Chapter 4 motion in two and three dimensions

Position and Displacement

position vector: a vector that extends from a
reference point to the particle,
r = x i  y j  z k
The particle has the rectangular coordinates (x, y, z).

r =−3 m i 2 m j5 m  k

In the figure 

and rectangular coordinates (-3m, 2m, 5m).

displacement: the position vector changes

during a certain time interval, Problem 4.1

Δ ⃗r = ⃗r 2 − ⃗r 1
^
=( x 2 ^i + y 2 ^j + z 2 k)
−( x 1 ^i + y 1 ^j+ z1 k)^
=( x 2 − x 1 ) ^i +( y 2 − y 1 ) ^j+( z 2 − z1 ) k^
= Δ x ^i + Δ y ^j + Δ z k^
Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity

average velocity:

displacement  r
average velocity = or v avg =
time interval t

The direction of the average velocity must be the the same as that of the
displacement.

Use the previous equation to get

 x i   y j   z k  x   y   z 
vavg = = i j k
t t t t

If the time interval during the motion is 2.0s, then

 r 12.0 m  i 3.0 m k
v avg = =
t 2.0 s
=6.0 m / s i 1.5 m / s k
 Instantaneous velocity (or velocity): v =
d r
dt
To find the velocity of the particle at instant t1,
we shrink interval t to 0 about t1:

r 2 in Fig. move toward r 1 so that

(1) Position vector 
 r shrinks toward 0.

(2) The direction of  r /  t (and thus of v avg )

approaches the direction of the line tangent
to the particle's path at position 1.

(3) The average velocity v avg approaches

the instantaneous velocity v at t1.

The direction of the instantaneous velocity v

of a particle is always tangent to the particle's
path at the particle's position.

In unit-vector form
v = v x i  v y j v z k
d  = d x i  d y j  d z k
v =  x i  y j z k ⇒ dx dy dz
dt dt dt dt vx = , vy= , vz =
dt dt dt
 Example 4-2

Average Acceleration and Instantaneous

Acceleration
average acceleration:
change in velocity
average acceleration =
time interval
or  v
a avg =
t
instantaneous acceleration (or acceleration):
d v
a =
dt
d d vx d vy d vz
a =  v x i  v y j v z k=
 i  j  k
dt dt dt dt
a = a x i  a y j a z k
⇒ d vx d vy d vz
ax = , ay = , az =
dt dt dt
 problem 4-3

Projectile Motion
projectile: a particle moves in a vertical plane with
some initial velocity but its acceleration is always the
free-fall acceleration, which is downward.

initial velocity: v0 = v 0 x i  v 0 y j

v0 x = v 0 cos  0, v 0 y = v 0 sin  0

During its 2D motion, the projectile's

position and velocity change continu-
ously, but its acceleration is constant
and always directed vertically downward.

In projectile motion, the horizontal

motion and the vertical motion are
independent of each other; neither
motion affects the other.

We can break up the problem of a 2D

motion into two 1D problems:
horizontal motion: zero acceleration
vertical motion: constant downward acceleration
 During the time of flight of the ball, both ball
and can fall the same distance h from their
zero-g location, and the ball hits the can.

Projectile Motion Analyzed

The Horizontal Motion: no acceleration

v x = v 0 x = v 0 cos  0 , x − x 0 = v 0 x t = v 0 cos  0  t
The Vertical Motion: constant acceleration – g
1 2 1 2
y − y0 = v0 y t − g t =v0 sin  0  t − g t
2 2
v y = v 0 sin  0 − g t
v 2y = v 0 sin 0 2 − 2 g  y − y0 

The Equation of the Path: the equation of the

projectile's trajectory: assuming x0 = 0, and y0 = 0,
g x2
y =tan  0  x − 2
trajectory
2  v 0 cos 0 
This is the equation of parabola (of the form y=ax+bx2)
so the path is parabolic.
The Horizontal Range R: the horizontal distance the
projectile has traveled when it returns to its initial
height 1 2
R=v 0 cos  0  t , 0= v 0 sin 0  t − gt
2
eliminating t yield
2 v 20 v 20
R= sin 0 cos 0 = sin 2 0
g g

R has its maximum value when sin 20=1, which

corresponds to 0=45°.

problem 4-4
The Effects of the Air
 Problem 4.5

Uniform Circular Motion

uniform circular motion:
a particle travels around a circle or a circular
arc at constant (uniform) speed.

The particle is accelerating because its

velocity changes (only) in direction.

Both the velocity and the acceleration have

constant magnitude as the motion progresses,
but their directions change continuously.

 The velocity is always directed tangent to the circle in the

direction of motion, the acceleration is always directed
radially inward (centripetal acceleration).

The magnitude of this acceleration is

v2
a=  centripetal acceleration 
r
The period of revolution (or simply period): the time for a
particle to go around a closed path exactly once,
2 r
T=  period 
v
 the velocity of a moving particle is always tangent to the particle's path at its
position. v yp v xp
v = v x i  v y j=−v sin  i v cos  j=− i  j
r r
d v v d yp  v d xp 
⇒ a = =− i j
dt r dt r dt
d xp d yp v2 v2
since v x = =−v sin  , v y = = v cos  ⇒ a =− cos  i − sin  j
dt dt r r
v2 v2 ay − v 2 / r  sin 
⇒  2
a= a a =
x
2
y
r
 cos 2 2
  sin  =
r
, tan =
ax
= 2
− v / r  cos 
= tan 

the acceleration is directed along the radius, toward the circle's center.
 Problem 4.6
Relative Motion in One Dimension
The velocity of a particle depends on the reference frame of whoever is
observing or measuring the velocity.

The coordinate xPA of P as measured

by A is equal to the coordinate xPB of P
as measured by B plus the coordinate xBA
of B as measured by A,
x PA = x PB  x BA
d d d
Taking the time derivative, x PA = x PB  x BA or v PA = v PB  v BA
dt dt dt
The velocityvPA of P as measured by A is equal to the velocity vPB of P as
measured by B plus the velocity vBA of B as measured by A.
 
d d d
 For vBA is constant, v PA = v PB  v BA or a PA = a PB
dt dt dt

Observers on different frames of reference that move at constant velocity

relative to each other will measure the same acceleration for a moving particle.

Problem 4.7
Relative Motion in Two Dimensions
For the position vector,

r PA = r PB  r BA

The velocity relation is

v PA = v PB  v BA

For vBA is constant, the the relation of

the acceleration is

a PA = a PB

Problem 4.8

The chosen problems: 32, 48, 53.