Tom Rainey Thesis

Queensland University of Technology
A study into the permeability and

compressibility properties of
Australian bagasse pulp
By
Thomas J. Rainey
B.Eng (Chem), Hons I
A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
School of Engineering Systems

Queensland University of Technology
2009
IMPORTANT NOTICE
The information in this thesis is confidential and should not be disclosed for
any reason nor relied on for a particular use or application. Any invention or
other intellectual property described in this document remains the property of
Queensland University of Technology.
i
Thomas J. Rainey, A study of bagasse pulp filtration
© Copyright 2009
by Thomas J. Rainey
ii
Thomas J. Rainey – A study of bagasse pulp filtration
Keywords
Sugarcane; bagasse; pulp; paper; permeability; compressibility; filtration;

Kozeny-Carman; drainage; forming; steady-state; dynamic; chemical additives;
flocculants.
iii
Executive Summary
This is an experimental study into the permeability and compressibility

properties of bagasse pulp pads. Three experimental rigs were custom-built for
this project. The experimental work is complemented by modelling work.
Both the steady-state and dynamic behaviour of pulp pads are evaluated in the
experimental and modelling components of this project.
Bagasse, the fibrous residue that remains after sugar is extracted from
sugarcane, is normally burnt in Australia to generate steam and electricity for
the sugar factory. A study into bagasse pulp was motivated by the possibility of
making highly value-added pulp products from bagasse for the financial benefit
of sugarcane millers and growers. The bagasse pulp and paper industry is a
multibillion dollar industry (1). Bagasse pulp could replace eucalypt pulp
which is more widely used in the local production of paper products. An
opportunity exists for replacing the large quantity of mainly generic paper
products imported to Australia. This includes 949,000 tonnes of generic
photocopier papers (2). The use of bagasse pulp for paper manufacture is the
main application area of interest for this study.
Bagasse contains a large quantity of short parenchyma cells called ‘pith’.

Around 30% of the shortest fibres are removed from bagasse prior to pulping.
Despite the ‘depithing’ operations in conventional bagasse pulp mills, a large
amount of pith remains in the pulp. Amongst Australian paper producers there
is a perception that the high quantity of short fibres in bagasse pulp leads to
poor filtration behaviour at the wet-end of a paper machine. Bagasse pulp’s
poor filtration behaviour reduces paper production rates and consequently
revenue when compared to paper production using locally made eucalypt pulp.
Pulp filtration can be characterised by two interacting factors;

permeability and compressibility. Surprisingly, there has previously been very
little rigorous investigation into neither bagasse pulp permeability nor
iv
compressibility. Only freeness testing of bagasse pulp has been published in

the open literature. As a result, this study has focussed on a detailed
investigation of the filtration properties of bagasse pulp pads.
As part of this investigation, this study investigated three options for

improving the permeability and compressibility properties of Australian
bagasse pulp pads. Two options for further pre-treating depithed bagasse prior
to pulping were considered. Firstly, bagasse was fractionated based on size.
Two bagasse fractions were produced, ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse fractions.
Secondly, bagasse was collected after being processed on two types of juice
extraction technology, i.e. from a sugar mill and from a sugar diffuser. Finally
one method of post-treating the bagasse pulp was investigated. The effects of
chemical additives, which are known to improve freeness, were also assessed
for their effect on pulp pad permeability and compressibility.
Pre-treated Australian bagasse pulp samples were compared with several

benchmark pulp samples. A sample of commonly used kraft Eucalyptus
globulus pulp was obtained. A sample of depithed Argentinean bagasse, which
is used for commercial paper production, was also obtained. A sample of
Australian bagasse which was depithed as per typical factory operations was
also produced for benchmarking purposes.
The steady-state pulp pad permeability and compressibility parameters

were determined experimentally using two purpose-built experimental rigs. In
reality, steady-state conditions do not exist on a paper machine. The
permeability changes as the sheet compresses over time. Hence, a dynamic
model was developed which uses the experimentally determined steady-state
permeability and compressibility parameters as inputs. The filtration model
was developed with a view to designing pulp processing equipment that is
suitable specifically for bagasse pulp. The predicted results of the dynamic
model were compared to experimental data.
The effectiveness of a polymeric and microparticle chemical additives for

improving the retention of short fibres and increasing the drainage rate of a
bagasse pulp slurry was determined in a third purpose-built rig; a modified
v
Dynamic Drainage Jar (DDJ). These chemical additives were then used in the
making of a pulp pad, and their effect on the steady-state and dynamic
permeability and compressibility of bagasse pulp pads was determined.
The most important finding from this investigation was that Australian
bagasse pulp was produced with higher permeability than eucalypt pulp, despite
a higher overall content of short fibres. It is thought this research outcome
could enable Australian paper producers to switch from eucalypt pulp to
bagasse pulp without sacrificing paper machine productivity. It is thought that
two factors contributed to the high permeability of the bagasse pulp pad.
Firstly, thicker cell walls of the bagasse pulp fibres resulted in high fibre
stiffness. Secondly, the bagasse pulp had a large proportion of fibres longer
than 1.3 mm. These attributes helped to reinforce the pulp pad matrix.
The steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters for the

eucalypt pulp were consistent with those found by previous workers.
It was also found that Australian pulp derived from the ‘coarse’ bagasse
fraction had higher steady-state permeability than the ‘medium’ fraction.
However, there was no difference between bagasse pulp originating from a
diffuser or a mill.
The bagasse pre-treatment options investigated in this study were not

found to affect the steady-state compressibility parameters of a pulp pad.
The dynamic filtration model was found to give predictions that were in
good agreement with experimental data for pads made from samples of pre-
treated bagasse pulp, provided at least some pith was removed prior to pulping.
Applying vacuum to a pulp slurry in the modified DDJ dramatically

reduced the drainage time. At any level of vacuum, bagasse pulp benefitted
from chemical additives as quantified by reduced drainage time and increased
retention of short fibres. Using the modified DDJ, it was observed that under
specific conditions, a benchmark depithed bagasse pulp drained more rapidly
than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp.
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In steady-state permeability and compressibility experiments, the addition

of chemical additives improved the pad permeability and compressibility of a
benchmark bagasse pulp with a high quantity of short fibres. Importantly, this
effect was not observed for the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp. However, dynamic
filtration experiments showed that there was also a small observable
improvement in filtration for the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp. The mechanism of
bagasse pulp pad consolidation appears to be by fibre realignment. Chemical
additives assist to lubricate the consolidation process.
This study was complemented by pulp physical and chemical property

testing and a microscopy study. In addition to its high pulp pad permeability,
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp often (but not always) had superior physical properties
than a benchmark depithed bagasse pulp.
vii
List of publications
Journal articles
Rainey, T.J., Doherty, W.O.S., Brown, R.J., Martinez, D.M., and Kelson, N.A.
– Pressure Filtration of Australian bagasse pulp, Appita J. (2009)
submitted to Transport Porous Med.
Rainey, T.J., Doherty, W.O.S., Brown, R.J., Martinez, D.M., and Kelson, N.A.
- An Experimental Study of Australian Sugarcane Bagasse Pulp
Permeability, Appita J. (2009) accepted for publication.
Peer-reviewed conference papers
Doherty, B. and Rainey, T. - Bagasse fractionation by the soda process, Proc.

Aust. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Mackay. (2006). 545-554.
Conference papers
Rainey, T.J., Doherty, W.O.S., Brown, R.J., Kelson, N.A. and Martinez, D.M. -
Determination of the Permeability Parameters of Bagasse Pulp from Two
Different Sugar Extraction Methods. In Proceedings Tappi Engineering
Pulping and Environmental Conference, Session 4.1, Portland, Oregon,
USA. (2008).
Rainey, T., Brown, R., Martinez, D.M., and Doherty, B. - The use of CFD to
simulate the behaviour of bagasse pulp suspensions during the dewatering
process, Appita conference, Melbourne. (2006). Available online at QUT
e-prints.
Several of the above papers are available online at the following site:
http://eprints.qut.edu.au/
viii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all of my supervisors, without whom this thesis

would not be possible. I would like to thank Bill Doherty for helping me cope
with much of the structure and direction of my work – your door was always
open to me; Richard Brown - you always helped me with resource issues and
smooth progression through the milestones; Mark Martinez at UBC for
assistance with developing the dynamic filtration model and the long
discussions interpreting my data; and Neil Kelson for helping me with the
coding and article writing. All of you helped me in many ways.
This work would not have been possible without the financial
contribution of the Federal Government’s Sugar Research and Development
Corporation PhD scholarship fund, and income support from QUT’s Sugar
Research and Innovation. I would like to thank the Queensland Government’s
financial contribution through the PhD Smart State Fund. I also acknowledge
the financial contribution of the Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering
and the Engineering Systems theme. Your significant financial contributions
are deeply appreciated.
I would like to thank my family, particularly Jenni for her unending

patience through all those sleepless nights. Thank you Mum and Dad for your
support. Thank you Anna for entertaining me through my final year.
I would like to acknowledge the generous in-kind contribution of the

following organisations: the Australian Pulp and Paper Institute, particularly
Loi Nguyen, for use of their facilities; CSR Sugar and Mr. Paul Turnbull for
assistance with collection of the bagasse; Covey Consulting (Geoff Covey);
Appita (Ralph Coghill); Scion (Alan Dickson); Visy (Darren Ralston); Amcor
(Karl Osswald); Central Pulp and Paper Research Institute (Dr Roy and Dr
Sood); and HurterConsult (Bob Hurter).
Thank you Neil McKenzie for helping build the experimental equipment.
Thank you also to the countless others that contributed to this thesis.
ix
Formal supervisory team
Dr. Richard J. Brown, QUT, Built Environment and Engineering

Dr. William O.S. Doherty, QUT, Sugar Research and Innovation
Dr. Neil A. Kelson, QUT, High Performance Computing
Informal supervisor
Prof. D. Mark Martinez, University of British Columbia, Department of
Chemical and Biological Engineering
The project participants wish to acknowledge receipt of project funding

from the Australian Government and the Australian Sugarcane Industry as
provided by the Sugar Research and Development Corporation
This research is proudly supported by the Queensland Government’s

Growing the Smart State PhD Funding Program and may be used to assist
public policy development. However, the opinions and information contained
in the research do not necessarily represent the opinions of the Queensland
Government or carry any endorsement by the Queensland Government. The
Queensland Government accepts no responsibility for decisions or actions
resulting from any opinions or information supplied.
x
This thesis is dedicated to my Dad, thank you for enriching my life,

and to my daughter Anna, welcome to the world.
“Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I

will fear no evil, for you are with me; your rod and your staff, they
comfort me.” – Ps 23:4
xi
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To
the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no materials previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature ___________________
Date __________________
xii
Contents
Executive Summary -------------------------------------------------- iv
Abbreviations and nomenclature --------------------------------xvii
Terminology----------------------------------------------------------- xx
Chapter 1 Introduction --------------------------------------------- 1
1.1. Background and motivation 2
1.1.1. The production of sugar and bagasse from sugarcane 3
1.1.2. Potential uses of bagasse 6
1.1.3. Paper manufacture 7
1.1.4. Issues with bagasse paper manufacture in the
Australian context 10
1.1.5. The benefits of flocculants to assist paper formation 12
1.2. Research aim 12
1.3. Statement of objectives 12
1.4. Statement of novelty 14
1.5. Summary of thesis chapters 16
Chapter 2 Theory and Literature Review -------------------- 19

2.1. Background 19
2.2. Bagasse pulp properties 21
2.2.1. Bagasse pulp yield 21
2.2.2. Bagasse pulp fibre morphology 22
2.2.3. Chemical character of bagasse pulp fibres 23
2.2.4. Bagasse pulp physical properties 24
2.3. Pulp permeability and compressibility parameters 26
2.3.1. Steady-state permeability theory 26
2.3.2. Steady-state compressibility theory 35
2.3.3. Dynamic filtration theory 36
2.3.4. Non-Darcy flow 39
2.3.5. Equipment used in filtration studies 40
2.3.6. Additional filtration theory of particular importance to
this study 48
2.4. Chemical additives 52
2.4.1. The mechanism of CPAM and microparticle dual
polymer systems for pulp flocculation 52
2.4.2. Flocculant systems 53
2.4.3. Literature on flocculants used for bagasse pulp 55
xiii
2.4.4. Using the Dynamic Drainage Jar as a tool for

comparing flocculants 56
2.4.5. Summary of chemical additives literature and theory 57
2.5. Summary of theory and literature review 58
Chapter 3 Experimental procedure and modelling---------- 60

3.1. Overview of experimental and modelling methodology 61
3.1.1. Preparation of Australian bagasse pulp 62
3.1.2. Physical and chemical property testing 63
3.1.3. Steady-state permeability property testing 63
3.1.4. Steady-state compression testing 64
3.1.5. Dynamic filtration modelling and verification 64
3.1.6. Effect of chemical additives on the drainage and
retention properties 65
3.1.7. Flow diagram of the experimental and modelling
methodology 65
3.2. Bagasse pulp preparation 67
3.2.1. Collection of raw materials 67
3.2.2. Pulp sample preparation 71
3.2.3. Test for statistical significance between two
populations of pulp samples 76
3.3. Physical and chemical property testing procedure 78
3.3.1. Chemical characterisation of pulp and bagasse 78
3.3.2. Pulp physical property testing 79
3.3.3. Fibre length analysis 80
3.3.4. Microscopy investigation 81
3.4. Steady-state permeability testing equipment and
experimental procedure 83
3.5. Quasi steady-state compressibility experimental
procedure 88
3.6. Dynamic filtration modelling and experimental
verification procedure 90
3.6.1. Dynamic filtration modelling procedure 91
3.6.2. Verification of the dynamic model 91
3.7. Equipment and procedure for testing the effect of
chemical additives 92
3.7.1. Methodology – Effect of shear 94
3.7.2. Methodology – Effect of vacuum 95
3.7.3. Methodology – Effect of chemical additives on
permeability and compressibility. 97
3.8. Summary of the experimental investigation 97
Chapter 4 Results and discussion ------------------------------- 99
xiv
4.1. Results of bagasse chemical pulping 100

4.1.1. Bagasse pulping kinetics 100
4.1.2. Effect of bagasse pre-treatment on Australian bagasse
pulp yield 101
4.1.3. Effect of bagasse pre-treatment on bagasse pulp kappa
number 103
4.1.4. Summary of bagasse pulping analyses 103
4.2. Results of physical and chemical property testing 104
4.2.1. Pulp chemical analysis results 104
4.2.2. Pulp physical property results 107
4.2.3. Fibre length distribution analysis 112
4.2.4. Microscopic analysis 115
4.2.5. Summary of pulp physical and chemical property
testing 116
4.3. Results of steady-state permeability testing 117
4.3.1. Data from steady-state permeability testing 117
4.3.2. Effect of bagasse pre-treatment on pulp permeability
properties 121
4.3.3. Review of bagasse pulp steady-state permeability
model 122
4.3.4. Comparison of steady-state permeability data with
previous work 123
4.3.5. Summary of steady-state permeability experiments 125
4.4. Results of quasi steady-state compressibility testing 126
4.4.1. Suitability of the power law steady-state
compressibility model 127
4.4.2. Pulp steady-state compressibility data and comparison
with the findings of previous workers 128
4.4.3. The effect of pre-treament on bagasse compressibility 129
4.4.4. Summary of steady-state compressibility testing 131
4.5. Results of dynamic filtration modelling and validation 131
4.5.1. Predictions of the dynamic model 131
4.5.2. Dynamic filtration experiments and comparison with
predicted values 136
4.5.3. Summary of dynamic filtration modelling 137
4.6. Results of chemical additives testing 139
4.6.1. The effect of shear and additives on pulp retention 140
4.6.2. The effect of chemical additives and vacuum 146
4.6.3. The effects of chemical additives on permeability and
compressibility parameters 151
4.6.4. The effect of chemical additives on bagasse pulp’s
dynamic filtration behaviour 158
xv
4.6.5. Summary of the effect of chemical additives on pulp

permeability and compressibility 161
Chapter 5 Conclusions ------------------------------------------ 163

