction can be made.
2. The average can be made to represent the whole group.
3. Full frequency distribution revealed characteristics of a group.
4. A group itself generates new qualities, characteristics, properties, or aspects not present
in individual cases.
5. A generalization can also be made about an individual case.
6. In certain cases, prediction in individual cases can be made.
Analyzing Data through Preparing Data for Presentation
1. Tallying data in a tabulation diagram called talligram.
2. The individual responses to a questionnaire or interview schedule have to be talked one
by one.
Review Guide
1. Be able to define the following terms
a. Data analysis
b. Classification of data
c. Cross – classification
d. Group – derived generalizations
e. Categorization of data
2. What are the bases of classification of data?
3. How will you organize your research report?
4. How will you analyze data through preparing data presentation?
5. Considering your own research problem, how will you analyze your data?

74
 Chapter 11 – Presentation and Interpretation of Data
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential meaningful
categories and classifications to make themamenable to study and interpretation. Analysis
and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into form that era
intelligible awl interpretableso that the relationships between the research specific questions
and their intended answers can beestablished. There are three ways of presenting data textual,
tabular, and graphical (Calderon, 1993).
Textual Presentation of Data
Textual presentation uses statement with numeral or numbers to describe data
Aims of textual presentation:
1. To focus attention to some important data and
2. To supplement tabular presentation.
Example: The following refer to the level of educational technology of 215aquaculturists in
the study, of the status and implication of aquaculture industry to fishery education in Aklan.
Of the 215 aquaculturists, 38 or 17.87 percent haw high level of educational
technology;96 or 44.65 percent have middle level 81 or 37.60 percent having low level.
Tabular Presentation of Data
The purpose of the tabular presentation is to facilitatethe study and interpretation the
making of inferences and implications of the relationship of statistical data.
Advantage of Tabular over Textual Presentation of Data
1. Statistical tablesare concise and because data are systematically grouped and arranged
explanatory matter is minimal.
2. Data are more easily read understood and compared because of their systematic and
logical arrangement into rows and columns.The reader can understand and interpret a
great bulk of data rapidly because he can see significant relationships of data at once.
3. Tables givethe whole information even without combining numerals with textual matter.
This is because tables are so constructed that the ideas they convey can be understood
even without reading their textual presentation.
The Major Functional Part of a Statistical Table
1. Table number. Each table should have a number preferably in Arabic for references
processes. The number is written above the title of the table. Tables are numbered
consecutively throughout the thesis report.
2. Title – the title should tell the following
a. That subject matter that said table deals with,
b. Where such subject matter is situated or to what entity or person it belongs, or from
whom the data about such subject matter are gathered.
c. When data about such subject matter were gathered or the time period when such data
were existent and,
d. Sometimes how the data about such subject matter are classified.
Only the beginning letters of the important words in the title are capitalized. If the title
contains more than one line, it should be written like an inverted pyramid.
3. Head notes or Prefatory note – this is written below the title and is usually enclosed in
parenthesis. It explains something in the table that is not clear. Examples “Million
Pesos”. The entry is only 6 instead of writing 6, 000, 000.00.

75
 4. Stub – it contains the stub heads and the row labels. Each label described the data
contained in that row. Totals may be considered as part of the stubs.
5. Box head – it contains the master caption, the column caption and the column sub
caption. The master caption described the column sub caption and the column caption
turn described the column sub caption.
6. Main Body – field or text. These contain all the quantitative and or proportional
information presented in the table in the tables in row and in column. Each numerical
data entered into in the cell which is the intersection of the row and the column of the
data.
7. Footnote – it appears immediately below the bottom line of the table. It explains,
qualifies or classifies some items in the table which are not readily understandable or are
missing. This is not necessary if everything in the table is clearand there is nothing to
clarify or explain.
8. Source note – it is written below the footnote. It indicates the origin of source of the data
presented in the table.
Illustration:
Table 1
Level of educational Productivity Total
Technology
High Middle Low
N % N % N % N %
High 13 37.14 22 43.14 3 2.33 38 17.67
Middle 16 45.71 26 50.98 44 34.11 86 40.00
Low 6 17.35 3 5.88 82 63.56 91 42.33
Total 35 100.00 51 100.00 129 100.00 215 100.00
G = 0.68
Andales Dissertation, 1950

Table 1 is the table Number

The relationship between the level of educational technology and productivity is the Title.
There is no head note or prefatory note.
Level of educational technology is the stub head and below it are the levels which are the
row labels, high, middle, low and total.
All the numerical entries are the main body, field or text.
G = 0.63 is the footnote
Andales dissertation is the source note.
Guidelines in Construction of Tables
1. The table number is not separated by line from the title. It is two spaces above the title.
2. The title is separated from the rest of the table by a double line place two spaces below
the lowest line of the title.
3. The stub, master caption, column caption, sub caption and the totals are separated from
one another by vertical and horizontal lines.
4. The row and columns are not separated by lines. Major groups, however, are separated by
single lines, rows are separated by a double space and the columns are separated by as
wide as space as possible.
5. Both ends of the table are un-ruled.
6. There is always a line, either single or double, at the bottom of the table.
7. There should always be unity in a table.

