Math Excellence Academy

Binalonan Pangasinan Inc.

Genetic Engineering

In partial fulfilment of the

Requirments In Biology

Alexander Eduard Buenavetura &

Markje Serran

Mark Jesson Datario

Teacher

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 Title Page

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. III

Body ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. IV
•Introductory paragraph…………………………………………………………………………………………. IV

Genes and Genomics………………………………………………………………………………………………. IV

Changing genetic function………………………………………………………………………………………. IV

• Thesis Statement…………………………………………………………………………………………………… V
VI
VII

Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………………………. V, VI, VII

Procedures………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. VII

Selective Breeding………………………………………………………………………………………………………. VII, VIII

Opinion Paragraph……………………………………………………………………………………………………..VIII

Graphics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. IX, X

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… XI , XII

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… XII, XIII

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 ABSTRACT

Genetic engineering has plunged the world into a stunning technological revolution, one that brings great
promise, spurs grave fears, and has unquestionably changed humanity’s relationship with the very blueprint
of life and physical existence. The problem with being in the midst of a revolution is that one can have little
idea where one will end up when the revolution is complete.
So far, genetic engineering and gene-based knowledge have lifted biological science from a relatively crude
state of inexactitude, have allowed humans to crack the genetic code, and have given researchers the tools
to alter human, animal, and plant life to serve human goals.
Already the products of genetic engineering and genetic science are common throughout the developed
world: gene therapies to treat human disease, genetically modified foods for people and animals, and
pharmaceuticals for humans produced through genetically engineered bacteria.
The wave of potential products is stunning: organs from pigs transplanted into sick humans, drugs for
humans produced in cow’s milk, plastics produced by plants rather than with fossil fuels, and gene therapies
that could extend human life.
Humans have been doing genetic engineering, a technology which is transforming our world, for thousands
of years on a wide range of plants, animals and micro organism and have applications in the field of medicine,
research, industry and agriculture. The rapid developments in the field of genetic engineering have given a
new impetus to biotechnology. This introduces the possibility of tailoring organisms in order to optimize the
production of established or novel metabolites of commercial importance and of transferring genetic
material from one organism to another. In order to achieve potential benefits of genetic engineering the only
need is to develop perfect tools and techniques. Once it has been perfected then all of the problems
associated with food production can be solved, the world environment can be restored, and human health
and lifestyle will improve beyond imagination. No doubt that there are almost no limits to what can be
achieved through responsible genetic engineering. Classical field of genetic engineering and some of its
advancements are discussed in this review.
Also called recombinant DNA technology, involves the group of techniques used to cut up and join together
genetic material, especially DNA from different biological species, and to introduce the resulting hybrid DNA
into an organism in order to form new combinations of heritable genetic material. These achievements led
to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from Genetic engineering. To address these
concerns, a meeting was held in 1974 at the Asilomar Conference Center in California. The conference was a
milestone in the development of social awareness and of public responsibility among scientists. A few of the
innovators of the new technology realized its commercial potential and established private biotechnology
companies. One of the first to do this was Boyer who founded Genentech Inc. The company developed the
production of human insulin in bacteria. Genetically engineered human insulin has provided a reliable,
expandable, and constant supply for diabetics around the world. The methods for genetically engineering
bacteria, plants, and animals are discussed, as well as the arguments, pro and con, for GM plant and animal
products.

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 Body

Introduction Paragraph

Genes and Genomics

What exactly is genetic engineering? In essence, it involves the manipulation of genes using recombinant
DNA techniques to modify what the gene does, either by itself or in combination with other genes.
Recombinant means combining genes from different sources in a different manner than occurs naturally.
Genes are the units formed by combinations of the nucleotides G (guanine), A (adenine), T (thymine), and C
(cytosine), which lie in two equally long and twisting strings (the famous “double helix”) that are attached
to each other throughout their length. G, A, T, and C nucleotides combine in pairs across the space between
the two strings.
About three billion pairs form the human genome — the string of genes that make up each individual
human’s genetic structure. The study of genomes — known as genomics — aims to discover how genome-
scale technologies might be applied to living organisms, including human beings. Genomics currently enjoys
strong support, both financial and institutional, within the scientific and medical communities and within
the pharmaceutical industry.
Other biological life forms have different numbers of genes than the human genome. A gene is a stretch of A-
T and C-G pairs that, by their complex arrangement, lay out the instructions for a cell to produce a particular
protein. Proteins are the basic agents, formed from amino acids, that determine the chemical reactions in the
cell. This long and complex genome is also incredibly small. It is contained in every cell in the body as a
microscopic molecule. Although all of the genetic code is included in each body cell, each cell performs only
a relatively tiny number of highly specialized functions, with only a comparatively few genes being activated
in the functioning of a cell’s production and use of proteins. Each cell may produce thousands of proteins,
each the product of a different gene; but most of the genome’s genes will never be employed by each cell.
The genome can perhaps be understood as an instruction manual both for the construction of a life form and
for its functioning once it has formed. It is like a computer operating system that also contains the
information that a tiny piece of silicon could use to build itself into the computer that will use the operating
system.