5.1. Findings of this thesis 164
5.2. Recommendations for future work 167
References------------------------------------------------------------ 169
Appendix A Supplementary material for dynamic
filtration modeling ----------------------------------------------- 183
A.1 Derivation of the dimensional governing equation for
the dynamic filtration model 184
A.2 Non-dimensionalising of dynamic model for
FORTRAN 188
A.3 FORTRAN 77 program for the dynamic filtration
model 191
A.4 Graphs comparing predictions of dynamic filtration
model with experimental data 197
Appendix B Summary of pulp samples ---------------------- 203

Appendix C Supplementary photographs of
experimental work ----------------------------------------------- 207
Appendix D Table of Students t distribution---------------- 211
Appendix E Fibre length data of pulp sample -------------- 213
Appendix F Engineering drawings of compression cell--- 215
xvi
Abbreviations and nomenclature

Abbreviations
APPI Australian Pulp and Paper Institute
CPAM Cationic polyacrylamide
CPPRI Central Pulp and Paper Research Institute
CSF Canadian Standard Freeness
DCM Dichloromethane
DDJ Dynamic Drainage Jar
FQA Fibre Quality Analyser
OD Oven dry
LSD Least Significant Difference used by Scion for comparing
populations of pulp fibres
PAM Polyacrylamide
PPJ Positive Pulse Jar
QUT Queensland University of Technology
SRI A QUT institute; Sugar Research and Innovation
UBC University of British Columbia
WRV Water retention value
xvii
Nomenclature
A cm2 the cross sectional area of a porous bed for use with Darcy’s
Law
a - an experimental constant for use in the Davies Kozeny factor
correction
b - an experimental constant for use in the Davies Kozeny factor
correction
c g/cm3 pulp concentration
D the flexural term in for the filtration governing equation; used
in Appendix A.
D* -
the dimensionless form of D used for coding the dynamic
filtration model in FORTRAN (Appendix A)
g cm/s2 acceleration due to gravity
h cm the height of the pulp mat in the compressibility cell
K cm2 Darcy’s permeability constant
k - the Kozeny factor
k’ cm2 a permeability constant used by El-Sharkawy and co-workers
for measuring an Indian bagasse pulp
∆L cm the height of a bed of porous material for use with Darcy’s Law
∆l cm the distance between the two manometers
L mm the length of a fibre or capillary
M kPa a compressibility constant, used in the expression Ps=McN
m kPa a compressibility constant, , used in the expression Ps=m Ф n
m* cm-1 the ratio of surface area to volume of a capillary
N - a compressibility constant, used in the expression Ps=McN
n - a compressibility constant, used in the expression Ps=m Ф n
ni - the number of fibres with length Li
∆P mPa the pressure drop across a bed of porous material for use with
Darcy’s Law,
∆p mPa the pressure drop between two manometers
Q cm3/s the flow rate through a porous material for use with Darcy’s
Law
2 3
Sv cm /cm the specific surface area of pulp fibre
t min time
xviii
T - the dimensionless time used for coding the dynamic filtration

model in FORTRAN
u m/min the compression rate of the platen during experiments with the
compressibility cell
r
v cm/s velocity
x cm the distance from the top platen of the compressibility cell
X - the dimensionless distance from the top platen of the

compressibility cell used for coding the dynamic filtration
model in FORTRAN
Greek letters
α cm3/g pulp swelling factor,
ε - pulp porosity (between 0 and 1)
µ mPa.s liquid viscosity
Φ - solidity (i.e. volume solids fraction)
ρ g/cm3 density
σ standard deviation
τ Student’s t- statistic
τs viscous stress tensor
Subscripts
e equivalent length, as distance through a capillary, Le, or velocity
through a capillary, ue.
f the fluid phase
i the number of a fibre or population, as in fibre length Li
PE pooled estimate
s the solid phase
w weighted basis, as in Lw.
0 initial
xix
Terminology
Chemical additives includes microparticle and polymeric additives that

increase fibre flocculation (see ‘fibre’).
‘Coarse’ bagasse bagasse that is retained on a 12.5 mm screen.
Compressibility the compression behaviour of a pulp mat or pad (see

‘pulp mat’ and ‘pulp pad’).
Digester a pulp and paper reactor (see Reactor) for the digestion
of lignocellulosic material by delignification to produce
pulp.
Dynamic varies with time. For some experiments in this study

the dynamic effect is the varying compressive load
which changes the filtration properties and shape of a
pulp pad over time.
Fibre normally refers to pulp fibre. Composed of mainly

liberated schlerenchyma cells and some parenchyma
material. This term is conventionally used in the pulp
and paper industry. Bagasse is often described as
‘material’ rather than ‘fibre’ in this thesis to assist with
clarity on whether the parent material or the pulp is
being discussed.
Filtration in this study includes the combined effects of

permeability and compressibility behaviour in a pulp
mat or pad. In this thesis, this term is reserved to
describe dynamic behaviour.
xx
‘Fine’ bagasse very short fibre that passes through a 4 mm screen.

Contains mainly pith (see ‘pith’).
Fines very short material which includes fibres.
Freeness an experimental measure of the ability of pulp to drain

freely.
Forming the process of producing a pulp mat from a pulp slurry.
Hardwood a wood species containing short fibres, such as eucalypt.
Kappa number a measure of the residual lignin content.
‘Medium’ bagasse bagasse which passes a 12.5 mm screen but is retained

on a 4 mm screen.
Non-wood a fibre resource not derived from wood, such as

sugarcane bagasse, wheat straw, kenaf, sorghum,
bananas or hemp.
Permeability the ability of a fluid to permeate a porous material.
Pith very short parenchyma cells which exists in sugarcane

and which do not have the characteristics of fibres.
Porosity the void fraction of a porous material on a volume basis

(see also ‘solidity’).
Pre-treatment describes how the fibrous material is treated prior to

or preparation pulping.
Pulp mat used in this thesis to mean a thin sheet of fibres less
than a few millimetres produced from a dilute pulp
slurry, as at the wet end of a paper machine.
Pulp pad is used for very thick pulp mats, such as those used for
experiments in this thesis. Applies to mats more than a
few millimetres and up to 300 mm in depth.
xxi
Quasi steady-state an approximation of steady-state conditions (see

‘steady-state’).
Reactor equipment for carrying out a chemical reaction. In this

thesis it has the same meaning as a digester (see
digester).
Solidity the solids fraction of a porous material on a volume

basis (see ‘porosity).
Steady-state invariant with time. For some experiments in this study

the level of compression of a pulp pad is constant (or
almost constant, i.e. ‘quasi steady-state’) meaning the
filtration properties are not changing with time.
xxii
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
The study presented in this thesis investigates the permeability and
compressibility properties of Australian bagasse pulp pads1. Three options are
assessed for improving these properties of pulp pads. Firstly, the permeability
and compressibility properties of pulp prepared from ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’
size fractions of bagasse are compared. Secondly, bagasse produced from two
different modes of cane juice extraction, i.e. a mill and a diffuser, are
considered. Finally, the effect of flocculating chemical additives, namely
cationic polyacrylamide and bentonite, are examined. The steady-state
permeability and compressibility parameters for bagasse pulp are determined
experimentally using purpose built experimental equipment and are used as
inputs for a dynamic filtration model. The permeability and compressibility
properties of Australian bagasse pulp are compared with numerous benchmarks
including eucalypt pulp and bagasse pulp from Argentina.
In this chapter, the background and motivation for the work is presented
in section 1.1. Also, the aims (section 1.2) and the objectives (section 1.3) are
provided. A statement on the novel aspects of this study is in section 1.4 and
the chapter concludes with a summary of the thesis structure (section 1.5).
1
The ‘Terminology’ section in the preamble to this thesis should be read in order to assist the
reader’s understanding of key concepts.
1
1.1. Background and motivation
The Australian sugar industry is mainly a single commodity producer

with raw sugar as the primary product. It consists of 25 raw sugar factories
producing $1.5 billion worth of raw sugar. Australia exports 80-85% of its raw
sugar product and so the industry is exposed to fluctuations in the world sugar
price (e.g. 3). Recently the Australian sugar industry was faced with a near
financial collapse because of the low sugar price, a series of poor crops and a
strengthening Australian dollar. As such the sugar industry is seeking to
diversify its product stream to increase revenue and reduce its dependence on
sugar. To achieve this, the industry is investigating new products that can be
made from the fibrous sugarcane residue, that is, bagasse. Of particular interest
to the sugar industry is the use of bagasse in paper manufacture.
Figure 1.1 shows a sketch of a billet of cane. The ‘bast’ is the external
part of the plant and the ‘pith’ is the internal part of the plant. The bast and the
pith are particularly important in the context of this thesis. The good
papermaking fibre from bagasse is mainly derived from the bast portion of the
sugarcane plant. Bagasse pulp quality is believed to be detrimentally affected
by short ‘pith’ material (length < 0.3 mm). This material is liberated by the
sugar extraction process and constitutes 30% of the bagasse. The short material
can block the holes in the paper mat, preventing water from draining through it,
reducing the production rate and various quality characteristics of the final
paper product (4-6). It is thought that ‘depithing’ of the bagasse by removing
30% of the shortest bagasse material is essential to make pulp of acceptable
quality (e.g. (7), (8)).
2
Figure 1.1 Sketch of a billet of sugarcane showing the bast and pith
regions of the plant (adapted from 9).
Paper machines making fine papers (e.g. tissues, photocopier papers) use
short pulp fibres, such as bagasse and eucalypt, and are generally faster than
machines making paper products from longer fibres. Consequently these
machines require fibres with good filtration properties (i.e. better web drainage)
to generate a homogeneous sheet.
Industry experts have observed that replacing hardwood pulp with

bagasse pulp reduces paper machine production rates by 25-30% (10, 11). For
a small 70 t/d tissue machine, using bagasse would result in a loss of revenue of
$8 million per year. Improving the drainage properties of bagasse pulp would
allow higher production rates, reducing the competitive advantage of eucalypt
pulp over bagasse pulp in terms of production rate.
1.1.1. The production of sugar and bagasse from sugarcane

In Australia, sugarcane is typically harvested and brought to the sugar
factory as short lengths of cane called ‘billets’.
The billets are crushed in a sugar factory to extract the juice which
contains the sugar (13% - 15% of the plant). The juice is concentrated and
sugar crystals are produced. The fluid surrounding the sugar crystals, (i.e.
3
molasses), has a high sugar content (around 40%) which is sold for cattle feed
or converted into fuel ethanol. In Australia, revenue from molasses and its
products is very small compared to the revenue from sugar. The fibre left over
from the crushing process, i.e. bagasse, constitutes around 14% of the plant.
Australia produces 10 million tonnes of bagasse annually. The production of
sugar and bagasse is shown in Figure 1.2.
Crushing
Sugarcane Juice Sugar
Molasses
Bagasse
Conventional
ethanol
Figure 1.2 Schematic of sugarcane processing and bagasse utilisation

options.
There are two main methods of extracting juice from cane. Sugar ‘mills’
are used almost exclusively in Australian raw sugar factories. Sugar ‘diffusers’
are not common in Australia but are commonly used overseas.
Bagasse fibres are severely damaged by sugar milling. A typical sugar

milling roller unit is shown in Figure 1.3. Sucrose is extracted after opening up
the parenchyma cells (mainly in the pith). The opening up of the pith occurs
when the sugarcane is initially shredded in the hammermills, when it is
processed in the subsequent roller mills (typically, six roller mills) and also in
the final dewatering mill. However, some shear forces are also exerted in the
roller mills in between the hammermills and the dewatering mill in a sugar mill
that uses only a milling train.
4
Rollers Feed Pressure feeder rolls

chute
Pressure feeder chute
Delivery
nip
Feed nip
Figure 1.3 Sketch of a six roller unit where juice is extracted. Several of
these units follow the shredder and precede the final
dewatering roller mill (12).
The other form of juice extraction technology is a sugar ‘diffuser’ (see

Figure 1.4). For a diffuser, after cane preparation in a hammermill, and possibly
a first roller mill, the cane passes over a perforated plate, and juice or press
water is sprayed onto the fibrous bed to extract more sucrose. Along the
diffuser the juice is heated and lime is added to maintain a pH of 7. Subsequent
to the diffuser, the cane is passed through one or two drying roller mills.
Perforated plate
Figure 1.4 Sketch of a sugar diffuser (13).
5
The subtle differences between mill bagasse and diffuser bagasse may
affect pulp quality. Thus, this project examined the impact of the extraction
process on pulp fibres.
1.1.2. Potential uses of bagasse

In Australia, bagasse is normally burnt for its fuel value to produce steam
and renewable electricity. Despite its 50% moisture content, bagasse has a high
calorific value, 9.9 MJ/kg (14). Bagasse’s opportunity cost, based on its fuel
value, is low ($30-$60 per tonne) because of the availability of high quality
local coal.
Bagasse has properties suitable for a range of highly value-added

renewable products such as pulp and paper products, polymers, building
materials and renewable fuels (Figure 1.5).
Polymers Steam & electricity Pulp and paper
Fibreboard and
Hydrothermal
building materials
liquefaction Bagasse
biofuels
Animal feed
Cellulosic ethanol Dietary fibre Waxes and resins
Figure 1.5 Potential uses of bagasse.
One of the main uses of bagasse internationally, which is overlooked in

Australia, is pulp and paper manufacture, which is the topic of this thesis.
Dozens of countries (e.g. China, India, Argentina and Mexico) make bagasse
pulp and paper products estimated to be worth between $4 billion and $10
billion annually. This estimate is based on bagasse pulp accounting for around
3% of the pulp and paper industry (15). Imported bagasse paper products from
South Africa, India and China are available in Australian supermarkets and
could be displaced by local production, generating revenue for sugarcane
millers and growers.
6
Bagasse fibre is also used in building products. It is often used as a cheap

raw material in fibreboard or used as a filler in other products including
composite materials. Sometimes it is combined with cement and sand to make
reinforced concrete (16). These building products are common in India.
Recently, Australian researchers have investigated bagasse lignin and

cellulose as resources for renewable polymeric materials (17, 18). Revenue
from bagasse based polymers may grow substantially in the medium-term
because consumer demand for plastics produced from renewable and
sustainable resources is likely to increase.
There has been considerable interest for using lignocellulosic material,

including bagasse, for the production of fuel ethanol (19). However, at this
point in time, there is very little fuel ethanol commercially produced from
lignocellulosics, although a significant research effort is being undertaken in
Australia and overseas to realise this long-term goal that would reduce society’s
dependence on fossil fuels.
1.1.3. Paper manufacture

