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Chapter 7: Materials of Construction ChE 515 Chemical Process Equipment Design
♦ Conditions for Stress Cracking:
a. Simultaneous Stress and Corrosion Factors to Consider:
b. A specific corrosive substance in the 1. Temperature: affects corrosion rate and mechanical
particular presence of Cl-, OH-, NO3-, NH4+ properties
𝐶 × 𝜌
7. Corrosion Fatigue – describes the premature 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝜎𝑑
failure of materials in corrosive environments
caused by cyclic stresses. Where:
C = cost per unit mass, $/kg
8. High Temperature Oxidation and Sulfidation ρ = density, kg/m3
♦ Chromium is the most effective alloying σd = maximum allowable stress, N/mm2
element to give resistance to oxidation
forming a tenacious oxide film. ♦ The relative cost of equipment made from different
♦ Sulfur – very common corrosive materials will depend on the cost of fabrication.
contaminant, present in reducing ♦ The annual cost will depend on the predicted life,
environments calculated from the corrosion rate and the purchased
cost of the equipment.
9. Hydrogen Embrittlement – the loss of ductility
caused by absorption and reaction of Contamination
hydrogen in a metal. ♦ avoid poisoning of catalysts
♦ Alloy steels have greater resistance to ♦ explosive acetylides
hydrogen embrittlement. ♦ mercury – copper amalgam
♦ Metallic Corrosion is essentially an electrochemical ♦ zinc contamination
process.
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Chapter 7: Materials of Construction ChE 515 Chemical Process Equipment Design
General Classification of Materials
◊ Cast Iron
I. Metals
- Generally malleable, fusible and ductile - a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquefies,
and is the poured into a mold to solidify.
▲Alloying - Carbon content ranges from 2.1- 4 %wt. and silicon 1-
The properties of alloys can be manipulated by varying 3%wt.
composition. For example, steel formed from iron and - White cast iron has carbide impurities
carbon can vary in hardness depending on the amount - Grey cast iron has graphite flakes
of carbon added and the way in which it was processed. - Tends to be brittle, except for the malleable cast irons.
When a second element is added, two basically different - Relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability,
structural changes are possible: excellent machineability, resistance to deformation and
1. Solid solution strengthening occurs when the atoms of wear resistance.
the new element form a solid solution with the original - Resistance to destruction and weakening by oxidation
element, but there is still only one phase. (rust)
- Used in pipes, machine and automotive industry pipes
2. The atoms of the new elements form a new second
phase. The entire microstructure may change to this new ◊ Pig Iron
phase or two phases may be present. - smelting iron ores with a high – carbon fuel
- 3.5 – 4.5% carbon content silica and other constituents
of dross
Alloy Composition
Brass Copper, Zinc - Some are suitable for producing ductile iron
Bronze Copper, Zinc, Tin
Pewter Tin, Copper, Bismuth, Antimony ◊ Wrought Iron
Cast Iron Iron, Mg, Carbon, Silicon
- has a fibrous “slag” inclusion
Steel Iron, Carbon +
- very low carbon content (0.1 to 0.25%)
Stainless Steel Iron, Chromium, Nickel
- tough, malleable, ductile and easily welded
2. Steel
An increase in the carbon content of the iron ill initially ◊ Manganese and Nickel – add to its tensile strength and
cause a significant corresponding increase in the iron’s make the austenite form more stable
hardness and tensile strength. ◊ Chromium – increase hardness and melting
temperature,
◊ Nickel and Chromium – inhibits corrosion
◊ Molybdenum – improve the hardenability of thick
sections; resistance to chloride pitting
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Chapter 7: Materials of Construction ChE 515 Chemical Process Equipment Design
◊ Cobalt – used in the preparation of magnetic, wear – ♦ Precipitation Hardening
resistant and high strength alloys - Chromium – nickel ss which contain alloying conditions
◊ Vanadium – increases hardness while reducing the such as Al, Cu, Titanium that allow them to be hardened
effects of metal fatigue by a solution and aging heat treatment. They can be
◊ Tungsten – adding it may result to high speed steel either austenitic or martensitic in the aged condition.
◊ S, N and P – make steel more brittle; removed during
processing
◊ Carbon – increases hardness
◊ Dross – impurities that needs to be removed during Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN)
smelting - a measurement of the corrosion resistance of SS
containing Ni. Exact testing procedures are specified in
Carbon steel is steel in which the main interstitial alloying the ASTM G48 Standard.
constituent is carbon in the range of 0.12 -2.0%. Stainless - The higher PREN – values are, the more corrosion
steel is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium resistant the steel is. Steels with PREN – values above 32
content by mass. Stainless steel does not readily corrode, are considered seawater corrosion resistant.
rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does, but despite 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑁 = (1 × %𝐶𝑟) + (3.3 × %𝑀𝑜) + (16 × %𝑁)
the name it is not fully stain-proof, most notably under low - A PREN – value ≥ 40 for duplex steels is called for in the
oxygen, high salinity and poor circulation environments. + DIN EN ISO 15156 as well as the American NACE – a
oxide film: resistance to corrosion standard for use in hydrogen sulfide environments known
in the oil and gas extraction industries.