Changing Genetic Function

Because genes determine what cells do within an organism, scientists realized that by altering, adding, or
deleting genes they could change the functioning of the larger life form of which the genes are a part. To do
so they need to use genetic engineering to alter and switch genes.
What scientists have been able to do with genetic engineering is make it possible to “see” the genes in the
DNA sequence, understand the functions of some of those genes, and cut into the DNA and remove or add
genes and then reform it all as a single strand. Often the genes that are added come not from members of the
same animal, plant, or bacterial species but from entirely different species.

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 What Are the Advantages of Genetic Engineering?
1. It allows for a faster growth rate.

Genetic engineering allows of plants or animals to be modified so their maturity can occur at a quicker
pace. Engineering can allow this maturity to occur outside of the normal growth conditions that are
favorable without genetic changes as well. Even if there is higher levels of heat or lower levels of light,
it becomes possible to expand what can be grown in those conditions.

2. It can create an extended life.

Genetic modification can help to create resistance to common forms of organism death. Pest
resistance can be included into the genetic profiles of plants so they can mature as a crop without any
further additives. Animals can have their genetic profiles modified to reduce the risks of common
health concerns that may affect the breed or species. This creates the potential for an extended
lifespan for each organism.

3. Specific traits can be developed.

Plants and animals can have specific traits developed through genetic engineering that can make
them more attractive to use or consumption. Different colors can be created to produce a wider range
of produce. Animals can be modified to produce more milk, grow more muscle tissue, or produce
different coats so that a wider range of fabrics can be created.

4. New products can be created.

With genetic engineering, new products can be created by adding or combining different profiles
together. One example of this is to take a specific product, such as a potato, and alter its profile so that
it can produce more nutrients per kcal than without the genetic engineering. This makes it possible
for more people to get what they need nutritionally, even if their food access is limited, and this could
potentially reduce global food insecurity.

5. Greater yields can be produced.

Genetic engineering can also change the traits of plants or animals so that they produce greater yields
per plant. More fruits can be produced per tree, which creates a greater food supply and more profits
for a farmer. It also creates the potential for using modified organisms in multiple ways because there
is a greater yield available. Modified corn, for example, can be used for specific purposes, such as
animal feed, ethanol, or larger cobs for human consumption.

6. Risks to the local water supply are reduced.

Because farmers and growers do not need to apply as many pesticides or herbicides to their croplands
due to genetic engineering, fewer applications to the soil need to occur. This protects the local
watershed and reduces the risk of an adverse event occurring without risking the yield and
profitability that is needed.

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 7. It is a scientific practice that has been in place for millennia.

Humans in the past may not have been able to directly modify the DNA of a plant or animal in a
laboratory, but they still practiced genetic engineering through selective breeding and cross-species
or cross-breeding. People would identify specific traits, seek out other plants or animals that had
similar traits, and then breed them together to create a specific result. Genetic engineering just speeds
up this process and can predict an outcome with greater regularity.

What Are the Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering?

1. The nutritional value of foods can be less.
When animals grow, and mature quickly, the nutritional value of that product can be reduced. This
can be seen in poultry products today with the white striping that is found in meat products. That
striping is a fat deposit that was created, often in the breast meat, because of the rapid growth of the
bird. In chickens, Good Housekeeping reports that this can increase the fat content of the meat
consumed by over 220%. At the same time, the amount of protein that is received is also reduced.
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1. Pathogens adapt to the new genetic profiles.

Genetic engineering can create a natural resistance against certain pathogens for plants and animals,
but the natural evolutionary process is geared toward creating pathways. Bacteria and viruses evolve
a resistance to the resistance that is created by the genetic engineering efforts. This causes the
pathogens to become stronger and more resistant than they normally would be, potentially creating
future health concerns that are unforeseen.

2. There can be negative side effects that are unexpected.

Genetic engineering is guaranteed to make a change. Many of those changes are positive, creating
more and healthier foods. Some of those changes, however, can be negative and unexpected. Making
a plant become more tolerant to drought might also make that plant become less tolerant to direct
sunlight. Animals may be modified to produce more milk, but have a shortened lifespan at the same
time so farmers suffer a greater livestock.

