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Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, Mie 514-8507, Japan
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Physics Division, College of Information Science and Engineering,
Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
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Department of Physical Engineering, Mie University, Mie 514-8507, Japan
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Institute of Physics, Kazan Federal University, Kazan 420008, Russia
and microcanonical and canonical ensembles of bosons and fermions are derived from
are constructed by the use of the discrete phase operators and the gauge-theoretical
structure associated with them. It is shown how the interaction Hamiltonians stipulated
by the gauge symmetry generate the specific patterns of entanglement that are desired
vanishing-interaction limit.
______________
*) Corresponding author
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At the fundamental level of its principles, statistical mechanics may be inseparable
from quantum mechanics. An evidence for this may be seen in the fact that the Planck
phase space Γ . In addition, the probabilistic concept in classical theory is due to lack of
concerned not with the Planck constant but with the temperature: classical statistical
statistical mechanics from quantum mechanics. Relatively earlier attempts are found in
[1-3], and then a crucial role of quantum entanglement [4,5], ensemble typicality [6,7]
and eigenstate thermalization [8,9] (and the references cited therein) have come to form
integral parts of this subject. These are also of direct relevance to quantum
theoretical tools.
quantum mechanics, we require the following two points: (I) perfect decoherence has to
be realized for an isolated system, and (II) the principle of equal a priori probability
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Some comments are in order. Firstly, derivations of microcanonical and canonical
ensembles of isolated fermions have been discussed in Ref. [12], where the four-body
expectation values and variances of physical quantities only in terms of the occupation
to the microcanonical one is a basic premise there. In addition, requirement (I), i.e.,
typicality” has recently been studied also for free fermions in Ref. [13]. There, only the
states of a subsystem are discussed through partial trace over the complement system
dynamics [14]) that are entangled with the objective fermionic subsystem. Therefore,
For the purpose of simultaneously establishing (I) and (II), clearly a certain
certainly indispensable even for statistical mechanics of free particles. As known in the
discussion of the classical ideal gas, actually the particles should weakly interact each
other: otherwise, the equilibrium state may not be realized. However, such an
Here, we study interactions of the specific type for both bosons and fermions. They
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the solutions of the stationary Schrödinger equations and are required to vanish when
the statistical mechanical descriptions of the systems are performed. We discuss how
disappearance of the interactions is linked with random phases that can give rise to
ensembles of bosons and fermions are found to emerge, and then canonical ensembles
Let us start our discussion with considering the following free Hamiltonian of N
identical oscillators:
N
Ĥ 0 = ∑ ĥi , ĥi = ε n̂i . (1)
i=1
Here, n̂i is the number operator given by n̂i = âi† âi , where âi† and âi are
respectively the creation and annihilation operators satisfying the commutation relations,
⎡⎣âi , â †j ⎤⎦ = δi j and ⎡⎣âi , â j ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣âi†, â †j ⎤⎦ = 0 for bosons, and the anticommutation relations,
i
†
{â , â } = δ
j ij and {âi, â j } = {âi†, â†j } = 0 for fermions. ε denotes the common energy
of the identical oscillators, and zero-point energies are not included for the sake of
N
simplicity. In addition, the following notation is understood: ∑ Âi =Â1 ⊗ Iˆ2 ⊗ ⋅⋅⋅ ⊗ IˆN
i=1
+ Iˆ1 ⊗ Â2 ⊗ Iˆ3 ⊗ ⋅⋅⋅ ⊗ IˆN + ⋅⋅⋅ + Iˆ1 ⊗ ⋅⋅⋅ ⊗ IˆN−1 ⊗ ÂN with Iˆi being the identity operator
necessary to introduce interactions, which are ignored at the stage of describing the
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system in the statistical mechanical manner. The interactions we consider here are
( ) ∑ exp (iθ ) θ
s
exp i φˆi = mi mi i i θ mi ( i = 1, 2, ..., N ), (2)
mi =0
s
1
θ mi i =
s +1
∑ exp (i n θ ) n
i mi i i . (3)
ni =0
The quantities and symbols appearing in these expressions are defined as follows. In the
case of bosons, s is a large but finite positive integer: that is, each boson is defined in
the (s+1)-dimensional truncated space, and the limit s → ∞ should be taken after all
calculations concerning the phases and phase operators [15,16]. On the other hand, s is
always unity for fermions, and the limiting procedure is irrelevant. θ mi is a c-number
given by
2π mi
θ mi = ( m i = 0, ..., s ). (4)
s +1
ni i
in Eq. (3) is the orthonormal number state satisfying n̂i ni i = ni ni i , and the set
{n } i
n i =0, ..., s
forms a complete orthonormal system in the (s +1) − dimensional space.