Modern paper manufacture is a highly capital intensive industry with
many stages of value adding being required until the paper finally reaches the
consumer.
The raw fibrous material is sourced from the forestry or agricultural

sector and usually stored in a large stockpile. Some pre-treatment often occurs,
such as the removal of pith in the case of bagasse, or fungal treatment in the
case of woodchips. In the case of bagasse, two stage depithing usually occurs.
The first stage is a ‘moist depithing’ where the bagasse from the mill is
separated into two fractions using a hammermill and a screen. The second
stage is ‘wet depithing’ which brings the total amount of pith that is removed to
30%.
The fibrous material is then broken down by mechanical or chemical

means into individual pulp ‘fibres’. The ‘fibres’ are often the tracheids
(softwood) or schlerenchyma cells (for bagasse), which are typically 1.0-
3.0 mm in length. For bagasse chemical pulp, which is investigated in this
7
study, the bagasse is normally loaded into a twin-screw horizontal ‘digester’

and the fibres are exposed to chemicals, such as caustic soda, elevated
temperature and pressure. Soda and soda AQ pulping, as used in this study, is
commonly used for bagasse chemical pulp. Bagasse lignin is much more
reactive than wood lignin, so the pulping conditions are very mild. Industrially,
the chemical charge is 12%-16% of sodium hydroxide (as NaOH on dry fibre),
at 170 °C but the pulping time is only 10 min to 12 min (20).
The formation of a fibre mat is a filtration process whereby a suspension

of fibres are deposited one layer at a time and water drains through the formed
mat (21). The result is that the flexible fibres overlay one another forming a
sheet of paper (see Figure 1.6).
Forming
fabric
(i) (ii)
Figure 1.6 Fibre orientation during paper formation at the microscopic

level shown in: (i) plan view (22); and (ii) elevation view (21)
It is thought that for bagasse pulp, the high content of short pith fibres
impede drainage which consequently reduces paper production rate.
There are two types of equipment commonly used to form a pulp mat
from a pulp slurry. These are the traditional ‘Fourdrinier former’ and the
modern ‘Twin-wire former’ which are normally designed for processing wood
pulp. Pulp fibres are suspended in water at 0.01% to 1% and are pumped into a
headbox.
The Fourdrinier former consists of continuous moving fabric. The pulp is

distributed along the width of the fabric and passes over a series of hydrofoils
8
which creates a pulsating vacuum underneath, promoting the drainage of the

pulp (Figure 1.7). At high speeds, instability of the free surface of the pulp
suspension on the polymer fabric can occur because of the pulsating vacuum
(23). The desire to increase the manufacturing speed ultimately resulted in the
development of the Twin-wire former.
B headbox
C slice
G hydrofoils
Figure 1.7 Elevation view of a Fourdrinier former (24)
Twin-wire forming involves pulp leaving a headbox slice and impinging

on a converging gap between two polymer fabrics (24). The dewatering rate is
higher in twin-wire forming than on a Fourdrinier former. The dewatering
occurs at both surfaces of the pulp/paper mat and a large mechanical force is
applied.
Fabric 2
Fabric 1
Figure 1.8 Elevation sketch of a roll former adapted from Parker (25)
9
Following paper formation, the moist wet sheet is mechanically pressed,

dried and reeled. Once a continuous dry paper sheet is produced, it is slit, cut
and packaged ready for the public.
1.1.4. Issues with bagasse paper manufacture in the Australian context

Eucalypt (a hardwood) is the material of choice for most Australian pulp
and paper manufacturers making fine papers, such as tissue and photocopier
paper, due to its ready local availability and its good pulp properties, such as
high tensile strength and printability. The average fibre length of bagasse pulp
is short, around 1.2 mm, and so it is a potential alternative to eucalypt (which
has an average fibre length of 0.8 mm to 1.0 mm) for paper production in
Australia. Despite the cost advantage of using bagasse ($30-$60 per tonne)
when compared to eucalypt ($150 per tonne) and the large existing sugar
industry, no bagasse-based products are made in Australia. The reasons for the
preferred use of eucalypt pulp include (26):
Processing issues due to the poor filtration properties of bagasse pulp;
Bagasse pulp has inferior strength properties relative to eucalypt pulp;
High capital cost, given the enormous economies of scale achieved by

many modern wood pulp mills; and
The remoteness of cane farms relative to Australian wood pulp mills

(see Figure 1.9).
An important focus of the work described in this thesis is the

investigation of options to improve bagasse pulp filtration properties. As will
be shown, the filtration characteristics can be improved by carefully preparing
bagasse prior to pulping.
10
(i) (ii)
Figure 1.9 Sketch of Australia showing (i) the paper industry

concentrated in south-eastern Australia (only three relatively
modern mills in Brisbane) (15) and (ii) the sugar industry
concentrated in north-eastern Australia (coloured yellow 27).
Additionally, the question of whether bagasse pulp could be produced

with permeability and strength properties similar to eucalypt is also addressed
as part of this investigation. If comparable properties for bagasse pulp and
eucalypt pulp can be achieved then there would be numerous benefits of
switching to bagasse pulp. As well as the lower cost of the raw material,
current consumer attitudes are favourable towards products with a perceived
environmental benefit. ‘Tree-free’ paper that is made without wood fibre
reduces deforestation. This is a particularly sensitive topic in southern
Australia where the current pulp and paper industry in concentrated.
The sugar extraction process also reduces the quality of the bagasse
fibres, reducing the pulp strength characteristics, including tensile strength, tear
strength and burst strength (28).
Bagasse pulp is normally processed on equipment designed for wood

pulp. To this end, if the filtration properties of bagasse pulp could be
characterised, this would provide valuable information to assist the design of
specialised bagasse pulp processing equipment using Computational Fluid
Dynamics, such as pulp washers and paper machine sheet forming fabrics.
11
Hence, complementary modelling of the bagasse filtration properties is

investigated in this study. However, equipment design using the model is
outside the scope of this investigation.
1.1.5. The benefits of flocculants to assist paper formation

Apart from improving the preparation of bagasse prior to pulping,
chemical additives, i.e. flocculants, also improve the production rate of a
paper/board machine. Pietschker and co-workers (29) for example reported
30 m/min increase in machine speed when a good drainage aid program was
employed at a corrugated medium mill and the increased fibre retention
resulted in $5-$20 per tonne reduction in fibre requirements. If similar results
were achieved say in a tissue mill with a production capacity of 70 t/d using
Australian bagasse, the increase in revenue resulting from the increased
production rate would be around $2-3 million per year and fibre savings of up
to $500,000 per year. The use of effective flocculants improves the quality of
formed bagasse sheets. For example, wire-marks are common in bagasse
photocopier paper.
1.2. Research aim
The aim of this project is to experimentally investigate three options to

improve the permeability and compressibility parameters of Australian bagasse
pulp pads with a view to making bagasse pulp competitive with local eucalypt
pulp. The experimental investigation is complemented by modelling of the
filtration behaviour of bagasse pulp pads.
1.3. Statement of objectives
The objectives of this project are:
1. To investigate three options to improve permeability and

compressibility properties of Australian bagasse pulp pads. The options
considered were:
1a: To use pulp derived from two selected fractions of non-pith

bagasse material.
12
1b: To use bagasse obtained from two different sugar extraction

methods.
1c: To select and add flocculants to the pulp slurry prior to pad
formation.
The effect of each option on the steady-state permeability and

compressibility constants is quantified. The bagasse pulp from this
study is compared to bagasse pulp produced industrially and also
eucalypt pulp.
2. To develop a dynamic filtration model that is well suited for Australian

bagasse pulp using the steady-state permeability and compressibility
parameter data experimentally obtained in (1).
3. To validate the dynamic model obtained in (2) by performing dynamic

filtration experiments with the pulp samples derived in (1).
The outcomes of the experimental and modelling filtration study, along

with supplementary pulp physical and chemical property testing, provided
guidance on the suitability of Australian bagasse pulp for various paper
products.
The relationship between objectives 1, 2 and 3 are shown in Figure 1.10.
13
Australian bagasse pulp

preparation Commercial Australian
Pulp from fractioned bagasse from bagasse pulp eucalypt
a mill or diffuser with and without from Argentina pulp
flocculants added
Objective 1: Steady-state experiments

Experimentally obtain the steady-state compressibility and
permeability parameters for each pulp and statistically
compare the pulp samples.
Objective 2: Dynamic filtration modelling

Use steady-state permeability and
compressibility data in a dynamic filtration
model to predict the dynamic filtration
behaviour
Objective 3: Dynamic model validation
Dynamic Verification of
filtration dynamic filtration
experiments model
Figure 1.10 Flow diagram of the relationship between the project

objectives.
1.4. Statement of novelty
To the author’s knowledge, there is no information on bagasse pulp pad

compressibility and permeability in the open literature. The study reported in
this thesis is a first attempt at investigating the permeability and compressibility
properties of bagasse pulp.
A bagasse pulp filtration study was performed as this has not been
studied extensively as will be shown in the literature review. Experimental
work and complementary mathematical modelling were used.
In this section, the novel aspects of the experimental study and

complementary theoretical modelling work are reported in light of the existing
body of knowledge described shortly in the literature review (Chapter 2).
14
The novelty of the experimental work
This study includes an investigation into whether three treatment options

have any influence on the steady-state permeability and compressibility of a
bagasse pulp pad. These options are the choice of mill or diffuser bagasse,
fractionation of the depithed bagasse stock prior to pulping and the addition of
flocculants to bagasse pulp slurry.
Several experimental rigs were specially designed and fabricated during

the course of this project in order to investigate the material properties of pulp
pads.
The first experimental rig, a ‘permeability cell’, tested the steady-state

permeability parameters of bagasse and eucalypt pulp pads. The collected data
were verified in dynamic filtration experiments using a second purpose built
experimental rig, namely a ‘compressibility cell’. This approach is different
from that used by previous authors. The approach in this study is believed to be
unique because the steady-state permeability data is measured using one rig and
verified using a dynamic filtration model in a second rig. In recent studies by
other workers, the steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters are
inferred directly from dynamic filtration experiments alone.
A third piece of experimental equipment, a ‘modified Dynamic Drainage

Jar’ was purpose built to optimise a flocculant system that is suitable for
bagasse pulp. The equipment was used to vary the flocculant addition rate,
shear and the level of vacuum. Their effect on the fines retention and the
drainage time of a pulp slurry was measured. This flocculant system that was
optimised for use with a pulp slurry was then used to make pulp pads.
Quantifying the effect of microparticle and polymeric additives (i.e.

flocculants) on bagasse and wood pulp pad steady-state compressibility and
permeability parameters has not been performed before. Normally, the
effectiveness of flocculants as drainage aids is almost always measured by the
‘freeness’ of a pulp slurry rather than by pad permeability. This is because
measuring freeness is a simple experimental procedure compared to measuring
pad permeability and compressibility. Pad permeability more accurately
15
represents paper mat filtration than the freeness test. The effect of these
additives on the dynamic filtration behaviour is also studied for the first time.
In addition to the novelty resulting from the filtration study, the type of
laboratory reactor used to produce the majority of the pulp samples (i.e. a
‘flow-through’ reactor) has not previously been used for processing bagasse.
The novelty of the modelling work
Regarding the mathematical modelling work, a review of the open

literature indicated that a dynamic filtration model has not previously been
developed and verified using a non-wood pulp, such as bagasse pulp. The
values for the various permeability and compressibility factors which are
required in the dynamic model presented in this thesis are determined, both for
bagasse pulp and wood pulp. It is believed that the model developed in this
study is valid over a wider range of compression rates than many existing
models. The range of compression rates for which other models are valid is a
potential contribution for a further study, but this is outside the scope of this
study.
1.5. Summary of thesis chapters
Chapter 2 presents theory and a literature review for a study into bagasse
pulp filtration, setting this project in the context of the wider body of
knowledge. Areas covered include bagasse pulping, chemical additives,
filtration theory and experimental equipment used by other workers for
studying paper formation. The gaps in the body of knowledge are identified.
Chapter 3 presents the experimental equipment and procedure for the

project. The chapter describes how the bagasse pulp samples were prepared,
the chemical and physical properties of the pulp samples and the equipment and
procedure for the steady-state permeability and compressibility testing. The
method used for coding and verifying the dynamic filtration model is explained.
Finally the approach for the chemical additives testing is described.
Chapter 4 gives detailed results and discussion from this experimental

and modelling investigation. The pulp characteristics are provided and
16
compared to previous workers. Data is collected to test for differences between

pulp samples and for use in verifying a dynamic filtration model. The findings
of a chemical additives study are presented.
Chapter 5 summarises the main conclusions resulting from the work, and
areas of further research are suggested.
Appendices are attached with supplementary material. The material

relating to the filtration modelling is in Appendix A. Information on the pulp
samples prepared in this study is in Appendix B. Numerous supplementary
photographs were taken during the experimental investigations to further
illustrate the experiments (Appendix C). Student’s t test is most commonly
used for statistically comparing populations of pulp samples, the table of t
values is provided in Appendix D. Data on the pulp fibre length distributions
are provided in Appendix E. Appendix F is the engineering drawings of the
equipment used for measuring pulp pad compression.
17
This page is deliberately blank.
18
Chapter 2 - Theory and Literature Review
Chapter 2
Theory and Literature Review
This chapter describes the theory and literature that is relevant to a study
on bagasse pulp filtration.
This chapter proceeds by describing the background literature related to

bagasse pulp (section 2.1), and bagasse pulp’s properties (section 2.2). Pulp
permeability and compressibility theory is discussed (section 2.3). The use of
chemical additives for improving flocculation and drainage of pulp suspensions
is reviewed (section 2.4). A summary of the theory and literature review is
presented (section 2.5).
2.1. Background
Bagasse can be used to manufacture various pulp types including

mechanical pulp (6), semichemical pulp (30), and chemical pulp (31). It is used
to manufacture various paper grades including newsprint (32-36), fine papers
(36, 37), tissue and packaging grades (38).
Due to the wide range of applications, the body of literature on bagasse

pulping is large (4-8, 26, 28, 30, 32-63). The consensus is that pith
detrimentally affects most properties of the pulp, particularly the filtration
properties and that good depithing is essential for high quality bagasse pulp.
The strength properties of paper sheets made from bagasse pulp are generally
weaker than for those made from equivalent hardwood fibres. The body of
literature pertaining to bagasse paper formation is much smaller (39-41, 50, 53,
19
64) and is focussed on the use of chemical additives that can be used to
improve the filtration properties. It is the authors view that despite the
consensus that pith adversely affects the filtration properties of bagasse pulp,
there is a significant gap in the literature when it comes to scientifically
quantifying its effect. This was one of the main objectives of this study.
A review of bagasse utilisation for the manufacture of paper, board and

composite materials reveals that the groundwork for bagasse paper manufacture
was laid between 1960 and 1980. Josef E. Atchison stands widely recognised as
the authority on bagasse paper manufacture having provided a significant
contribution to the literature over an extended period (see for example 8, 32, 33,
43, 44). His work is very well known amongst the non-wood pulp researcher
community.
Until recently, the focus of research into bagasse papermaking in

Australia has been on maximising pulp strength properties. The most
comprehensive work on Australian bagasse paper manufacture was published
in the early 1980s by Gartside and co-workers (28, 51, 65). The work by
Gartside and his group focussed on the relatively poor strength of bagasse pulp
caused by the milling process. These workers concluded that a change to the
milling process is required for Australian bagasse to be used as feedstock in
paper manufacture. This conclusion was misleading and incorrect. The
following important factors were not considered in the work of Gartside and his
group:
Pulp strength, although usually important, is not critical to meet the

specific demands of many pulp and paper products. For example water
absorption is critical in fluff pulp products. High pulp strength is
detrimental to tissue softness and a balance between softness and strength
is required. Bagasse pulp is usually well suited to both of these
applications;
The drainage and retention properties of the pulp. In the opinion of this
author, these properties are considered to be of more importance for the
economics of a bagasse paper mill than pulp strength;
20
The mode of sugar/juice extraction from sugarcane;
The pulping process employed; and
The availability of specialised cane varieties, with stronger fibre strength.
In addition to the above list, some technical developments within the

sugar and pulp & paper industries have emerged since Gartside’s work, such as
the advent of anthraquinone as a soda pulping additive, used in this study, and
the development of cane varieties that are better suited to paper manufacture.
Following chronologically on from the work of Gartside and co-workers,

Edwards in 1990 (66), investigated alternative juice extraction technology in an
attempt to improve pulp strength properties. Although this approach improved
pulp strength, it resulted in poor juice extraction.
There is a gap in the literature of Australian bagasse paper research

between Edward’s work in 1990 until other works by the author of this thesis,
i.e. Rainey, and his colleagues, Doherty and Lavarack commencing 2003 and
continuing until today (55, 67-69). These researchers investigated multiple by-
products from the pulping of bagasse such as organosolv lignin and soda lignin
and ethanol in addition to paper pulp. These studies were mainly focussed on
making co-products and bagasse pulp rather than converting bagasse pulp into
paper.
2.2. Bagasse pulp properties
Apart from the work by Gartside and co-workers, pulp property data used
in this thesis is largely drawn from three excellent articles; Giertz and Varma
(4), Paul and Kasiviswanathan (70) and Triana and co-workers (71).
2.2.1. Bagasse pulp yield