Exception: stainless steels with Mo content ≥ 1.5% may
♦ Austenitic have PREN - value ≥ 30.
- contains a maximum of 0.15% C, a minimum of 16% Cr
and sufficient Ni and or Mn to retain an austenitic Non – Ferrous Metals and Alloys
structure 1. Aluminum
- non-magnetic allotrope of iron - very lightweight but with alloying an become very
- Type 315: Marine Grade Stainless; Type 202: General strong
purpose Stainless Steel - excellent thermal conductor
- excellent electrical conductor (on a weight for mass
basis, Al will conduct more than twice as much electricity
♦ Ferritic as Cu)
- Contains between 10.5% and 27% Cr, and very little Ni, if - corrosion resistance due to the formation of a thin oxide
any, but some types can contain Pb. film
- Most compositions include Mo, some Al or It - highly reflective to radiant energy in the
electromagnetic spectrum
♦ Martensitic - highly corrosion resistant in air and water (including sea
- Not as corrosion-resistant as the other 2 class but are water)
extremely strong and tough, as well as highly, - highly workable and can be formed into almost any
machinable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. structural shape
Martensitic stainless steel contains Cr 12-14%, Mo 0.2-1%, - non – magnetic and non – toxic
Ni < 2%, C 0.1-1% - used in construction, electrical products, packaging
- It is quenched and its magnetic and containers, cooking utensils, aeronautics and
sporting goods
♦ Duplex - for storage and distribution of demineralized water
- Mixed microstructure of Austenite and Ferrite Al + metal : reduced modulus of elasticity and hardness
- Have roughly twice the strength compared to austenitic strength
ss Al + Mg : less flammable
- Improve resistance to localized corrosion, pitting, Al + Mg + Si : good in extrusion
crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. - pure: lacks mechanical strength, higher resistance to
- characterized by high Cr (19-32%) and Mo (up to 5%) corrosion
and lower nickel contents - Duralumin (Dural) – main structural alloys
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Chapter 7: Materials of Construction ChE 515 Chemical Process Equipment Design
2. Titanium - used in bronze, pewter and bearing alloys
- Low density and high strength
- Highly resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, 6. Gold
chlorine - extremely inert, soft, ductile metal, that undergoes very
- can be alloyed with Fe, Al, V, Mo for strength little work hardening
- not very flexible but returns to its original shape after - it is used chiefly for linings or electrodeposits and is often
bending alloyed with other metals such as copper or nickel to
- non – magnetic and biocompatible (non – toxic, non – increase strength or hardness
allergenic) : increase use in Medicine - conductor
- Aerospace, military, industrial processes, automotive, - resistant to dilute nitric acid and hot concentrated
Agri food, medical prosthesis, sporting goods sulfuric acid
- Nuclear Waste storage – containers lasting over 100, 00
years are possible under proper manufacturing conditions 7. Silver
to reduce defects in the process. - very malleable, ductile, corrosion resistant metal
- A Ti “drip shield” could be placed over other types of - has the highest thermal an electrical conductivity of all
containers to further contain the waste. metals
- least costly of all the precious metals
- alloyed with Cu, Zn, used in high – melting temperature
3. Copper solders
- one of the best electrical conductors, good thermal - used for equipment handling HCl
conductor, tough, ductile and malleable
- disagreeable taste and a peculiar smell
- corrosion resistance in most atmospheres, ease of 8. Platinum
forming, joining, color - extremely malleable, ductile, corrosion resistant silver
- corroded by oxidizing acids, halogens, sulfides, and white metal
ammonia based solutions - when heated to redness, it softens and is easily worked
- resistant to caustic alkalis, except ammonia - nearly non – oxidizable and is soluble only in liquids that
- weak metal with a tensile strength about half of mild generate free chlorine such as aqua regia
carbon steel but has a high degree of toughness - inert and stable even at high temperatures: for high –
- Heat exchanges tubes for condensers in steam power temperature handling of high – purity chemicals and
stations and chemical plants laboratory materials
- Irrigation and agricultural sprinkler systems - applications: electrical contacts, resistance wire,
- Piping at distillation plants, Seawater feed lines thermocouples, standard weights
- Cement pumps for drill water supply
- Tubes for distribution of natural and liquefied petroleum 9. Nickel
- Fuel gas distribution piping - good mechanical properties, easily worked
- Main use: for equipment handling caustic alkalis at
4. Lead temperatures above that at which carbon steel could be
- most impervious of all common metals to X- rays and used
gamma radiation - not subject to corrosion cracking
- it resists attack by many corrosive chemicals, most types - alloys ≥ pure metal usage
of soil and marine and industrial environments 10. Monel