3. The amount of diversity developed can be less favorable.

At some point, genetically engineered plants and animals make it “into the wild” and interact with
domestic species. This results in a crossing of “natural” and “artificial” organisms. The engineered
organisms often dominate, resulting in only a modified species over several generations, reducing the
diversity that is available.

4. Copyrighted genetic engineering can have costly consequences.

Many companies copyright their genetic engineering processes or products to maintain their
profitability. If a farmer plants genetically modified crops and the pollination process causes another
farmer in the field over to have those modified crops grow, there have been precedents for legal
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 actions against the “unauthorized” farmer. This can have several costly consequences, from fewer
farmers wanting to work to a higher cost for the seeds that are planted.

5. This knowledge and technology can be easily abused.

At the moment, genetic engineering in humans is being used to treat specific disorders that threaten
the health or wellbeing of individuals. In time, the approach in humans could be like what is already
being done with plants and animals. Genetic engineering can change specific traits, which could create
human outcomes that are ethically questionable or easily abused.

The advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering show that the results can be generally
positive, but there must be controls in place to manage the negative when it occurs.
Procedure
How is genetic engineering done? Again, there are very simple and exceedingly complex answers to this
question, depending on how much detail one wants about the underlying processes.
The recombinant DNA revolution began in the 1970s, led by three scientists from the United States: Paul
Berg, Stan Cohen, and Herb Boyer. They knew that certain bacteria seemed to be able to take up pieces of
DNA and add them to their own genome. They discovered that even recombinant DNA created in the lab
could be taken up by these bacteria. By 1976 scientists had successfully created a bacterium containing a
human protein in and later managed to produce human insulin in bacteria. Bacterially produced human
insulin, produced using this bacterium-based process, is now the main form of insulin supplied to people
suffering from diabetes.
Genetic engineers have discovered ways to isolate a gene in one species that they think could have a useful
function in another, insert that gene (with others that make it “stick” to the rest of the DNA strand) into a
cell’s nucleus, and then make that cell develop into an entire life form. It is comparatively easy for scientists
to introduce genes and comparatively much harder to get the altered cell to develop into a larger life form.
Selective Breeding
Humanity began its social evolution when it began manipulating its environment. Hunter-gatherer peoples
often burned bush to encourage new plant growth that would attract prey animals. At a certain point in most
cultures, early hunters learned how to catch and domesticate wild animals so that they would not have to
chase them or lure them by crude methods such as this. The ex-hunters would select the best of their
captured and minimally domesticated animals and breed them together and eliminate the ones that were
not as good. Eventually the animals became very different from those that had not been domesticated.
The earliest crop farmers found plants that provided nutritious seeds and, by saving and planting some of
those seeds, created the first intentional crops. By selecting the seeds from the plants that produced the
biggest, greatest number, or nutritionally most valuable seeds, those early farmers began manipulating those
plant species to produce seeds quite different from the uncontrolled population.The plants and animals
created by selective breeding were the result of a very primitive form of genetic engineering by people who
did not know exactly what they were doing (or even what a gene was): the attractive animals and plants with
heritable characteristics were genetically different from the ones that did not have those characteristics, so
when they were bred together, the genes responsible for the attractive qualities were concentrated and
encouraged to become dominant, and the animals and plants without the
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genes responsible for the attractive characteristics were removed from the breeding population and their
unattractive genes discouraged.Over centuries and thousands of years, this practice has produced some
stunningly different species from their natural forebears, as deliberate selection and fortuitous genetic
mutations have been embraced in the pursuit of human goals. For example, it is hard to imagine today’s
domestic cattle at one time being a smart, tough, and self-reliant wild animal species capable of outrunning
wolves and saber-tooth tigers, but before early humans captured and transformed them, that is exactly what
they were. Consider the differences between cattle and North American elk and bison. Even “domesticated”
elk and bison on farms need to be kept behind tall wire mesh fences because they will leap over the petty
barbed wire fences that easily restrict docile cattle. But in 100 years, after “difficult” animals are cut out of
the farmed bison and elk herds, will these animals still need to be specially fenced?Wheat, one of the world’s
most common crops, was just a form of grass until humans began selective breeding. The fat-seeded crop of
today looks little like the thin-seeded plants of 7,000 years ago. Under the microscope, it looks different too:
although the overall wheat genome is quite similar to that of its wild grass relatives, the selective breeding
over thousands of years has concentrated genetic mutations that have made today’s wheat a plant that
produces hundreds of times more nutritional value than the wild varieties. Did the farmers know that they
were manipulating genes? Certainly not. Is that what they in fact did? Of course. Although they did not
understand how they were manipulating the grass genome, they certainly understood that they were
manipulating the nature of the grass called wheat.In the past few centuries, selective and complex forms of
breeding have become much more complex and more exact sciences. (Look at the stunning yield-increasing
results of the commercialization of hybrid corn varieties beginning in the 1930s.) But it was still a scattershot
approach, with success in the field occurring because of gigantic numbers of failed attempts in the laboratory
and greenhouse. Scientists were able to create the grounds for genetic good fortune to occur, but they could
not dictate it. They relied on genetic mutations happening naturally and randomly and then embraced the
chance results.This began to change after the existence and nature of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was
revealed by scientists in the 1950s. Once scientists realized that almost all life forms were formed and
operated by orders arising from DNA, the implications began to come clear: if elements of DNA could be
manipulated, changed, or switched, the form and functions of life forms could be changed for a specific
purpose.