The unbleached pulp yield for soda bagasse pulp after screening is
reported by numerous authors (4, 28, 70, 71) in Table 2.1. There is variability
in the reported pulp yield, from 50% (71) to 61.4% (28). The yield reported by
Gartside (28) is significantly higher than found by most other researchers. The
21
fibres used by Gartside have different morphology which is discussed later in

this chapter.
Table 2.1 Soda bagasse pulp yield reported by various workers.
Kappa Screened Rejects, %

number, - yield, %
Paul (3.8:1 fibre to pith) (70) 14 54.4 0

Giertz and Varma (4)
(14% NaOH, soda pulp, 30 min) 20 51 7.6
(14% NaOH, 60 min) 18.5 56.9 2
Gartside (Cane variety NCo310) 21.7 61.4 Not reported
(28)
Triana (71) 29 50 Not reported
2.2.2. Bagasse pulp fibre morphology

Useful chemical characterisation and fibre morphology data are provided
by Triana and co-workers (71). The data is for pulp derived from both
conventional cane and ‘energy cane’ varieties. Energy cane is bred for its high
fibre content rather than its sugar content. Selected data is reproduced in Table
2.2 along with some fibre morphology data reported by Gartside and his group
for Australian bagasse pulp (28). The narrower width of the fibres reported by
Gartside and co-workers is due to a smaller lumen rather than due to a thinner
cell wall.
The bagasse pulp fibres measured in the detailed morphology studies by

Gartside and co-workers (28) and Triana and co-workers (71) were
substantially longer and narrower than reported in a number of other works,
such as (50, 64, 65). It is presumed that the average fibre lengths reported in
(28) and (71) were obtained from pulp containing mainly sclerenchyma
material and that the lengths of a limited number of fibres (typically only 1000
fibres) were measured manually with a projection microscope. However, other
authors reported the average fibre length as measured by an automated image
capture and analysis (e.g. Kajaani Fibrelab apparatus (50, 64)).
22
Table 2.2 Fibre morphology data of washed conventional cane and

energy cane by previous workers.
Fibre Fibre Lumen Wall

length diameter diameter thickness
(mm) (ȝm) (ȝm) (ȝm)
Ja 60-5 and Ba. 43-26
(71) 1.1-1.3 22-23 10.8-13.1 4.9-5.6
CSR6-81 (71) 1.4 22 12 5
Conventional cane
Triton (28) 1.43 17.6 8.1 4.8

NCo310 (28)
1.33 13.6 4.1 4.8
varieties
(65) 1.11
(50, 64) 0.73
Energy C90-176 and
Cane C90-178 (71)
2.0-2.1 23 13 5
2.2.3. Chemical character of bagasse pulp fibres

The chemical composition of bagasse pulp and the parent bagasse has
been reported by several authors. The characterisation method used by Triana
and co-workers (71) is the most similar to that used in this thesis. Their results
are reproduced below (Table 2.3). The cellulose component of the bagasse is
around 47% for conventional cane and increases to 73% for bagasse pulp.
Giertz and Varma (4) noted that the ash content decreased with increased
depithing.
Table 2.3 Chemical characterisation of washed cane and unbleached

bagasse pulp (71).
Conventional cane Energy cane

Bagasse pulp Parent bagasse Bagasse pulp Parent bagasse
Cellulose (%) 73 47 72-73 45-46
Hemicellulose (%) 23 27 23-24 28
Lignin (%) 2.4 23 2.3 22
Ash (%) 1.7 1 1.5 1
23
2.2.4. Bagasse pulp physical properties

The physical properties of bagasse pulp are highly dependent on the level
of depithing. Both Paul and Kasiviswanathan (70) and Giertz and Varma (4)
studied the effect of pith level and pulping conditions on the strength of bagasse
pulp. Paul and Kasiviswanathan focussed specifically on the effect of pith
levels on soda bagasse pulp, which was similar to the chemical process used in
this study (i.e. soda AQ). The study by Giertz and Varma looked at the effect
of pith level incidentally to the focus of their research and had similar findings.
The physical properties of unbleached pulp reported by various authors are
presented in Table 2.4. The results in the table published by Paul and
Kasiviswanathan are for pulps with a fibre to pith ratio similar to that used in
this study (i.e. 3.43:1).
24
Table 2.4 Physical properties of unbleached bagasse pulp reported by

previous workers.
Gartside Paul Giertz Triana

et al. (28) et al. (70) et al. (4) et al. (71)
Freeness CSF (mL) 540 250 313 558 558 313
Tensile Index (Nm.g) 85 112 70 62.9 28 40
2
Tear Index (mN.m /g) 6.2 5.55 5.5 6.1 5.2 5.1
2
Burst Index (kPa.m /g) 6.1 3.6 1.4 2.4
Apparent Density (g/cm3) 0.664
Paul and Kasiviswanathan (70) varied the level of depithing and report
the response of the bagasse pulp physical properties. In their study, the ‘fibre to
pith’ ratio is reported. The fibre to pith ratio is 1.8:1 to 2.0:1 for ‘whole
bagasse’, 2.6:1 to 2.8:1 for moist depithed bagasse, 3.0:1 to 3.8:1 for wet
depithed bagasse. The pulp samples were refined to 40 Schopper-Riegler
freeness. Some results from their study are reproduced in Table 2.5. In their
study, as the level of depithing increased (i.e. higher fibre to pith ratio), the
initial pulp freeness increased and the strength properties increased.
Table 2.5 Effect of depithing on unbleached bagasse pulp properties

(70).
Fibre to pith ratio 0.86:1 1.84:1 2.25:1 2.79:1 3.43:1 3.8:1 5.2:1
Initial pulp freeness (SR) 53 40 35 32 29 26 24
Final pulp freeness (SR) 53 40 40 41 39 40 40
Burst ‘factor’ (-) 33 31 32 34 36 36 41
Tear ‘factor’ (-) 36 43 49 51 55 58 68
Breaking length (km) 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.7
25
2.3. Pulp permeability and compressibility parameters
There is a significant body of literature where the compression of bagasse

was investigated by Australian workers, such as by Kent (72-74). This work
was performed with the intent of increasing sugar extraction from the sugar
milling process. The compression properties of bagasse are similar to that of
soil (75). The mechanisms involved in dynamic pulp pad filtration, particularly
particle collapse and flexural stiffness, are quite different to those that occur
during soil consolidation. To this end, the literature review focussed on
permeability theory generally, and also on pulp pad filtration more specifically.
The discussion of pulp pad permeability and compressibility that follows

has been divided into general steady-state permeability theory (section 2.3.1)
and steady-state compressibility theory (section 2.3.2), dynamic filtration where
permeability and compressibility are interdependent and are a function of time
(section 2.3.3) and the special case of non-Darcy flow (section 2.3.4).
Equipment which has been used previously for measuring the permeability and
compressibility of pulp pads is outlined (2.3.5). Additional theory which is
relevant to this study is presented (section 2.3.6).
2.3.1. Steady-state permeability theory
2.3.1.1. Darcy’s Law
The theory of steady-state laminar flow through a homogeneous porous

media is based on Darcy’s Law.
In 1856, Henry Darcy, developed an empirical law for the design and
construction of water distribution systems in Dijon, France. In his simple
experiment sand was packed into a column (see Figure 2.1) and water was
pumped through it.
26
Q (cm3/s) p2 (mPa)
L (cm) Rigid porous

(mPa) material
Q (cm3/s) p1 (mPa)
Figure 2.1 Sketch defining the parameters used in Darcy’s law for flow
through a homogeneous rigid porous media.
Darcy measured the flow rate through the packed bed and measured the
pressure drop between the top of the bed and the bottom of the bed, P, with
manometers. The resulting equation, Darcy’s original correlation is
Q K ' (∆P )
=
A ∆L
Equation 2.1
where Q is the volumetric flow rate through a bed of porous material with
cross-sectional area A, P is the frictional pressure drop across the length (L)
of the porous media bed, and K’ is a permeability constant which is dependent
on viscosity.
Although Darcy’s law is useful in this form for water, K’ is dependent on

the viscosity as well as geometric factors. In order to separate the dependence
of the permeability constant on viscosity, , K’=K/ is substituted where K is a
permeability constant that is independent of water viscosity (76, 77). K is
dependent on the shape, arrangement and porosity of the rigid material. This
amendment to Darcy’s correlation (Equation 2.1) became known as Darcy’s
Law (Equation 2.2) (77).
Q K∆P
=
A µ∆L
Equation 2.2
27
2.3.1.2. Relating K to porosity, ; the Kozeny-Carman equation and

its derivation from Poiseuille’s Law
In paper manufacture, the permeability of a pulp mat is affected by the

varying concentration and hence porosity of the developing pulp mat as well as
by the structural arrangement of the mat. There are a wide range of steady-state
permeability models relating Darcy’s permeability to the porosity. Scheidegger
(77) gives an exhaustive discourse on the various models that have been
derived. These correlations are broadly classified into (i) empirical
correlations; (ii) capillaric models; and (iii) hydraulic radius theories.
By far the most commonly used correlation between Darcy’s permeability

constant, K, and porosity for pulp and paper research is the Kozeny-Carman
equation (78-80).
The Kozeny-Carman equation is based on hydraulic radius theory.

Kozeny originally proposed the basic theory in 1927 which was significantly
modified by Carman in 1937 and 1956. The original form of the equation is
usually attributed to Kozeny due to his experimental work, although Blake (as
reported in 77) had previously derived a similar form of the equation from
Darcy’s law. The assumptions of all hydraulic theories include (77):
• Fluid motion occurs like motion through capillaries
• No tangential component of the fluid velocity
• No pores are sealed off
• The pores are randomly distributed
• The pores are uniform in size
• The porosity is not too high
• Diffusion phenomena are absent
The derivation of the Kozeny-Carmen equation starts by assuming that

flow through porous media can be approximated by assuming that the liquid
28
flows under laminar conditions through a series of parallel circular capillaries

(i.e. fixed parallel cylindrical tubes) as shown in Figure 2.2.
Hollow
capillaries
Solid
material
Figure 2.2 Sketch to illustrate the derivation of the Kozeny-Carman

equation.
Using Poiseuille’s law for a single capillary where ue is the actual

velocity through the capillary, Le is the length of the capillary, P is the
pressure drop across the capillary and d is the diameter of the capillary
d 2 ∆P
ue =
32µ L e
Equation 2.3
By definition, the ratio of surface area to volume (m*) of a capillary is
π d2L
d
m* = 4
e
=
πdL e 4
Equation 2.4
So d=4m* and substituting into Equation 2.3 gives
29
m *2 ∆P
ue =
k 0µ L e
Equation 2.5
Where k0 is a constant.
The average (i.e. superstitial) velocity across the bed of porous material,
u, is lower than the velocity in the capillary. Also the length of the capillary,
Le, is longer and more tortuous than the actual length of the pulp pad, L. i.e.
u Le
ue =
ε L
Equation 2.6
Substituting Equation 2.6 into Equation 2.5 yields
2
§L · m *2 ε ∆P
u = ¨¨ ¸¸
© Le ¹ k 0µ L
Equation 2.7
Defining a new constant, k
2
§L ·
k = k0¨ e ¸
© L ¹
Equation 2.8
And now applying the definition of m* over the whole of the porous
material,
pore volume ε
m* = =
surface area of particles (1 − ε )S v
Equation 2.9
1 ε 3 ∆P
u=
kS 2v (1 − ε )2 µL
Equation 2.10
30
This on comparison with Darcy’s Law implies the Kozeny-Carman

equation which is Equation 2.11.
1 ε3
K=
kS 2v (1 − ε )2
Equation 2.11
where the porosity (i.e. the void fraction) of the material is , the specific
surface area of the material (i.e. surface area per unit volume of porous
material) is Sv, and k is known as the ‘Kozeny factor’. The Kozeny factor, k, is
often referred to as a shape factor because it depends on the orientation and
interconnectivity of the channels. Unlike K, Sv is independent of concentration.
For this reason, Sv is more useful than K to compare the permeability of pulp
samples over a wide concentration range. Sv is used extensively in this thesis to
compare the steady-state permeability properties of pulp samples.
Values for Sv are widely reported in the literature for wood pulp (81-86).
The earliest reported values were by Robertson and Mason (86) for a sulfite
wood pulp. Sv was reported to be 2300 cm-1 for pulp that has never been dried
and 4100 cm-1 for pulp that has previously been dried. Gren (84) investigated
Sv as a function of kappa number for a sulphate wood pulp. Values of Sv were
reported to be between 2000 cm-1 and 3000 cm-1. These previous findings are
discussed in more detail when they are compared to the bagasse pulp measured
in this study (Chapter 4).
The most common variants of the Kozeny-Carman equation as presented

in Equation 2.11 include: using the solidity of the porous material ĭ instead of
the porosity (ĭ = 1 - ); separating the generalised specific surface area Sv into
a specific surface area multiplied by a tortuosity factor , Sv22; and simplifying
the kSv2 expression into a single term. The Kozeny-Carmen factor, k is often
applied as a constant for pulp fibres, 5.55, which was measured by Brown (87).
Despite its age this permeability model is still used today because of its
simplicity and accuracy. The Kozeny-Carman model is still being tailored
today for applications in a wide range of industries, such as in the coal industry
(88) and for groundwater management (89).
31
A common criticism of the Kozeny-Carman model is that k is actually a

function of porosity, and hence is variable. Soon after its inception, it was
found by Davies (90) and experimentally verified by Ingmanson and co-
workers (81), that for fibrous materials it can be represented by:
aε 3
k=
(1 − ε )
[
1/ 2
1 + b(1 − ε )
3
]
Equation 2.12
where a = 3.5 and b = 57 for fibrous materials. Other authors use a=4.0,
b=57 (81, 91) for rigid materials.
Notably, the value of Sv was found to vary depending on whether k was

fixed (at 5.55) or whether it varied according to Equation 2.12. Ingmanson (81)
found that for a wood pulp, for a fixed value for k, Sv was 4200 cm-1 but for a
variable k, Sv was 2900 cm-1.
Other criticisms of Kozeny’s approach include the use of arbitrary

correlations by many authors to reproduce results experimentally as well as
failure of the model under conditions of turbulence, high porosity or tangential
flow. Many modifications to the Kozeny model exist including those concisely
reported by Mauret and Renaud (92) which are all adaptations of the Kozeny-
Carman equation (Equation 2.11), mostly incorporating corrections for k (such
as Davies’s Equation 2.12).
32
Table 2.6 Reproduction of Kozeny constant correlations (92).
2.3.1.3. Alternatives to the Kozeny-Carman equation for steady-state

permeability
Dullien (93) provides a good summary of the relationship between
permeability and porosity proposed by various investigators, part of which is
reproduced below. These correlations are all of a similar form to Kozeny’s
correlation. Kozeny compared his experimental data and his correlation with
that of Zunker and Terzaghi. Carman (1937) acknowledges Slichter as having
made a major contribution to the development of steady-state permeability
correlations.
Table 2.7 The form of the relation between Darcy’s permeability factor
and porosity developed by various workers (93)
Relation Author
3.3 Slichter (1898)
/(1-)2 Zunker (1920)
[(-0.13)/(1-)1.3]2 Terzaghi (1925)
3/(1-)2 Blake (1922), Kozeny (1927), Carman (1937, 1948)
The only known work into measuring the permeability constant of

bagasse pulp was undertaken recently by El-Sharkawy and co-workers (50, 64)
for a commercial Indian pulp. In this work, an axial feed pressure screen was
used to process the pulp and the improvement in pad permeability was
measured using a pulsed ultrasound Doppler anemometer.
33
The form of the permeability model used by these authors is not

commonly used; the permeability constant is proportional to the first power of
the porosity in the numerator. This is the form first developed by Zunker viz
ε
K = k'
(1 − ε )2
Equation 2.13
where k' is a permeability constant.
El-Sharkawy and co-workers found the permeability constant for their

commercial bagasse pulp was 2.36×10-9 cm2. The work of El-Sharkawy and
co-workers is discussed further when their data is compared with the data
generated in this study (i.e. in Chapter 4).
There are a number of equations relating porosity to Darcy’s permeability

constant that are quite different to those discussed so far. One such correlation
is the Happel equations. Happel derived his equations directly from the Navier
Stokes equations for flow over an array of parallel cylinders both parallel and
perpendicular to flow (94). There is a fundamental difference to the approach
of Happel and Kozeny-Carman in that Happel derived the equations for flow
over an array of cylinders whereas the Kozeny-Carman model is derived from
Poiseulle’s law for flow through capillaries.
For flow parallel to an array of cylinders, Happel’s equation is (95)
D2
K=
(
32 1 − ε )
(
− 2 ln (1 − ε ) − 3 + 4(1 − ε ) − (1 − ε )
2
)
Equation 2.14
For flow perpendicular to an array of cylinders, Happel’s equation is
D 2 ª § 1 · (1 − ε ) − 1 º
2
K= « ln ¨ ¸ + »
32(1 − ε ) ¬ © 1 − ε ¹ (1 − ε )2 + 1¼
Equation 2.15
34
Happel’s approach was further developed by Jackson and James (96). In

reality, assuming all the pulp fibres are cylindrically shaped, most pulp fibres
are aligned roughly perpendicular to flow and there is some component of the
fibre being aligned parallel to flow. Jackson and James used Happel’s
equations to determine the permeability of cylinders arranged in a three
dimensional cubical lattice (96). If flow passes axially to a perfect cubical
lattice, exactly two thirds of the cylinders are perpendicular to flow and exactly
one third of the cylinders are parallel to flow (see Figure 2.3). Thus
D2 2
K= ( 3 F1 (φ) + 13 F2 (φ))
32φ
Equation 2.16
where
F1 (φ) = −2 ln (φ) − 3 + 4(φ) − (φ) from Equation 2.14
2
F2 (φ) = − ln φ +
(φ 2
−1)from Equation 2.15
(φ 2
+1)
Figure 2.3 Sketch illustrating Jackson and James (91) approach to

developing their steady-state permeability model.
2.3.2. Steady-state compressibility theory