76
Textual Presentation of Tabular Data- Generally, there should be a textual presentation of a
table which precedes the table or the table may be placed within the textual presentation. The
table and its textual presentation should be placed as near as possible to each other.Textual
presentation is mixing words with in labors in statement.
Two ways of making a textual presentation of a table;
1. All theitems in the table are actually presented. This manner enablesthe reader to
comprehend the totality of the data even without consulting the table. This is alright if the
data are not so many. However, if the data are so numerous, reading becomes boring and
the reader may even skip some of the item.
2. Only the highlightor important parts of thoughdata are textually presented.
Basic principle that should be remembered in the textual presentation of the table are;
1. The textual presentation of a table should be as complete as possible that the ideas
conveyed in the table are understood even without referringto thetable itself.
2. Textual presentation is generally followed by interpretation, inference or implication.
This is done after the data from the table have been textually presented.
3. Findings in the present study should be compared with the finding of other studies
aspresented in the related literature and studies. This enablethe researcher to make some
generalization if there are enough data to supportsuch generalization
Graphical Presentation of Data
A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variation or change of a variable itself or
quantitative chargesof variables in comprise with those of the number of another variable or
variables in pictorial or diagrammatic form.
The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative,
geographical or chronological attribute. For instance if the number of aquaculturists in Aklanis
graphed according their level of educational technology, the graphing in qualitative, if their
number is graphed according to the municipalities where their fishpond are located, the graphing
ingeographically and if their number in graphed according to calendar year, the graphing is
chronological.
The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes, and relationships of data in
a most attractive, appealing, effective arid convincing
Advantages (Bocani, et.al.)
1. It attracts attention more effectively than the table, and therefore, is less likely to be
overlooked. Readers may skip tables but pause to look at charts.
2. The use of color and pictorial diagram makes the list of figure and reports more
meaningful.
3. It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data.
4. Graphs enable the busy executive to grasp the essential facts quickly and without much
trouble.
5. Their general usefulnesslies in the simplicity they add to the presentative- of numerical
data.

Disadvantage
1. Graphs do not show as much information at time as do tables.
2. Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do.
3. Charts require moreskills, more time and more expense to prepare than tables.
4. Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as tabulated data.
5. Graphs can bemade only after the data have been tabulated.
Types of Graphs or Charts
1. Bar graphs
1. Singlevertical bar graph
77
 2. singlehorizontalbar graph
3. Grouped or multiple or composite bar graph
4. Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph
5. Subdivided orcomponent bar graph
6. histogram
2. Linear graph
1. Timeseries or chronologicalline chart
2. Composite line chart
3. Frequency polygon
4. Ogue
5. Bond chart
3. Hundred percent graphs or charts
1. Subdivided bar or rectangular bar graph
2. Circle or- pie graph
4. Pictograms
5. Statistical maps
6. Ratio charts
Thereader is advised to see books containing graphs or charts better understanding.
Interpretation has at least four elements as follows.
1. Statement of the condition or situation – the condition or situation is stated based upon
the findings, whether satisfactory or unsatisfactory.
2. Probable cause of the condition – usually also very condition has a cause but, there must
also be logical and valid relationship between the condition and its cause.
3. Probable effects of the condition – usually also very condition has an effect, either bad or
good. However, there must also be a logical and valid relationship between the condition
and its effect and this must be clearly given.
4. A veiled suggestion for continuance or remedial measure, if the possible effect is bad. If
the effect of the condition is good, then there must be a hint for the continuance of the
existence of the condition. However, if the effect is deleterious there must be the same
suggestions for the adoption of measures aimed at minimizing the harmful effects.
Review Guide
1. Be able to define the following terms;
a. Presentation of data.
b. Textual presentation
c. Tabular presentation
d. Graphical presentation.
2. What are the aims of textual, graphical and tabular presentation of data?
3. What are the advantages of tabular over the textual presentation of data?
4. What are the major functional parts of a statistical table?
5. What are the guidelines in the construction of table?
6. What are the two ways of making a textual presentation of a table?
7. What are the basic principles that should be remembered in the textual presentation of
table?
8. What are the types of graphs or charts in presenting the data?
9. What are the elements in the interpretation of graphical presentation of data?
10. How will you present your own data? Explicate.
Chapter 12 - Findings
Findings are the bases for making conclusion and conclusion provide the bases for
drawing recommendation.
Guideline in writing the summary of findings (Calderon, 1993)
1. There should be a briefstatement about themain purpose of thestudy, the population or
respondents,the period of the study, method of researchused, the research instrument, and the
sampling design. There should be no explanations made.
Example: (Using the hypothetical study of thestatus and implication of aquaculture
industry to fishery education in Aklan). The study was conducted to gather data on the status
of aquaculture industry and its implications to fishery education in Aklan. The descriptive
78
method of research were used to describe and analyze the data through an interview schedule
of 215 respondents which were the fishpond caretakers of fishponds having been categorized
as those with fishpond lease agreement (FLA) or with ordinary fishpond permit (OFP). The
inquiry was conducted during the SY 19811- 1990.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarify demands that each specific
question sender the statement of the problem must be written first to be followed by the
findings that would answer it. The specific question should follow order they are given under
the statement of the problem.
Example: To what extent in productivity related to production characteristics such as
a) Socio - economicstatus of aqua culturists
b) Level of educational technology
c) Level of Intensification; and
d) forms size
The relationships of Productivity to Production Characteristics are as follows;
a) Therewas a substantial or married correlation between socio-economic status and
productivity (G = 54).
b) There was a substantial or marked correlation between educational technology and
productivity (G = O.68).
o) The Gemma correlation value obtained was 0.83 for level of intensification and
productivity indicating high correlation.
d) The correlation value of 0.25 was obtained between farm size and productivity, an
indication of correlation;this implies that productivity did not depend on farm size.
3. Findings should be textual generalization, that is, summary of the important data
consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words, numbers or
statistical measures woven into a meaningful statement.
4. Only the important findings, the highlights of the data should be included in the summary,
especially those upon which the conclusion should be base.
5. No new data should be introduced in the summary of the findings.