Opinion Paragraph
I would say that genetic engineering has both pros and cons. The way we use the technology right now has
mostly pros (as post 2 pointed out). We are able to create healing techniques and medicines. We can even
improve our crops to feed our population better. One of the dangers in this equation is, of course, unforeseen
consequences to these actions. It took nature millinea to develop what humans have changed in a
matter...I'm all in favour. Well I should temper that answer. The most likely uses initially will be for strange
vanity projects like making sure your kid a blue eyed blond etc.. Can't say I think that a particularly good use
of the science. On the other hand the random nature of evolution means we carry all sorts of strange DNA
combos. While it is interesting to know that Africans carry more resistance to Malaria due to environmental
pressure, their predisposition to sickle cell anemia is less positive. Would be nice to keep the former without
the latter, don't you think? The general objections to genetic engineering is the fear that we will essentially
turn the species into some kind of monoclonal freak. Given our history as a species that fear is not without
foundation. On the other hand, no species is built for "forever" and we WILL go extinct at some
point. Whether we do so with a whimper or bang, depends on how smart we are as a group. I find it hard to
believe we will manage to beat the system though. So from my point of view, the best hope is we help create
our inheritors, whether they be machine or animal. Be interesting to come back in a 500 or a 1000 years and
see how we made out. VIII
Figure 1. The DNA structure: Nucleotide building blocks are shown in nearly atomic detail.
What is DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a large biomolecule that contains the complete genetic information for an
organism. Every cell of living organisms and many viruses, contains DNA. The basic building block of a DNA
molecule is called a nucleotide, and a single strand of DNA may contain billions of nucleotides. (Refer to
Figure 1 to see the DNA structure with labeled parts.) Although each DNA molecule contains many of these
building blocks, only four unique nucleotides are used to create the entire DNA sequence; these are written
as A, G, C and T. Analogous to how the 26 letters of the alphabet can be arranged to create words with
different meanings, these four nucleotides can be arranged in sequences to "spell" the genetic instructions
to create all of the different proteins organisms need to live.
Because DNA contains instructions for an organism to create several different proteins, it is useful to define
another sub-unit of DNA called genes (shown in Figure 2). Each gene is a small segment of DNA that contains
a set of instructions for an organism to create a single protein; a single organism may have thousands of
different genes. Together, the entire set of genes for an organism is called its genome. To use another analogy,
think of the genome as an entire cookbook for an organism, and each gene is an individual recipe in that
cookbook. When a single recipe is followed, the result is a specific protein.

Figure 1. The DNA structure: Nucleotide building blocks are shown in nearly atomic detail.
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Genetic Engineering Technique
The process for genetic engineering begins the same for any organism being modified (see Figure 3 for an
example of this procedure).
1. Identify an organism that contains a desirable gene.
2. Extract the entire DNA from the organism.
3. Remove this gene from the rest of the DNA. One way to do this is by using a restriction enzyme. These
enzymes search for specific nucleotide sequences where they will "cut" the DNA by breaking the
bonds at this location.
4. Insert the new gene to an existing organism's DNA. This may be achieved through a number of
different processes.
When modifying bacteria, the most common method for this final step is to add the isolated gene to
a plasmid, a circular piece of DNA used by bacteria. This is done by "cutting" the plasmid with the same
restriction enzyme that was used to remove the gene from the original DNA. The new gene can now be
inserted into this opening in the plasmid and the DNA can be bonded back together using another enzyme
called ligase. This process, shown in Figure 4, creates a recombinantplasmid. In this case, the recombinant
plasmid is also referred to as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). Refer to the associated
activity bacteria transformation to have students create a model to simulate and learn about the process
used by genetic engineers to modify bacteria.