Only one compressibility model for pulp pads was observed in the
literature. The various authors use variants on the following model
35
Ps = M c N
Equation 2.17
where c is the pulp concentration and M and N are experimental
constants.
This compressibility model is used universally for steady-state conditions

by the authorities in the field, such as Ingmanson in particular and also Gren
(81, 82, 84, 85). For comparative purposes, it is normally essential to rearrange
the compressibility factors used by each author into M and N.
2.3.3. Dynamic filtration theory

Dynamic filtration modelling was performed in this study so that pulp
processing equipment can be designed specifically for bagasse pulp, although
this is beyond the scope of this study. Also, for this study, steady-state
approximations are adequate for the initial phases of the investigation, but to
increase similitude with industrial paper making dynamic modelling is
considered. Dynamic filtration modelling is currently in vogue in the modern
pulp and paper literature.
2.3.3.1. The continuity and Navier-Stokes equations

A brief background on the origins of the fluid mechanics equations is
provided below. This thesis uses a filtration model built from these equations.
In summary both the equations describing the conservation of mass, the

continuity equations, and the conservation of momentum, the Navier-Stokes
equations, are required to fully describe the fluid kinematics and interaction
between pulp permeability and compressibility.
The equations of continuity are:
∂ρ
+ ρ∇ • v = 0
∂t
Equation 2.18
recalling that divergence is defined as
36
∂v ∂v ∂v
∇•v = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
The form of the Navier Stokes equations for incompressible flow is
DV
ρs = −∇P + µ∇ 2 V + ρg
Dt
Equation 2.19
The derivation of the equations of momentum start with Cauchy’s
equation which was improved first by Navier in 1822 (97) and further refined
by Stokes in 1845.
The left hand term in Equation 2.19 is the acceleration term (or inertial
term), the right hand side of Equation 2.19 consists of the pressure gradient
term ( ∇P ), the viscous force term ( µ∇ 2 V ) and the gravity term ( ρg ).
Assuming incompressible laminar flow through a cylindrical pipe,

Poiseuille’s Law can be derived from the Navier Stokes equations. For this
derivation, see (98)
Equation 2.19 is for incompressible flow of a single phase media. Pulp

mats are compressible two phase porous media so a number of amendments are
made. The momentum balance on the fibres and the fluid must be considered
separately and take into account the porosity of the structure. There exists
momentum transfer between the phases and the generalised viscous stress
tensor is used (i.e. s instead of ). In summary, for a porous media such as a
pulp pad, the momentum equations are applied to both the fibres and the fluid.
The general formula for momentum balance on the fibres is
Du
ρs φ
Dt
( )
= −φ∇Pf − ∇Ps + ∇ • φτ s + ρ s φg + m i
Equation 2.20
37
Where u is the velocity of the fibres, s is the viscous stress tensor. The
subscript f refers to the fluid phase and the subscript s refers to the solid phase
(i.e. the fibre). mi is the interphase momentum transfer
The general formula for momentum balance on the fluid is
Dv
ρ f (1 − φ)
Dt
( )
= −(1 − φ)∇Pf + ∇ • (1 − φ)τ s + ρ s φg − m i
Equation 2.21
Where v is the velocity of the fluid.
These equations are used to develop the governing equation used in this
thesis (section 2.4).
2.3.3.2. Filtration through compressible pulp mats and pads
There are a number of papers that have derived equations to calculate the
mechanics of fluid flow through compressible pulp media including porosity,
permeability and compressibility for various conditions (81, 95, 99-102).
Landman and co-workers (100) provide the governing equations for the basic
fluid mechanics of 1-D compressible porous media that can be determined
experimentally in a 1-D flow cell (Figure 2.4). The governing equations are
derived from the continuity equations, Navier-Stokes equations, Darcy’s Law
and the compressibility relation above. Landman and co-workers consider the
cases where (i) the initial pulp slurry is initially networked, as in a pulp pad, or
unnetworked, as in a pulp slurry, and (ii) the equipment used is a constant
pressure device (i.e. the piston exerts a constant force at variable rate as the pad
forms) or constant rate device (i.e. the piston exerts a constant rate despite the
increasing resistance as the pad forms). The four practical cases for which she
derives the solidity are:
• initially unnetworked fibre suspension & constant pressure

apparatus;
• initially unnetworked fibre suspension & constant rate apparatus;
38
• initially networked fibre suspension & constant pressure

apparatus; and
• initially networked fibre suspension & constant rate apparatus.
Figure 2.4 Schematic of a 1-D flow cell where a piston is expressing

liquid through an initially un-networked suspension.
This thesis considers the permeability and compressibility of a pulp pad

using an initially networked model.
2.3.4. Non-Darcy flow

The above equations all assume laminar flow. For flow at a sufficiently
high velocity, turbulence occurs and the more complex Forcheimer equation
can be used instead of Darcy’s Law (103).
µ 2
− ∇P = v + βρ v
K*
Equation 2.22
Where is an experimental constant and K* is a permeability constant
that is analogous to that used in Darcy’s Law.
39
2.3.5. Equipment used in filtration studies
This thesis uses an initially networked model for the permeability and
compressibility study since the steady-state permeability and compressibility
parameters. These parameters can be measured using simple equipment (see
sections 2.3.5.1). However, optimisation of a good chemical additives system
must be performed using equipment where a slurry is used rather than a pulp
pad, i.e. the pulp is initially un-networked. The equipment used for these
studies is described in section 2.3.5.2.
2.3.5.1.Equipment used for permeability and compressibility testing

of pulp pads
The equipment used by various workers into the permeability and
compressibility testing of pulp pads are fairly simple (81-86). Sometimes, the
focus of the investigation is on pad permeability only (86). Some
investigations attempt to measure the compressibility and permeability
properties simultaneously (81-85). The equipment in all of these investigations
involves loading a pulp slurry into a (most commonly) transparent vessel. For
permeability studies, the pressure gradient is measured by manometers as well
as the water flow rate. For compressibility studies, the response of a hydraulic
or mechanical load to the height of the pulp pad is measured.
Figure 2.5 shows the cell used by Robertson and Mason which is fairly
typical of permeability and compressibility studies. In this particular
arrangement, the pulp is loaded into a 40 mm cylinder which is bounded by a
plunger with a reinforced 100 mesh screen at the top of the pad. The flow rate
is measured by timing the drop in level of a measuring cylinder, and the
pressure head is measured by the difference in fluid height between the cylinder
and a side arm.
40
Figure 2.5 Sketch of a permeability cell used by Robertson and Mason

(86).
For the case of measuring compressibility simultaneously, the plunger

compresses the pulp pad in the experiment and there is continuous monitoring
of the flow rate and pressure.
In previous permeability and compressibility studies, the temperature of

the water was not reported, so it is assumed the experiments were carried out at
ambient temperature. The author acknowledges that industrial paper forming
occurs at elevated temperature which affects pulp pad permeability and
compressibility. Ambient temperature was used in this study in order to be
consistent with that used by previous workers for comparative purposes.
In reality, paper manufacture involves thin pulp mats rather than thick
pulp pads. Experimentally measuring the permeability and compressibility of
thin pulp mats is difficult, and beyond the scope of this study. For this reason,
previous authors, as well as this author, measured the permeability and
compressibility of pulp pads because it only requires very simple equipment. It
is common practice to use the results from experiments with pulp pads to
represent the behaviour of pulp mats.
41
2.3.5.2.Equipment for filtration studies of fibre suspensions
A review of equipment used previously for accurately simulating sheet

formation on a paper machine, from pulp slurry, was conducted. For this study,
equipment that was well suited to testing the effects of chemical additives under
shear conditions and vacuum was investigated.
A Dynamic Drainage Jar (DDJ) is a simple stirred vessel into which a

dilute pulp slurry and flocculants are added. The water and fine fibrous
material passes through a permeable screen with 75 m holes and the fraction
of fines retained above the screen is measured. By increasing the stirrer speed
(i.e. shear), the effectiveness of flocculants under high shear conditions can be
determined. Flocculation effectiveness is measured by the retention of fine
fibrous material. A higher level of retained fines over a wide range of stirrer
speeds means that flocculation has improved. The DDJ is most commonly used
to test the effectiveness of various flocculants and so it is discussed in more
detail in section 2.4. A DDJ was used in this study.
Figure 2.6 Sketch of a Dynamic Drainage Jar.
42
Many modifications of the DDJ exist for simulating the industrial

forming process. Modifications of the DDJ are the subject of a number of
papers (for example 104, 105). Modifications of the DDJ usually permit pad
formation to look at the combined effect of mechanical entrapment and
colloidal interaction.
The DDJ was modified by Britt and Unbehend in 1980 (106) to measure
the dryness of a sheet after exposure to a controlled vacuum. The vacuum was
applied to simulate the suction created on the Fourdrinier former; however, it
was not a pulsed vacuum. Britt and Unbehend (106) describe a method for
testing a dynamic drainage rate. An observation was that over-flocculation
created channels in the fibre pad, improving the initial drainage rate but once
the water was removed from the interstices of the pad air was sucked through
the sheet when vacuum was applied, resulting in higher final sheet moisture
content. Pulp suspensions of lower initial drainage rate tended to form more
consolidated and uniform sheets which when subjected to vacuum resulted in a
sheet of lower moisture content.
In 1982, the application of vacuum to a modified DDJ was automated

(107). In trials, Britt applied vacuum for 5 s and measured the final consistency
of the pad. In 1985, Britt further illustrated that pulp which drained quickly had
poor final dryness when vacuum was applied and that a certain level of fines
can improve the final sheet dryness (108). The following mechanism was
suggested: when the shortest fibres are mobile with respect to the fibre pad, the
fines migrate to the interstices of the forming web, sealing or plugging some of
the openings and slowing drainage but when the fines are flocculated and
attached to fibres, they are no longer free to migrate to the interstices and
drainage is not impeded.
The modification by Forsberg, called the “Dynamic Drainage Analyser”

(DDA) in (104) involved a microprocessor which served two functions; to
control (i) the duration of chemical addition in order to investigate contact time
between retention chemicals and fibres and (ii) the duration of stirring in order
to investigate different shear conditions. In this arrangement, it was intended to
form a pad to investigate mechanical entrapment of fibres as well as the
43
colloidal interaction. See Figure 2.7, for an illustration of the arrangement.

The DDA provided information on retention, drainage, porosity and wet web
dryness. The DDA recorded the vacuum level as a function of time. Figure 2.8
shows that the graphical output provided information on the drainage rate under
vacuum (time from point a to point c) and the final porosity of the dry sheet
(magnitude of vacuum at point d). The modified DDJ used in this study most
closely resembles Forsberg’s DDA.
Figure 2.7 Diagram of Forsberg’s Dynamic Drainage Analyser (104).
Figure 2.8 Graphical output of the DDA(104).
Although laboratory equipment that more accurately simulates the

industrial forming process exists, they came with increasing cost. In order to
44
improve the behaviour of bagasse pulp, a reasonably accurate and affordable

method of simulating the pulp dewatering process must be achieved in the
laboratory.
In order to further improve the similarity between laboratory equipment

and a Fourdrinier paper former, it was necessary to introduce pressure pulses
into the equipment. Various modifications of the DDJ attempted to incorporate
pulsed vacuum such as that described by Hubbe (105).
The modification by Hubbe, the “Positive Pulse Jar” (PPJ) (105) as

shown in Figure 2.9, introduced pressure pulses by a Bellows pump, pumping
dilutant under the jar. Previous versions had introduced pulses by vacuum
pump. The advantage of this method was that it more accurately simulated the
refluidising of the fibre mat facing the fabric, resulting in reduced fines content
in this region. The PPJ also investigated the use of a specialised rotor to
simulate uniform shear, as opposed to the random turbulence obtained in a
standard DDJ. The pressure pulses reduced retention. Importantly, the use of
the specialised rotor also resulted in reduced retention compared to the standard
impeller used by Britt.
Figure 2.9 Diagram of the PPJ and specialised rotor (105).
The Australian Pulp and Paper Institute (APPI) have pilot laboratory
equipment that more accurately simulates a Fourdrinier style paper machine;
see Figure 2.10 taken from Xu and Parker (109). It contains a moving belt with
hydrofoils attached in order to simulate the pressure pulses of a Fourdrinier
former. The equipment does not take into account the velocity profile of the
stock leaving the headbox slice.
45
Figure 2.10 Moving Belt Drainage Former (109).
Melbourne University in conjunction with CSIRO Forestry and Forest

Products (now called Ensis) also developed laboratory forming equipment that
simulates the velocity profile of the stock leaving the slice of an industrial
paper machine (110-112). This configuration is shown in Figure 2.11.
Importantly, this equipment is capable of aligning the fibres, approximating
fibre alignment on a paper machine. It does not take into account pressure
pulses characteristic of a Fourdrinier former.
Figure 2.11 Setup of the laboratory former by Helmer (110-112).
Another sophisticated piece of laboratory equipment outlined by Kataja

and Hirsila (113) should be mentioned here. Although it does not simulate the
forming process as accurately as the laboratory formers, it can be used to obtain
very detailed data about pulp pad formation; more than any other laboratory
equipment encountered. The equipment used by Kataja and Hirsila can be used
to measure the velocity of fibres at various heights in a dewatering fluid flow,
46
see Figure 2.12. This equipment is particularly useful for developing numerical
models of pulp suspension behaviour. The unit consists of a sealed tank with a
riser tube. Inside the riser tube is a wire and support grid. The suspension of
fibre is allowed to drain through the wire. The fibre is retained on the wire and
forms a fibre mat. The water level inside the riser is measured with an
ultrasonic surface detector. The vertical velocity of the fibres is measured
through the wire by four pulsed ultrasound Doppler anemometers. The signal
sent from the surface detector and the anemometers are processed and the data
is captured. The probes can measure the vertical velocity of the fibres up to
70 mm above the wire. The water level in the riser tube is adjusted by valves
V1, V2 and V3. Assuming valves V1 and V3 have adequate accuracy and
response time, the programmable logic could be modified to allow a time-
varying pressure pulse, simulating the effect of foils in Fourdrinier forming.
El-Sharkawy (50) used the equipment outlined by Kataja and Hirsila to

control bagasse pulp quality through fractionation and refining (50). This work
is the only published work with data presented on the drainage properties of
bagasse pulp.
Figure 2.12 Ultrasound anemometry for measuring filtration of fibre

suspension (113).
47
To measure the efficacy of chemical additives under both vacuum and

shear, a modified DDJ that most closely resembles that developed by Forsberg
was used for this project. It was simple to construct and gives an indication of
how chemical additives would perform under the dual effects of shear and
vacuum. The main differences are that it will involve a laptop computer to log
the data, the vacuum will be controlled by actuating a bleed valve on the
vacuum vessel and flow rate will be measured with digital scales. The
modified DDJ more closely resembles a Fourdrinier former than a Twin-wire
former.
2.3.6. Additional filtration theory of particular importance to this study
2.3.6.1.Steady state permeability theory