orthonormal system in the same space. Therefore, the state in Eq. (2) is the eigenstate of
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( )
the operator in Eq. (1) with the eigenvalue exp i θ m i . The total number state is given
n1 † n2 nN
by n1, n2 , ..., nN = ( â1† ) (â )
2 ⋅⋅⋅ ( âN† ) 0 / n1 ! n2 ! ⋅⋅⋅ nN ! (n i = 0, ..., s; i = 1, 2,
annihilated by âi .
The phase states and phase operators mentioned above have widely been applied to
the studies of phase properties of quantum states of light such as the coherent and
squeezed states.
As pointed out in Ref. [17], the operator φˆi in Eq. (2) can be interpreted as an
( )
exp i φˆi ni i = ni −1 i ( ni ≠ 0 ), ( )
exp i φˆi 0 i = s i , (5)
which can immediately be obtained from the phase operator expressed in terms of the
number states
s−1
exp i φˆi =
( ) ∑ ni n i +1 + s i i
0. (6)
i i
n i =0
With this form, we observe that under the gauge transformation of the first kind
ni i → ni i exp (i Λ ni , µi ) , (7)
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with the local ( n i − dependent) gauge function
2π µ i n i
Λ ni, µ i = ni θ µ i = ( µ i = 0, ..., s ), (8)
s +1
where ∂Λ ni , µi ≡ Λ ni +1, µi − Λ ni , µi (= θ µi ) . Thus, we see that Eq. (5) remains gauge invariant.
N
V̂ = ∑ v̂i , (10)
i=1
where
⎣ ( )
v̂i = ⎡exp i φˆi − s i i ⎦ (
0 ⎤ exp −i θ mi ) (bosons), (11)
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The summations of the operators in Eqs. (10) and (13) are understood in the sense
mentioned after Eq. (1). The subtraction terms inside the square brackets on the
right-hand sides in Eqs. (11) and (12) are introduced in order to eliminate the second
F̂i
term on the right-hand side in Eq. (6). The factor (−1) is characteristic for the
allows us to move the location of v̂ i on the total fermionic number state without sign
n1 † n2 ni−1 ni nN
changes. For example, v̂i n1, n2 , ..., nN = ( â1† ) (â )
2 ⋅⋅⋅ ( âi−1
†
) v̂i ( âi† ) ⋅⋅⋅ ( âN† ) 0 .
⎛ † N
⎞
HI = g ⎜V V + N ∑ 0 0⎟, (14)
⎝ i=1
i i
⎠
where g is a coupling constant. The second term inside the brackets is related to the
subtraction terms in Eqs. (11) and (12). Accordingly, the total Hamiltonian reads
Ĥ = Ĥ 0 + Ĥ I , (15)
Ĥ u E = E u E . (16)
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The exact solution of this equation is found to be
E M , N = M ε + g f (N ) , (17)
u E = M; N, [θ m ]
1 ⎛ N ⎞
= ∑
W (M, N ) P{n}
n1, n2 , ..., n N δ n1 +n2 +⋅⋅⋅+nN , M exp ⎜ i ∑ ni θ mi ⎟ .
⎝ i=1 ⎠
(18)
Kronecker’s delta inside the summation in Eq. (18) implies the constraint condition that
f (N ) in Eq. (17) has the following properties. f (N ) = N 2 for the bosons. On the
other hand, it varies as 0 < f (N ) ≤ N 2 for the fermions, depending on the value of M,
and the maximum value f (N ) = N 2 is realized in the case M = 1 . The symbol Σ P{n}
in Eq. (18) denotes the summation over all independent permutations of (n1, n2 , ..., nN ) .
Thus, entanglement of the specific type is induced by the interaction Hamiltonian. For
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example, in the case of M = 2 and N = 3 , the states are 2; 3, [θ m ] =
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1
+ 1, 0, 1 exp (i θ m1 + i θ m3 ) + 0, 1, 1 exp (i θ m2 + i θ m3 )⎤⎦ and 2; 3, [θ m ] =
3
There are two important points here. The first one is concerned with the gauge
transformation of the Hamiltonian. From Eqs. (7) and (8), both of v̂ i in Eqs. (11) and
( )
(12) transform as v̂ i → v̂ i exp −i θ µ i . Therefore, unlike Ĥ 0 , the interaction
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Hamiltonian in Eq. (14) is not invariant under the transformation. However, the state in
the same form for the transformed Hamiltonian and the state (with the energy
eigenvalue being kept unchanged), implying gauge covariance. The second point is that
s
1
(s +1) N
∑ M; N, [θ m ] M; N, [θ m ] = 1 , (19)
m1, m2 , ..., mN =0
(M + N −1)!