Figure 4. Building a recombinant plasmid to modify bacteria.

Once the recombinant DNA has been built, it can be passed to the organism to be modified. If modifying
bacteria, this process is quite simple. The plasmid can be easily inserted into the bacteria where the bacteria
treat it as their own DNA. For plant modification, certain bacteria such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens may
be used because these bacteria permit their plasmids to be passed to the plant's DNA.

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 Conclusion
As genetically engineered innovations create more and more crossovers with science, industry, and human
life, the debates are likely to intensify in passion and increase in complexity. Some biological ethical issues
do appear to deflate over time, however. For example, in the 1980s and 1990s, human reproductive
technology was an area of great debate and controversy as new methods were discovered, developed, and
perfected. Notions such as artificial insemination and a wide array of fertility treatments — and even
surrogate motherhood — were violently divisive less than a generation ago but have found broad acceptance
now across much of the world. Although there is still discussion and debate about these topics, much of the
passion has evaporated, and many young people of today would not understand the horror with which the
first “test tube baby” was greeted by some Americans.
Some of these concerns, such as that regarding in vitro fertilization, appear to have evaporated as people
have accepted novel ideas that are not fundamentally offensive to them. Other debates, such as those
surrounding sperm and egg banks, remain unresolved, but the heat has gone out of them. Other concerns,
such as surrogate motherhood, have been alleviated by regulations or legislation to control or ban certain
practices. Whether this will happen in the realm of genetic engineering remains to be seen. Sometimes
scientific innovations create a continuing and escalating series of concerns and crises. Other crises and
concerns tend to moderate and mellow over time.
Even if genetic science is used only to survey life forms to understand them better — without altering the
genetic code at all — does that allow humans to make decisions about life that it is not right for humans to
make? Some are concerned about prenatal tests of a fetus’s genes that can reveal various likely or possible
future diseases or possible physical and mental problems. If the knowledge is used to prevent the birth of
individuals with, for example, autism, has society walked into a region of great ethical significance without
giving the ethical debate time to reach a conclusion or resolution? A set of ethical issues entirely different
from those already debated at length in the abortion debate is raised by purposeful judging of fetuses on the
grounds of their genes.
A simple, non–genetic engineering example of this type of issue can be seen in India. Legislators have been
concerned about and tried to prevent the use of ultrasound on fetuses to reveal whether they are male or
female. This is because some families will abort a female fetus because women have less cultural and
economic value in some segments of Indian society. Similar concerns have been expressed in North America.
Humans have been concerned about eugenics for a century, with profound differences of opinion over the
rights and wrongs of purposely using some measure of “soundness” to decide when to allow a birth and
when to abort it. These issues are yet to be resolved, and genetic engineering is likely to keep them alive
indefinitely.One area of concern has less to do with the utilitarian, practical aspects of genetic engineering
than with spiritual and religious questions. The problem is summed up in the phrase playing God: by altering
the basic building blocks of life — genes — and moving genes from one species to another in a way that
would likely never happen in nature, are humans taking on a role that humans have no right to take?Even if
some genetic engineering innovations turn out to have no concrete and measurable negative consequences,
some people of a religious frame of mind might consider the very act of altering DNA to produce a human
good to be immoral, obscene, or blasphemous. These concerns are often raised in a religious context, with
discussants referring to religious scriptures as the basis for moral discussion. For example, the biblical book
of Genesis has a story of God creating humans in God’s image and God creating the other animals and the
plants for humanity’s use. Does this imply that only God can be the creator and that humans should leave
creation in God’s hands and not attempt to alter life forms? If so, what about the selective breeding that
humans have carried out for thousands of years?
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On the other hand, if humans are created in God’s image and God is a creator of life, then is not one of the
fundamental essences of humanity its ability to make or modify life? Because God rested after six days of
creation, however, perhaps the creation story suggests there is also a time to stop creating.
The advent of the age of genetic engineering has stirred up a hornet’s nest of concerns about the new
technology. Some of these concerns are practical and utilitarian. Some are ethical and some are religious in
nature. Regardless of whether one approves of genetic engineering, it is doubtless here to stay. The
knowledge has been so widely disseminated that it no government, group of governments, or international
organizations is likely to be able to eliminate it or prevent it from being used by someone somewhere. The
genie is out of the bottle, and it is probably impossible to force it back in.
If they wish to find acceptable approaches before changes are thrust upon them rather than being forced to
deal with ethical crises after they have arisen, scientists, politicians, and the public at large will have to
develop their ethical considerations about genetic engineering as quickly and profoundly as these new
discoveries surface and expand.

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