In the case of pulp fibres in the swollen state, a considerable amount of
water occupies the pores of the fibres. Incorporating into the Kozeny-Carman
model (Equation 2.11) allows this study to obtain information on potential
strength generation during refining as well as permeability data. If the swelling
factor of the fibres is cm3/g, then the porosity is related to the concentration, c
g/cm3, by = 1 – c.
Inserting into (Equation 2.11) and rearranging obtains
1/ 3
§ 1 ·
(Kc ) 2 1/ 3
= ¨¨ 2 2 ¸¸ (1 − αc )
© kα S v ¹
Equation 2.23
Plotting (Kc2)1/3 against concentration, c, will give a linear relation.
Darcy’s permeability, K, is determined from permeability experiments using
equation (1) and c is calculated from the height and diameter of the pulp pad for
a known mass of pulp. The specific surface area, Sv, and the swelling factor, ,
are calculated from the slope and the intercept of the graph. This method was
first used by Robertson and Mason (86). Sv and are then inserted back into
equation (2) to test the agreement of the experimental data with the Kozeny-
Carman model. The Kozeny factor, k, is frequently assumed to be constant.
For randomly packed fibrous beds, k was determined to be 5.55 (114).
48
Values for are reported in the same literature in which Sv is reported

(81-86). Reported values of vary more than the reported values of Sv.
Ingmanson and co-workers report values as low as 1.65 cm3/g for wood pulp
whilst Robertson and Mason report as high as 4.5 cm3/g for a sample of never
dried wood pulp.
The advantage of this method for quantifying the steady-state

permeability of pulp samples is that it requires a very simple experimental
method and also the equipment required is extremely simple. A pulp pad is
created by draining pulp slurry into a transparent vessel which is reinforced at
the bottom by a mesh. The flow rate is measured using a collection vessel and
stopwatch. The pressure drop per unit length can be measured by manometers.
The height of the pulp pad is measured to determine the pulp concentration,
assuming that the pulp concentration is approximately uniform in the absence
of significant hydraulic pressure. Darcy’s permeability constant, K, can be
determined from this data.
2.3.6.2.Steady-state compressibility theory

The compressibility equipment was designed so that the pulp could be
loaded into a cell and compressed with a permeable top platen which expresses
water. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.13, indicating the pressure
on the solid phase, Ps, at the platen. The distance, x, is defined from the top
platen.
The hydraulic pressure at the top surface of the pulp pad is negligible so
the force on the fibres equals the force exerted on the platen.
The compression model used is the power law model viz Ps = M c N
49
Expressed
water Applied
pressure Permeable
Ps top platen
x
Loaded
Depth into Height, h
pulp
the pulp
mat
Impermeable
base
Figure 2.13 Sketch of the compressibility cell.
The pulp concentration can be related to the solidity (that is, the volume
solids fraction), which is used in the dynamic model, by ĭ = c. Values for
are in the range of 3.2-3.8 cm3/g.
For this geometry,
Ps=m ĭn
Equation 2.24
where m and n are experimental constants analogous to, and calculated
from, M and N.
2.3.6.3.The dynamic filtration model

This study follows the analysis of Landman and co-workers (100) for a
one dimensional constant rate filtration (i.e. platen moves with constant speed)
using an initially networked suspension. Martinez has built on this work for
pulp and paper applications (115, 116). The modifications include the
incorporation of the Kozeny-Carman steady-state permeability model (Equation
2.11) and the power law steady-state compressibility model (Equation 2.24).
The derivation of the governing equations for the filtration of a pulp pad is
provided in Appendix A.
Using the definitions presented in Figure 2.13, the dimensional form of

the governing equation for constant rate filtration is
50
dφ d ª dφ º dh dφ
= D (φ ) −
dt dx «¬ dx »¼ dt dx
Equation 2.25
Where
φ(1 − φ) K (φ) mnφ n −1
D(φ) =

Equation 2.26
K(Ɏ) is the permeability as predicted by the Kozeny Carman model
(Equation 2.11). This governing equation is subjected to the initial condition
ĭ(x,0) = ĭ0 as the solidity is uniform throughout the cell, as well as the
following boundary conditions:
Boundary condition at the top platen

dh
x = 0, u = −
dt
dφ
=0
dx
Equation 2.27
Boundary condition at the base
x = 0, u = 0
dφ dh µ
=
dx dt K (φ )(1 − φ )mnφ n −1
Equation 2.28
Solution of the dynamic model requires the factors m and n calculated

from steady state compression experiments, Sv and from permeability
experiments. These equations are non-dimensionalised before being solved
(see Appendix A for the non-dimensional equations). The solution of these
equations provides values for ĭ over the ranges of x and t.
For comparative purposes, the model predictions for ĭ are determined at

x=0 for all t and consequently Ps is calculated (Equation 2.24). In the
experimental setup, the Instron measures the load on the top platen which is
converted to pressure. Validation of the model occurs if the experimental
pressure data matches the model predictions for solids pressure at the surface of
the pulp pad.
51
Both a constant k (k = 5.55), and variable k (Equation 2.12) with the

relevant values of Sv and , are investigated for use in the dynamic model.
The dynamic model assumes that 100% of the fibre is retained by the
platen and also neglects friction between the platen and the side wall.
The effect of applying vacuum at the bottom boundary, which occurs in a

Fourdrinier former has the same effect as increasing the pressure at the top
boundary.
2.4. Chemical additives
As mentioned in Chapter 1, the use of an effective flocculant system in

paper manufacture increases production rates, improves paper quality and
reduces raw material requirements. A reduction in the quantity of organic
material in the effluent also improves environmental performance. In this
thesis, cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) is combined with microparticles.
2.4.1. The mechanism of CPAM and microparticle dual polymer

systems for pulp flocculation
Cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) is used widely as a drainage aid for all
types of chemical pulp but has been shown to be suitable for applications with a
high amount of fine fibres, such as in mechanical pulp (117). Bagasse pulp
similarly has a very high quantity of fine fibre and so CPAM was the polymer
selected for this study. CPAM’s mode of action is straightforward. The
cationic polymer attaches to the negatively charged surface of the fibres
resulting in neutralisation and flocculation.
The addition of anionic microparticles, such as bentonite or colloidal

silica can further improve flocculation by bridging the cationic flocculant
chains (see Figure 2.14).
52
Figure 2.14 Mechanism of silica microparticles (118).
The important difference between conventional polymer flocculation and

microparticle systems is that under conditions of high shear, such as those in a
papermachine headbox, the bonds formed with polymers are destroyed, but
microparticle systems have the ability to reflocculate the fibres after being
subjected to high shear.
2.4.2. Flocculant systems
A large volume of work has been undertaken in developing and

comparing chemical additives for various types of pulp (mainly wood grades)
(e.g. 107, 119, 120-126). The progression of additive chemistry has been from
the single polymer systems (pre 1970s) to dual polymer systems (1970s, 1980s)
to polymer and microparticle systems (1990s to present). The following
articles on flocculant research are all for wood pulp grades, often with high
amounts of very short fibre.
Hubbe (124) and Rojas & Hubbe (127) define three forms of chemicals
widely used as drainage additives: coagulants; flocculants; and microparticles.
Hubbe defines coagulants as compounds of high positive charge density which
act to neutralise the negative charge on fibres and ‘ionic trash’. Ionic trash is
undesirable very small fibres that are generated in mechanical pulping and has
very high surface area; bagasse pith may be considered ionic trash. Examples
of coagulants include aluminium sulphate (or alum), polyamines and
polyethyleneimine (PEI). Flocculants are polymers that link fine particles
together. Flocculants are often very high molecular weight copolymers of
acrylamide (PAM). Microparticles are very small negatively charged particles,
such as colloidal silica and bentonite, that interact with cationic flocculants (e.g.
53
CPAM) or cationic starch and further improve flocculation. Brouillette and co-
workers (128), Sherman and Keiser (129) and Ledda et al. (130) all describe
various microparticle systems.
Flocculant systems often consist of various combinations of coagulants,

flocculants and microparticles. These studies tend to focus on fibre retention
rather than drainage. This point is noted by Allen and Yaraskavitch (119).
This study gives an excellent review of the dewatering potential of a large
number of systems. They make the following pertinent observations:
microparticle systems improve dewatering in alkaline systems; CPAM’s give a
small improvement in dewatering; and several other systems (e.g. PEI,
polyDADMAC and dual polymer) improve drainage at the expense of final
sheet moisture in vacuum dewatering. Britt and Unbehend (108) also observed
this effect.
Recently Carr (123, 131-133) has strongly advocated silica nanoparticles

rather than microparticles. Carr claims that the shear resistance of a particle
attached to a surface is inversely proportional to its size i.e. the smaller the
particle, the greater the shear resistance (131). Carr claims inventorship of
nanoparticles as a flocculant. However, Duffy (from Nalco Chemicals), in
1993, had previously noted that nanometer sized silica particles were extremely
efficient (118).
Miyanishi and Shigeru (134, 135) optimised flocculation and drainage by

comparing various microparticle systems and controlling the zeta potential (i.e.
the streaming potential which is an indication of the charge of the “white”
water). Miyanishi and Shigeru looked at the effect of adding various
chemicals, (alum, anionic polyacylamide, DADMAC, bentonite and CPAM), in
various sequences on both types of pulp containing and free from ionic trash. It
was found that alum, CPAM and then bentonite was the best sequence for acid
papermaking in the presence of ionic trash, with a 6% increase in flocculation
(as measured by improved turbidity) and 65% improvement in their defined
measure of “drainage”. DADMAC, anionic polyacrylamide and then bentonite
was found to be the best sequence for alkaline papermaking, with a 7%
improvement in flocculation and 50% improvement in “drainage”.
54
Kumar also used zeta potential to improve the retention of bagasse pulp
in a less thorough study (54). Using a DDJ, the bagasse pulp was fractionated.
The best order for retention aids was found to be rosin-starch-alum-filler. The
best zeta potential for retention was found to be -5 mV.
In contrast to the studies by Miyanishi and Shigeru (134, 135) and Kumar
(54), Britt (121) found that in dynamic systems, although zeta potential
provides additional information, flocculation can be improved without any
change in the zeta potential.
As can be observed from the variability in optimised flocculant systems,

the optimum chemical additives system is dependent on the pulp and needs to
be determined on a case-by-case basis. It appears from the literature that
CPAM and bentonite should give reasonable improvements in pulp drainage.
It is noted that most articles tend to focus on the fibre retention properties
of chemical additives rather than the drainage properties, which is the focus of
this thesis.
2.4.3. Literature on flocculants used for bagasse pulp

The literature on flocculants used for bagasse pulp is limited.
Abril’s work during the 1980s is the best reported literature with regards
to developing flocculant systems for improving the drainage behaviour of
bagasse pulp (39-41). Abril’s work was published in Spanish which was
translated into English because of its relevance to this study. Abril investigated
the effect of polymer drainage and retention aids on bagasse pulp (41). In this
laboratory study Abril used a DDJ to assess a range of drainage and retention
aids namely dextran, polyethyleneimine, anionic PAM and polyamideamine.
The polyethyleneimine and polyamideamine showed the biggest improvement
in retention and the best improvement in freeness.
In a further study (40), Abril tested modified polyamideamines, modified

polyethyleneimines (PEI’s) and CPAM in the laboratory. One of the modified
PEI’s gave the best drainage properties and was tested industrially. In the
industrial trial, the headbox freeness and retention (as measured by whitewater
55
consistency) both improved, permitting the machine speed to be increased from

245-270 m/min to 300 m/min.
Ibrahem and co-workers (53) looked at PAM as a filler retention aid for
bagasse paper. The fillers investigated were titanium dioxide, silica and kaolin.
Strength data is provided for pulp containing each filler over a range of PAM
addition. PAM can improve filler retention by between 63% and 86%. It does
not contain information about the effect of PAM addition on drainage.
There is no known literature on the use of microparticles as a drainage aid

for bagasse pulp.
2.4.4. Using the Dynamic Drainage Jar as a tool for comparing

flocculants
The DDJ has been described in section 2.3.5.2. It was developed by Britt
and Unbehend in the early 1970s for comparing the effectiveness of flocculants
under the high shear conditions that exist in a paper machine. Pulp flocculants
can be tested very quickly in the laboratory using this equipment. The DDJ has
become the standard test method used by the paper industry to test the
suitability of pulp flocculants under high shear. Several TAPPI test methods
have been written that use this device.
In 1977, Unbehend, Britt’s colleague and frequent co-author, describes

the equipments use for measuring fines and colloidal retention. This paper
forms the basis of Tappi (the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper
Industry) Test method T261 “Fines fraction by weight of paper stock by wet
screening”, making the equipment part of a standard test procedure.
In the standard test method, turbulence of the stock is maintained to

prevent pad formation (122). As shown in Figure 2.15, a stock is processed
through the DDJ giving the fines retention as a function of stirrer speed (line
A). When the same stock is processed with a strong dispersant, 50 ppm of
TAMOL 850 and the pH adjusted to 10.5 with sodium carbonate in the
presence of ultrasonic dispersion forces, a minimum fines retention line (line B)
is obtained, which is a characteristic of the stock. Britt proposed that the
56
colloidal forces are measured by the difference between line A and line B.
Flocculants raise the A line and dispersants lower it.
Fines retention, %
Stirrer speed, rpm
Figure 2.15 Retention in Dynamic Drainage Jar as a function of stirrer

speed (122).
From the literature, the DDJ is a reasonable approach to optimising a

chemical additives system.
2.4.5. Summary of chemical additives literature and theory

There is a large body of literature for pulp chemical additives. The
literature on bagasse pulp chemical additives is small and not recent. Although
microparticle systems are not very new, the effectiveness of these flocculant
systems are not reported for bagasse pulp.
The literature on the effect of chemical additives to improve the drainage

properties is not large as many studies focus solely on fines retention.
Miyanishi and Shigeru (134, 135), and Abril are the best works in measuring
the improvements in drainage caused by chemical additives. In every case,
these workers measure freeness rather than permeability which is a more
vigorous measure of drainage. As will be discussed, this thesis investigates the
compressibility and permeability of bagasse pulp. Quantifying the effect of
microparticle systems on the compressibility and permeability parameters of a
bagasse pulp has not been published before.
57
No work exists quantifying the effects of flocculants on the permeability

and compressibility parameters required for modelling dynamic pulp
filtration/formation behaviour.
2.5. Summary of theory and literature review
The background literature for bagasse pulping has been discussed. The
work of Gartside and co-workers (28, 51, 65) stands out as the most thorough
work performed in Australia. However previous published work with bagasse
in Australia has traditionally focussed strongly on improving the pulp strength
properties and did not consider pulp filtration properties.
The properties of bagasse pulp have been reported by numerous workers

apart from Gartside and co-workers (e.g. 71). The fibre morphology and
chemical character have been described. The pulp physical properties depend
on the level of depithing.
The pulp permeability and compressibility theory has been described for
both steady-state filtration and dynamic filtration under compression. The
Kozeny-Carman equation is the most common steady-state permeability
correlation linking Darcy’s permeability factor, K, to porosity. The power-law
compression model is the most common steady-state model for pulp pads. The
dynamic filtration model developed in this thesis is based on an initially
networked filtration model (100). The equipment designs most commonly used
in pulp filtration studies have been discussed.
The method of testing the effectiveness of flocculants using a DDJ has

been presented, along with the mechanism of pulp fibre flocculation.
This study investigates the permeability and compressibility of bagasse

pulp which has not been performed extensively. The gaps in the literature have
been identified as foreshadowed in section 1.4. Particularly, this thesis adds to
the existing literature.
The two options for treating bagasse prior to pulping