Review Guide

1. Be able to define the following terms:

a. Findings
b. Summary of findings
2. What are the guidelines in writing the summary of findings? Give examples.
3. Based on your statements of the problem presented, what will be your conclusion?

79
 Chapter 13 – Conclusion
Guidelines in writing the Conclusion
The following shouldbe thecharacteristics of the conclusion.
1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations,
general statements, and/or generalization based upon the findings. Conclusions are the
logical and valid outgrowth of the findings. They should not contain any numerical because
numerals generally limit the forceful effect or impact and scope of a generalization. No
conclusions should bemade that are not based upon the findings.
Example: Theconclusions that can be drawn from the findings in No. 2 under the summary of
finding are thefollowing.
a. Generally, productivity has found to be dependent on the socio-economic status of the
respondents. The higher the socio-economic status of the respondents, the higher way the
productivity.
b. The higher the educational technology of the respondents? The higher was tie productivity.
c. Productivity was found to dependent on the level of intensification, practiced by the
respondents. The higher the level of intensification in production input and method, the better
is productivity.
d. The respondents achieved high productivity regardless of the size of fishpond.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific question raised at the beginning of the
investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the problem. The study becomes
almost meaningless if thequestions raised are not properly answered by the conclusions.
Example: If the question raised at the beginning of the research is “howadequateare the
facilities for the operation of fishponds? And the finding show that the facilities are less than the
needs of fishpond caretakers, the answers and the conclusion should be"The facilities for the
operation of fishponds are inadequate
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. However, no
conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings.
Example: From the findings that there was a substantial or marked correlation between socio-
economic status and productivity (G = 0.53), what have been factually learned is that
productivity has found to bedependent on the socio-economic status of the respondents and sothe
higher thesocio-economic status of the respondents, the higher was the productivity.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is brief and short, yet they convey all the
necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific questions.
5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusion should statedcategorically.They
should be wondered as if they are 100 percent and true and correct. They should not give any
hint that the researcher has none doublets about their validity and reliability. The use of qualifiers
such as probably, perhaps, may be, and the like should be avoided as much as possible.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the population are or subject of the study.Take for instance
the hypothetical study on the status of aquaculture industry and its implications to fishery
education in Aklan, all conclusion about the production characteristics as described by socio-
economicstatus of aquaculturists, educational technology, fishpond practices productivity
taulinoo:au, tho marketing characteristics an indicated by type of buyere> size of utock at
luunroot and type of paolsaeingi, channels of distribution of fishpond productoj fishery
oducation programs availed "fay aquaculturiste in inati*i;Gti«n, research and extension sorvicon,
thoralationsliips between produc¬tivityaix!, production characteristics and income, etc# refer
only to "the statue of atiiuieulturo industry and ito implications to fishery education in Aldan#
7# Cfprjaluaioiunhould not boropititlons of any stataraontaanyvliero In the thesis • They may bo
recapitulations if noocssary but taayahouldbovorfltod. differently and they should convey
tliouaiae information aa the statement .
rocu t*i tulaios *
Sous i)xir;wu- to Avoid in Graving up Conclusions Basod on Quantitative Data

80
There era socio pitfalls to avoid in the uso of quantitative data (Baoanij ot.al.). Eosoarahoro
should not accept nor utilize qiiantitativo data Without quoation or analysis evon if they arc
presort ted in authcritative looking farms« Thin i;?so because in a am a Instances quantitative
da'fcaare.either inaccurate or aiuleuliii^j either unwittingly or by design# She data should be
analyzed Veiy critically to avoid raiiaading interpretations and c one lira! o:n;3* Among the
iUotonsthai a researcher fjhould guard against are the foil curing t '

1» Bias
2* InocrreotGeneralisation 3$ Incorrect deduction 4* Inoorraotoomjr' "

5« Abuse of oorre. 6« Limited informal

7 • liiciloadintfimpreu,

81