- low melting temperature, ease of casting and forming - the classic Nickel – Copper alloy 2:
- high density, good sound and vibration absorption, ease - most commonly used alloy for chemical plants
of salvaging from scrap - good resistance to dilute mineral acids and can be
- natural lubricity and wear resistance of lead make the used in reducing conditions
metal suitable, in alloys, for heavy – duty bearing - may be used for equipment handling alkalis, organic
applications acids, salts and seawater
- anti – knock agent
11. Inconel and Incoloy
5. Tin - 76% Ni, 7% Fe, 15% Cr
- low melting point, fluidity when molten - Ni alloys with higher Cr content: better oxidation
- readiness to form alloys with other metals, relative resistance at higher temperatures
softness and good formability - for acid resistance at high temperatures
- non – toxic, solderable, high boiling point - maintains strength at elevated temperatures
- used as a constituent of solder and as coating for steel - resistant to furnace gases
(tinplate or terneplate) - not suitable for use in sulphiding environments
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Chapter 7: Materials of Construction ChE 515 Chemical Process Equipment Design
12. Hastelloys 4. Chemical and environmental – filters,
- range of Ni, Cr, Mo, Fe alloys membranes, catalysts and catalyst support
- developed for corrosion resistance to strong mineral
acids, HCL Boron – gives silica – based glasses and ceramics
resistance to thermal shock; boron polymers and
13. Tantalum ceramics play specializes roles as high – strength
- metallic glass (corrosion resistance like glass) lightweight structural and refractory materials.
- expensive
- used to repair glass – lined equipment Borosilicate Glass
- Pyrex
14. Zirconium
- low neutron absorption cross – section and resistance to III. Polymers
hot water at high pressures
- used as resistance to hot and boiling acids Polymeric Solid
- material that contains many chemically bonded parts
II. Ceramics or units which themselves are bonded together to form a
- Inorganic, nonmetallic solid that is prepared from solid
powdered materials
- Fabricated into products through application of Polymer Properties
heat - less dense than metals or ceramics
- Hardness, strength, low electrical conductivity, - resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion
brittleness - offer good compatibility with human tissue
- From “keramikos” means “pottery” - exhibit excellent resistance to the conduction of
- Typically, crystalline in nature and are electrical current
compounds formed between metallic and Elastomers
nonmetallic elements such as Al and O (alumina - rubbers, can be elastically deformed when a force is
Al2O3), Ca and O (calcia CaO), Si and N (silicon applied to them and can return to their original shape
nitride Si3N4) when force Is released
- Magnetic properties
- More resistant to high temperatures and harsh Plastics
environments than metals and polymers - large group of synthetic materials which are processed
by forming or molding into shape
a. Structural Clay Products – brick, sewer pipe, - mechanical strength and operating temperature: low
roofing, wall tile, flue linings - good resistance to dilute acids and inorganic salts
b. Whitewares – dinnerware, electrical porcelain - degradation in organic solvents
c. Refractories – brick and monolithic products used - can absorb solvents: swelling and softening
in metal, glass, cements, ceramic, energy
conversion, petroleum, chemical industries A. Thermoplastic Materials
d. Glass – flat glass (windows), container glass, - soften with increasing temperature; PVC, polyethylene
pressed and blown glass, glass fibers (home B. Thermosetting Materials
insulation) and advanced/specialty glass (optical - rigid, cross – linked structure; Polyester and epoxy resins
fibers)
e. Abrasives – used for grinding, cutting, polishing, 1. Poly – Vinyl Chloride
pressure blasting, natural (garnet, diamond) and - most commonly used
synthetic (silicon carbide, diamond, fused - resistant to most inorganic acids and salt
alumina) solutions
f. Cement – roads, bridges, dams, buildings - max operating temperature @ 60C
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Chapter 7: Materials of Construction ChE 515 Chemical Process Equipment Design
3. Polytetrafluorethylene PTFE
- Teflon and Fluon
- resistant to all chemicals except molten alkalis
and Fl
- max operating temperature @ 250C
- expensive, difficult to fabricate
- used in gaskets, gland packing, demister pads
- used as coating for non – stick properties
- liner for vessels
6. Rubber
- lining for tanks and pipes
- good resistance to acids
- Hypalon: good resistance to strongly oxidizing
chemicals, unsuitable with chlorinated solvents
- Viton: better resistance to solvents
IV. Composites
- combination of two or more distinct
materials, each of which retains its own
distinctive properties to create a new
material
Reinforcing Phase
- fibers, sheets, particles that are embedded in the
matrix phase. (Metal, Ceramic, Polymer)
Reinforcing materials
- low densities, strong
Matrix Material
- ductile, tough