(fractionation and the mode of juice extraction) have not
58
previously been considered with a view to improving their

permeability and compressibility properties.
Obtaining steady-state permeability data on steady-state

equipment and confirming the data with a second piece of
equipment is a unique approach.
Quantifying the effect of flocculants on pulp pad steady-state and

dynamic permeability and compressibility has not been previously
studied.
Finally, a dynamic filtration model has not been previously

investigated for a non-wood pulp such as bagasse pulp.
This study is the first time that the filtration of bagasse pulp has been
directly compared to wood pulp.
59
Chapter 3
Experimental procedure and
modelling
The experimental component of the research plan was substantial. For the
filtration study three pieces of experimental equipment were constructed
specifically for the study, namely the ‘permeability cell’, the ‘compressibility cell’
and the modified DDJ (all terms are defined later in this chapter). This was in
addition to the three styles of digestion equipment used to produce the pulp
samples.
The research plan was implemented in six stages of experimentation and

modelling. This chapter proceeds in the order described by the experimental and
modelling methodology (section 3.1). The bagasse was treated and pulped using
the three types of digestion equipment, a ‘flow-through’ reactor, a ‘Parr’ reactor
and an ‘air-bath’ reactor (section 3.2). The chemical and physical properties of
the pulp were analysed as well as the fibre morphology (section 3.3). The steady-
state permeability of a pulp pad was measured using a custom built ‘permeability
cell’ (section 3.4). The steady-state compressibility of a bagasse pulp pad was
measured using a custom built ‘compressibility cell’ (section 3.5). The steady-
state permeability and compressibility of bagasse pulp was compared to numerous
benchmark pulp samples and the findings of previous workers for wood pulp.
The steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters for bagasse pulp
pads were used in a dynamic model which was coded in FORTRAN and
compared to experimental data obtained under dynamic filtration conditions
60
Chapter 3- Experimental procedure and modelling
(section 3.6). A suitable chemical additive system was optimised with a modified
Dynamic Drainage Jar (DDJ) using a bagasse pulp slurry, and the effect of
vacuum on drainage time was examined. The modified DDJ was also used to
obtain complementary information about the drainage behaviour through thin pulp
mats rather than thick pulp pads. The effect of chemical additives on the steady-
state permeability and compressibility constants of a bagasse pulp pad was
quantified (section 3.7). Finally a summary of the experimental procedure is
presented (section 3.8).
3.1. Overview of experimental and modelling methodology
The aims and objectives were achieved in six phases using the following
program of work.
Phase 1 Fractionated bagasse pulp from milled and diffuser bagasse

was prepared. A benchmark Australian eucalypt pulp and a
commercial bagasse pulp were obtained (section 3.2);
Phase 2 The physical and chemical properties of the bagasse pulp

were determined (section 3.3);
Phase 3 The steady-state permeability parameters of a bagasse pulp

pad were determined using simple permeability
experimental equipment. The effect of bagasse fraction and
the mode of juice extraction on pulp pad permeability was
examined without the addition of flocculants (section 3.4);
Phase 4 The steady-state compressibility parameters of a bagasse

pulp pad were determined using simple compression
equipment. The effect of bagasse fraction and the mode of
juice extraction on pulp pad compressibility was examined,
also without flocculants added (section 3.5);
Phase 5 The values of the steady-state permeability and

compressibility parameters were used by a dynamic model
for predicting the solidity and consequently load pressure of
61
a pulp pad compressed under dynamic conditions. The

model values are compared to data from dynamic filtration
experiments (section 3.6);
Phase 6 A suitable chemical additives system is optimised using a

modified DDJ using a pulp slurry rather than a pulp pad as
used in phases 3-5. The effect of additives on fines
retention and drainage time is determined. The effect of
chemical additives on the steady-state parameters of a
bagasse pulp pad is determined by repeating phases 3, 4 and
5 above (section 3.7).
The above order of research is used in the experimental procedure section

(Chapter 3) and the results section (Chapter 4).
3.1.1. Preparation of Australian bagasse pulp

Bagasse was prepared in a manner to maximise its permeability properties
and permit its long term storage for this study.
For Objective 1a, bagasse was separated into three fractions prior to pulping
using two wire mesh sieves of different aperture sizes (12.5 mm and 4 mm). The
three bagasse sizes produced were nominated: ‘coarse’, ‘medium’ and ‘fine’ pith
material. The terms ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp are used
extensively in this thesis and refer to pulp which originated from the coarse and
medium fractions of bagasse respectively. Pulp from the ‘fine’ material blocks
the pores of the paper mat as it forms, reducing the drainage rate and sheet quality
(e.g. poor formation and wire-marks). Removing as much ‘fine’ material as
possible prior to pulping improves the drainage properties of the mat.
For Objective 1b, samples of bagasse from the different modes of juice
extraction were collected (i.e. milled and diffuser bagasse) from the same factory.
Several other pulp samples were prepared or obtained for comparative

purposes. The most important comparative pulp samples are: Eucalyptus globulus
pulp; pulp produced from Argentinean depithed bagasse used at a commercial
pulp mill; and a conventionally depithed Australian bagasse pulp.
62
3.1.2. Physical and chemical property testing

The Australian bagasse pulp samples were evaluated for their chemical
properties. The chemical analyses of the pulp samples included carbohydrate
composition by High Performance Liquid Chromatography, Klasson and acid
soluble lignin, ash, extractives and pulp yield.
Bagasse is commonly used for the production of linerboard, writing paper

and tissues amongst other products. The pulp samples were evaluated for strength
properties (tensile, tear, burst and short-span compression) over a range of
refining levels, fibre length distribution and optical properties amongst other
properties. The suitability of the bagasse pulp produced in this study for these
grades were assessed.
The pulp fibres were thoroughly measured for their morphology including
the distributions of fibre length, using a Kajaani fibre length analyser, as well as
other parameters including wall thickness and collapse ratio using a confocal laser
microscope.
3.1.3. Steady-state permeability property testing

The effect of bagasse preparation on the steady-state permeability properties
of pulp pads was studied. Objective 1a and Objective 1b (section 1.3) were
investigated with respect to the steady-state permeability properties.
Pulp permeability was measured in a simple experimental apparatus referred

to as a ‘permeability cell’. A transparent Perspex tube filled with pulp and
attached to a constant head tank was used to achieve steady-state flow.
Using this simple equipment, the suitability of the Kozeny-Carman

permeability model could be quickly determined.
The variables measured in the steady-state testing are the pulp specific
surface area, Sv, and the swelling factor, . These parameters were determined for
use in the Kozeny-Carman permeability model (78, 79). These steady-state
variables are required for the dynamic filtration model. The findings of this
permeability study are compared to that of previous workers for wood pulp, as
63
well as to the only known previous work on bagasse permeability which was
performed recently (64).
The optimum values of Sv and depend on whether a constant or a variable

Kozeny factor, ‘k’ is used. For this study, both constant and variable k was used.
Ingmanson and co-workers (81) found that using a variable Kozeny factor
resulted in an increase in the prediction for of around 25% and a decrease in the
prediction for Sv of around 7% for wood pulp. The variation in Sv and is
measured for non-wood pulp.
Objective 1a and Objective 1b were investigated using Student’s t-test with

respect to their effect on the compressibility properties Sv and .
The steady-state permeability of eucalypt pulp, pine pulp and Argentinean

bagasse pulp was also measured.
3.1.4. Steady-state compression testing

The steady-state compressibility behaviour of pulp pads was measured using
simple compression equipment, i.e. a ‘compressibility cell’, using a simple Power-
N
Law correlation between load pressure and pulp concentration, Ps = M C (see
Chapter 2 for definitions).
The pulp pad was initially compressed over a very long time-period to
measure the quasi steady-state compressibility parameters. The steady-state
factors M and N are necessary for the dynamic filtration modelling. Objective 1a
and Objective 1b were investigated using Student’s t-test with respect to their
effect on the compressibility properties M and N.
The same samples tested for their steady-state permeability were also
measured for their steady-state compressibility and compared to the numerous
benchmark pulp samples used in this study, including eucalypt, as well as
previous workers.
3.1.5. Dynamic filtration modelling and verification

In dynamic filtration, the permeability properties change as the pulp pad
compresses. Once the steady state compressibility and permeability parameters
64
are determined, the dynamic filtration of bagasse pulp can be predicted using a
filtration model similar to that used for wood pulp (100). This model requires the
steady-state permeability parameters, Sv and , and the compressibility
parameters, M and N, for bagasse pulp previously determined experimentally.
The model was non-dimensionalised and coded in FORTRAN. The model

predicts the dynamic filtration behaviour using the experimentally determined
steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters. The actual dynamic
filtration behaviour of the pulp is then measured experimentally in the
compressibility cell. The experimental data is compared with the predictions of
the dynamic model in order to verify the model.
3.1.6. Effect of chemical additives on the drainage and retention

properties
A chemical additives system is optimised using a Dynamic Drainage Jar.
This was performed using a pulp slurry. The equipment was modified to also
investigate the effect of vacuum on fine fibre retention and drainage time.
In previous phases of this study, thick pulp pads were investigated because
the permeability and compressibility can be determined with simple equipment.
The behaviour of pulp pads is frequently used by numerous workers to represent
the behaviour of thin pulp mats (e.g. 81, 82, 83, 84-86). In this phase, the
modified DDJ was also used to obtain additional information on the behaviour of
thin bagasse pulp mats, which more closely resembles a Fourdrinier former than a
Twin-wire former.
Finally, the effect of chemical additives on pulp pad steady-state and

dynamic permeability and compressibility is quantified.
3.1.7. Flow diagram of the experimental and modelling methodology

The relationship between sections of the experimental and modelling
methodology is shown in Figure 3.1. The numbers in the figure are the phases of
the methodology described at the start of section 3.1. This is a theme of this
thesis. Chapter 3, the experimental and modelling procedure, and Chapter 4, the
results and discussion, proceed in the same order as the methodology.
65
Phase 1. Bagasse pulp preparation

Bagasse preparation
Fractionated bagasse (Chemical
‘coarse’ vs ‘medium’ pulp characterisation Phase 2. Physical
from mill or diffuser only) and chemical
property testing
Bagasse pulp
Phase 6.
Development of a
Bagasse pulp slurry
chemical additives
With and without flocculants
system using a
pulp slurry
Bagasse pulp pad
Steady-state experiments with bagasse pulp pads

Phase 3. Steady-state Phase 4. Steady-state
permeability compressibility
experiments experiments
Obtain Sv and Obtain M and N
Phase 5. Dynamic filtration modeling and experiments

with bagasse pulp pads
Dynamic
Dynamic filtration model compression
Use steady-state
experiments
parameters, Sv, , M and N
Model
verification
Figure 3.1 Flow diagram of the experimental and modelling methodology

for bagasse pulp.
66
3.2. Bagasse pulp preparation
The preparation and storage of bagasse and pulp created some challenges
since bagasse is extremely bulky with a specific mass of 150 kg/m3. Bagasse also
degrades quickly due to the presence of a residual sugar. It was necessary to wash
it and dry it as quickly as possible for long-term storage in a large walk in
refrigerator at 4 °C. The large number of pulp samples generated in this report are
summarised in Appendix B.
The treatment of the bagasse prior to pulping is presented in section 3.2.1.

The pulp samples were prepared in Melbourne and QUT using three types of
reaction equipment as described in section 3.2.2. The statistical methods used to
determine whether there is a difference between populations of pulp samples are
provided in section 3.2.3. The effect of bagasse pre-treatment on yield and kappa
number is provided in section 4.1. The physical and chemical properties of the
pulp are provided in section 4.2.
3.2.1. Collection of raw materials
3.2.1.1. Australian bagasse
As previously mentioned, bagasse was collected from both a sugar diffuser

and a sugar mill and fractionated into three fractions ‘coarse’, ‘medium’ and ‘fine’
fractions.
The pre-treatment procedure used in this study is intended to maximise the

permeability of Australian bagasse pulp pads and also to minimise degradation of
the bagasse for long term storage. The total amount of pith removed (around
43%) was higher than normally used by industry to achieve acceptable bagasse
pulp permeability (typically 30%).
Bagasse was collected from CSR Invicta sugar factory. The Invicta milling
train consisted of a shredder and five milling units including the final dewatering
mill. The Invicta diffuser consisted of a separate shredder, a preliminary milling
unit, the diffuser and a final dewatering mill.
67
On 28th September 2006 ten 75 L bins were lined with garbage bags. Six
bins were filled with bagasse from the final dewatering mill of the milling train.
Four were filled with bagasse from the final dewatering mill following the
diffuser. Each bin was filled with 10 kg of bagasse. The bagasse in these bins
were turned over several times in order to reduce the temperature and moisture
content and hence degradation during transport. The bins arrived at QUT,
Carseldine Campus on 4th October 2006.
The bagasse obtained from the sugar mill was from cane species Q208B (B
for burnt). The bagasse collected from the diffuser was TellB. It was not possible
to collect bagasse of the same variety of cane from both the mill and the diffuser
during the visit. As will be shown in Chapter 4, the difference in cane varieties
was inconsequential. No difference was found in the pulping kinetics (section
4.1.1) or the permeability and compressibility characteristics (sections 4.3 and
4.4).
The fibre content of the parent cane was measured by factory staff and
determined to be 15.6% (wet basis) for both varieties of cane. The fibre content
of Australian cane is typically 10% to 17%. The fibre content of the cane was
towards the higher end of this range.
The bagasse was washed in copious amounts of water to remove sugar using
a cement mixer. The bagasse mixture was drained through a 4 mm wire mesh.
The fines in the filtrate were recovered by refiltering the filtrate through the
bagasse bed several times. Only 3% of the fines were lost through this washing
process.
The bagasse was allowed to dry to 10% moisture, see Figure 3.2. The
bagasse piles were rotated with one another for even exposure to the sun.
68
Bin 1 Bin 2
Bin 3 Bin 4
Bin 5 Bin 6
Bin 7 Bin 8
Bin 9 Bin 10
Figure 3.2 Photograph of bagasse drying outside on tarpaulins.
The washed milled and diffuser bagasse was separated into three fractions
prior to pulping using two wire mesh sieves of different aperture sizes, 12.5 mm
and 4 mm respectively. Subsamples of around 50 g of bagasse were manually
sieved for approximately 3 min to achieve the separation. The three bagasse sizes
produced were nominated: ‘coarse’ which accounts for the 25 % of the bagasse
that is retained on the 12.5 mm sieve (i.e. +2 mesh); ‘medium’ (i.e. 4.0 mm to
12.5 mm) which accounts for the 35% of the bagasse that passes the 12.5 mm
sieve but is retained on the 4.0 mm sieve (i.e. +6 mesh); and ‘fine’ which accounts
for around 40 % of the bagasse and passes through the 4.0 mm sieve (i.e. -6
mesh).
The fractionated bagasse samples are shown in Figure 3.3 (a), (b) and (c)
together with samples of ‘whole’ (unfractionated) Australian bagasse (d). The
‘coarse’ bagasse (a) contains a much higher content of large chip-like material
compared to the ‘medium’ bagasse (b). These definitions of ‘coarse’, ‘medium’,
69
‘fine’ and ‘whole’ bagasse pulp are used throughout this thesis. The ‘fine’ fraction
is assumed to be mainly pith material so this terminology is used interchangeably.
(a) (b)
50 mm 50 mm
(c) (d)
50 mm 50 mm
Figure 3.3 Photographs of (a) ‘coarse’, (b) ‘medium’ and (c) ‘fine’
fractions of Australian bagasse, and (d) Australian ‘whole’
bagasse.
A sample of Australian bagasse was sieved in order to remove 30% of its

shortest material. This is typical of overseas industrial depithing operations. The
pulp produced from this Australian bagasse is herein referred to as ‘30% depithed’
bagasse pulp.
After washing and fractionating, the bagasse was then stored in a walk-in
fridge (4 °C) until it was ready to be pulped.
3.2.1.2. Argentinean bagasse