W (M, N ) = (bosons), (20)
(N −1)! M !
N!
W (M, N ) = (fermions). (21)
(N − M )! M !
The sums over the phases in Eq. (19) are actually trivial since the inner product does not
depend on the phases, but we purposedly introduce them for the later convenience.
Equations (20) and (21) are precisely the degeneracies in Bose-Einstein and
Now, following the philosophy mentioned earlier, the interaction is ignored at this
stage of shifting to the statistical mechanical description of the system. That is, the
g→0, (22)
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has to be taken. In this limit, the total energy in Eq. (17) converges to
E M, N = M ε . (23)
The phase operators as the observables disappear from the theory, and accordingly
θ mi ’s in the quantum states become irrelevant and should be eliminated. This could be
somewhat analogous to the concept of random phases [18]. Thus, in view of Eq. (19),
the physical state in the vanishing coupling limit is given by the density matrix summed
s
1
ρ̂ =
(s +1) N
∑ M; N, [θ m ] M; N, [θ m ] , (24)
m1, m2 , ..., mN =0
which is calculated to be
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ρ̂ = ∑ n1, n2, ..., nN n1, n2, ..., nN δn1+n2 +⋅⋅⋅+nN , M .
W (M, N ) P{n}
(25)
The limit s → ∞ can also be taken for the bosons, now (recall that s is always unity for
the fermions). This is precisely the microcanonical density matrix of the bosons with Eq.
(20) or the fermions with Eq. (21). We ascertain that both perfect decoherence and
Thus, the microcanonical ensembles are derived for the bosons and fermions from
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von Neumann entropy S = − tr ( ρ̂ ln ρ̂ ) for the state in Eq. (25) yields the Boltzmann
relation S = lnW (M, N ) with the Boltzmann constant being set equal to unity. The
isolated system into the objective system S consisting of N S oscillators and the heat
WS (M S , N S ) WB (M B , N B )
M; N, [θ m ] = ∑ W (M, N )
M S ; N S , [θ S,m ] S
MS , MB
⊗ M B ; N B , [θ B,m ] B δ M S +M B , M , (26)
where
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M A ; N A , [θ A,m ] A
= ∑ nA,1, nA,2,..., nA,N A
WA (M A , N A ) P{nA } A
δ nA,1+nA,2 +...+nA,N A , M A
⎛ NA ⎞
× exp ⎜ i ∑ nA,i θ A, mi ⎟ ( A = S, B ). (27)
⎝ i=1 ⎠
In Eq. (26), the symbol Σ M A ( A = S, B ) stands for the summation over all possible
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number of excitations. The state in Eq. (25) is then rewritten as
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ρ̂ = ∑
W (M, N ) M S ,M B
∑ nS,1, nS,2 , ..., nS,N S
S S
nS,1, nS,2 , ..., nS,N S
P{nS }, P{nB }
The canonical density matrix of S is obtained from this by the partial trace over B,
leading to
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ρ̂ S = ∑ WB (M − M S , N B )
W (M, N ) M S
≅ exp(− β ES, M S , N S ) WB (M, N B ) with β being the inverse temperature defined in terms
E A, M A , N A = M A ε ( A = S, B ).
fermions based on the gauge-theoretical structure associated with the phase operators
and have seen how entanglement of the specific types is induced by the interactions.
Then, we have derived both Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac statistics from the
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stationary Schrödinger equation in the vanishing interaction limit.
Acknowledgments
YY would like to thank Huaqiao University for hospitality extended to him. The
work of SA has been supported in part by a grant from National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 11775084) and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (No. 26400391 and No. 16K05484), and by
the Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University from the Ministry of
References
[9] D’Alessio L, Kafri Y, Polkovnikov A and Rigol M 2016 Adv. Phys. 65 239
[10] Gemmer J, Michel M and Mahler G 2009 Quantum Thermodynamics, 2nd edition
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(Berlin: Springer)
(Berlin: Springer-Verlag)
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