A depithed Argentinean bagasse sample that is used by the company
Ledesma Paper Mill to make writing papers was included in the evaluation. Their
depithing process removed 30% of the finest material (i.e. the pith). This sample
70
was stored in the fridge but not washed so as not to alter its preparation conditions
prior to pulping. The pulp produced from this sample is referred to as
‘Argentinean’ bagasse pulp.
3.2.1.3. Wood material
Samples of Eucalyptus globulus and Pinus radiata wood material were

supplied in pulp form by Ensis and the Australian Pulp and Paper Research
Institute (APPI) respectively. These organisations are two of Australia’s leading
pulp and paper research and development companies. No pre-treatment was
performed on these samples. The pulping conditions are provided in section
3.2.2.3.
3.2.2. Pulp sample preparation

A large number of pulp samples were required to (i) investigate
permeability and compressibility differences between pulp samples originating
from different size fractions of bagasse2 as well as differences in milled and
diffuser bagasse pulp, (ii) undertake the required physical property testing and (iii)
investigate the effect of chemical additives on the flocculation of pulp fibres.
The large number of pulp samples was particularly important to achieve

Objective 1. If the populations were compared with a small number of large
cooks, then subtle changes in cooking conditions between the cooks could
potentially affect the outcome. To test whether there is a difference between
fractionated milled and diffuser bagasse, samples were pulped in an APPI digester
containing six 1.5 L cells (discussed in more detail in section 3.2.2.1). This
reactor is called a ‘flow-through’ digester herein. Samples of bagasse were
cooked in a randomised order.
Several pulp samples were produced in a much larger batch 18.5 L reactor
for a number of reasons. The size of the samples produced in the APPI ‘flow-
through’ digester were not sufficient for destructive physical property testing
(section 3.3). Also, for experiments involving chemical additives (section 3.7),
2
For bagasse with a very high proportion of short fibres, it was not possible to pulp the material
because it was difficult to circulate the liquor in the APPI ‘flow-through’ digester.
71
the pulp had to be disposed after each experiment. As such, a much larger batch
of pulp was prepared so that subtle differences that may affect pulping
experiments could be eliminated as a potential source of error.
Over 60 pulp samples were produced in the course of the project. Each
bagasse pulp sample produced was labelled with a unique number which is
referred to hereafter in this thesis. The pulping conditions, origin of the bagasse,
yield and kappa number for each pulp sample are provided in Appendix B.
Supplementary photographs of the pulping equipment are provided in

Appendix C.
3.2.2.1. Bagasse pulping in the ‘flow-through’ digester
The APPI ‘flow-through’ digester consists of six cells into which bagasse is
packed. Each cell is 1.5 L. Hot cooking liquor is pumped from a 50 L tank
through each of the cells and drains back into the tank. The flow diagram of the
equipment is reproduced in Figure 3.4 (136) and a photograph of the equipment is
provided in Figure 3.5.
Liquor inlet lines
Digestion cells
Figure 3.4 Sketch of the 6 cell ‘flow-through’ digester at APPI (136).
72
Inlet liquor lines

from common
header (valve on
each)
Cells
Outlet liquor
lines
Figure 3.5 Photograph of the APPI ‘flow-through’ digester showing the 6

digestion cells.
Bagasse was soaked in warm water for 20 min to soften it so that each 180 g
sample of ‘medium’ bagasse and 210 g of ‘coarse’ bagasse could be packed into
the digester cells. The increase in flexibility is due to the plasticisation of the
lignin rather than bending of the sclerenchyma pulp fibres.
Fifty litres of cooking liquor was recirculated through six cells containing
100-200 g of fractionated bagasse (air dry basis). The pulping conditions were 0.4
M sodium hydroxide (approx. 13.8% Na2O on oven dry fibre) and 0.1%,
anthraquinone, AQ, (on oven dry fibre) at 145 °C.
In this reactor, the cells can be independently isolated from the cooking
liquor by manual valves. The liquor is heated indirectly by steam. When the
liquor reaches temperature, the liquor can be circulated immediately through the
material in the cell.
An initial kinetics study was performed to determine the cooking time

required to achieve a pulp with a kappa number (i.e. residual lignin content) of 20.
A pulp screen was not available during the trials with the APPI digester, so the
kappa number was measured on unscreened pulp. The cooking length was varied
between 5 min and 70 min. It was found that only 30 min of cooking time was
73
required. Normally several hours is required to produce wood pulp using this
equipment (136). Bagasse pulp is well known to delignify much more quickly
than wood chips due to the high reactivity of grass lignins.
The depithed bagasse obtained from Argentina’s Ledesma Mill was also
pulped under these conditions for 30 min using the ‘flow-through’ reactor.
At the end of a cook, the pulp was transferred to a standard disintegrator.

The pulp was disintegrated for 10,000 rev. The pulp was thoroughly washed with
water and dewatered using a very large steel Buchner funnel.
A total of 30 pulp samples were generated in the ‘flow-through’ digester.
3.2.2.2. Bagasse pulping in a batch ‘Parr reactor’

It was not possible to pulp whole (unfractionated) bagasse or the ‘fine’
fractionated material in the APPI ‘flow-through’ digester because the liquor
would pool on top of the bagasse and not permeate through the bed of bagasse.
Consequently, samples of whole and fine Australian bagasse were pulped to a
target kappa number of 20 in the 18.5 L batch reactor at 170 °C for 105 min at a
liquor to fibre ratio of 14:1 with a concentration of approximately 0.4 M sodium
hydroxide and 0.1% AQ. The Parr reactor is shown in Figure 3.6. The reactor is
electrically heated. The time to temperature for the majority of the experiments
was typically 45 min - 60 min. 1 kg of bagasse (10%-15% moisture) was loaded
into the Parr reactor in each cook. The ‘Parr reactor’ is cooled by ambient water
flowing through serpentine cooling coils and takes 60 min to reach a temperature
at which the vessel can be safely handled.
74
Vessel head
Crane for
moving
vessel head
Temperature
controller Heating
jacket
Figure 3.6 The QUT 18.5 L Parr reactor.
In addition to the ‘whole’ and ‘fine’ bagasse pulp samples, large quantities
of bagasse pulp originating from ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ fractions of bagasse were
produced in this reactor for physical property testing and the tests involving
chemical additives.
Pulp produced from ‘30% depithed’ bagasse was also produced in this
reactor under these cooking conditions. This pulp is used for benchmarking
purposes as it has been depithed to a similar level to that used by overseas
commercial operations. This benchmark pulp was cooked in this reactor so as to
prevent any pith material from being washed into the liquor. It is acknowledged
that this benchmark pulp sample was cooked at a higher temperature than the
majority of the pulp samples cooked using the ‘flow-through’ reactor. It was
decided that preserving the pith in this benchmark bagasse pulp sample, as could
be achieved using the Parr reactor, was very important.
In order to determine whether bleaching had any effect on the permeability

and compressibility properties, one of the pulp samples produced using the ‘Parr
reactor’ (Sample 56) was bleached using calcium hypochlorite according to Tappi
test method UM-206 from 28 brightness to 54 brightness (137).
75
3.2.2.3. Benchmark wood pulp

The two wood pulp samples were supplied by Australian pulp and paper
research and development organisations.
Eucalypt pulp was prepared at Ensis, Melbourne, Australia, using an ‘air-

bath’ reactor. The wood is loaded into a sealed cell with 2 L volume and the cell
is loaded into a pressure vessel and heated with steam. The cooking conditions
used to produce the pulp were 11.75% Na2O on oven dry fibre, sulphidity of 25%,
cooking temperature of 165oC for 2 h. The eucalypt was pulped to a target of 20
kappa.
A sample of kraft pine pulp was obtained from APPI, also in Melbourne.
The sample was similarly prepared in an air-bath reactor and pulped to a kappa
number of 20 using kraft pulping chemicals. The concentration of the cooking
chemicals that were used is not known.
3.2.2.4. Pulp screening

Each pulp sample was screened through a 200 m slotted Packer screen
with water recirculation. The pulp samples were not allowed to dry at any stage.
The pulp was placed in a dough mixer to break up the pulp in order to make the
moisture content homogeneous enabling consistent dry substance measurements
to be obtained. The pulp was stored at 25% consistency in a 4 °C refrigerator for
the duration of the project.
3.2.3. Test for statistical significance between two populations of pulp

samples
In some experiments, it was necessary to test whether a sample group was
from a single population or two independent populations. For these tests of
statistical significance, the mean value of a parameter is compared using Student’s
‘two-sample test’ (e.g. reference 138). Also known as Student’s t test, it is
particularly suitable for comparing populations when the sample size is small,
such as in this study (139). The test determines whether independently obtained
samples are consistent with the null hypothesis that they are from populations
with equal means.
76
Suppose we have two independent populations (xi , i = 1,2,…,nx) and (yj

j=1,2,…nj). The pooled estimate of standard deviation between the two samples
is
2
(n x − 1)s 2x + (n y − 1)s 2y
s PE =
nx + ny − 2
Equation 3.1
Where s PE is the pooled estimate of standard deviation
nx is the number of samples in the first population
ny is the number of samples in the second population
sx is the estimated standard deviation of the first population
sy is the estimated standard deviation of the second population
Equation 2.26 assumes that the values are obtained from one experiment.
When an experiment has a limited sample size, repeating the experiment for each
sample improves confidence of each datum. Determining the pooled estimate
from the average values for each sample over a number of tests, improves
confidence in the accuracy of the values for each sample, xi and yi. The estimate
of standard deviation for each population is now
sx sy
s 'x = ; s 'y =
rx ry
Equation 3.2
where sx’ is the standard deviation of a population of averaged values
r is the number of times the experiment is performed. Substituting this value into
Equation 3.1 gives
s 2x s 2y
(n x − 1) + (n y − 1)
rx ry
s *2 =
nx + ny − 2
Equation 3.3
77
For determining whether the sample group is from a single or two

populations, Student’s Test Statistic, is:
x−y
τ=
1 1
s* +
nx ny
Equation 3.4
Where x and y are the average values for the two hypothetical populations.
The observed value of is compared to tables of Student’s Test Statistic to
determine statistical significance provided in Appendix D. The tables provide
threshold values of for each degree of freedom and confidence interval. Values
of greater than those in the table mean that the sample group is from two
populations for the number of degrees of freedom and desired confidence interval.
3.3. Physical and chemical property testing procedure
The physical and chemical properties of selected bagasse pulp samples were
characterised. The chemical composition of several bagasse and bagasse pulp
samples was determined as well as eucalypt pulp (section 3.3.1). The pulp
physical properties of a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56) and a benchmark
Australian bagasse pulp (Sample 58) were studied at various levels of refining
(section 3.3.2) and the results were compared to the findings of other researchers.
The fibre length distribution of all pulp samples was determined by a Kajaani
Fibre Length Analyser and by a Fibre Quality Analysis unit (section 3.3.3). A
microscopy study was undertaken to determine the fibre dimensions including cell
wall thickness, lumen diameter and collapse of the fibres (section 3.3.4).
3.3.1. Chemical characterisation of pulp and bagasse

The following chemical analyses of bagasse and pulp samples were
undertaken using the methods of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory for
biomass characterisation (140).
78
o Total solids in biomass;

o Carbohydrates in biomass by High Performance Liquid
Chromatography;
o Acid-soluble lignin in biomass;
o Ash;
o Extractives;
o Kappa number; and
o Pulp yield.
The chemical composition of six bagasse pulp samples was analysed as well
as a sample of eucalypt pulp. The bagasse pulp samples analysed included
‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ fractions of milled and diffuser bagasse pulp (four
samples; 26, 27, 20 and 39), whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53) and pulp from
Argentinean depithed bagasse (Sample 32). The parent bagasse material of each
of the bagasse pulp samples was also analysed.
The cellulose content is related to the quantities of glucan and xylan in the
pulp/bagasse hydrolysate and the hemicellulose content is related to the quantity
of arabinan.
3.3.2. Pulp physical property testing

Two samples of Australian bagasse pulp were tested at the Central Pulp and
Paper Research Institute (CPPRI), in India. CPPRI have significant experience
with bagasse pulp and paper testing.
The samples analysed were a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56) and the
‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58). Sample 58 is the benchmark sample
and Sample 56 is a sample with high permeability (refer Chapter 5). Both
samples were produced from Australian bagasse.
The pulp samples were analysed for strength properties that are typically
required for photocopier paper, tissue and boxes. The strength properties
analysed were tensile, tear, short-span compression and burst strength properties.
For these tests, handsheets of 60 g/m2 were formed. The handsheets were tested
after conditioning at temperature 27 ± 1 ºC and a relative humidity of 65 ± 2%
according to ISO 5269/1. Test specimens were cut from the handsheets. The
79
tensile and tear tests involve measuring the force required in the direction of the
sheet and perpendicular to the sheet respectively before the specimen fails. The
compression test involves compressing the specimen until it buckles. The burst
test involves clamping a specimen and applying a hydrostatic force, allowing the
specimen to bulge, until the specimen fails.
The water retention value (WRV) was also measured. WRV is an important
parameter for non-wood pulp as it provides an indication of the ability to dry a
sheet of paper. The apparent density of the pulp samples was also determined.
The effect of refining was determined. Pulps were beaten in the laboratory
PFI mill to three freeness levels according to the ISO 5264/2 method. Again,
handsheets of 60 gsm were prepared according to the ISO 5269/1 method.
3.3.3. Fibre length analysis

The fibre length analysis for the majority of the pulp samples as performed
on a Kajaani Fibre Analyser FS100 at Petrie Mill, Brisbane, Australia. The results
for fibre length produced from this unit are a length weighted basis, i.e.
Lw =
n Li
2
i
n Li i
Equation 3.5
Where Lw is the length weighted fibre length, Li is the length of the ith fibre,
ni is the number of fibres with length Li.
For curl and kink properties, three samples (Sample 56, Sample 58 and
Sample 60) were analysed on a Fibre Quality Analyser LDA 96, supplied by
Optest Equipment, at the University of British Columbia, UBC. 5000 fibres were
analysed for each sample.
The curl index is calculated using the formula
L
Curl index = −1 Equation 3.6
ll
80
where L is the true length of the fibre and l is the apparent length of the fibre
(see Figure 3.7).
L l
Figure 3.7 Sketch of a longitudinal section of a pulp fibre.
The kink index is related to the number and magnitude of bends in the fibre.
Apart from the discussion in Chapter 4, some additional fibre length

distribution data is provided in Appendix E.
3.3.4. Microscopy investigation

The microscopy investigation on the morphology of the pulp fibres was
performed by Scion, New Zealand, using a confocal laser microscope. This
investigation was performed to gain insight into the shape of both bagasse pulp
fibres and eucalypt pulp fibres and how they might behave during pad formation.
Three samples were analysed, a milled ‘coarse’ Australian bagasse pulp

(Sample 26), a milled ‘medium’ bagasse pulp (Sample 27) and the eucalyptus
pulp. 500 fibres from each pulp sample were chemically dehydrated by solvent
exchange through a graded series of water/acetone solutions. Fibres were then
mounted in a Spurr’s resin and the resin was allowed to cure before the surface
was sectioned and polished for image analysis. The images were analysed using
Scion’s image analysis software. A small quantity of chipped and broken fibres
as well as contaminants is removed during the image analysis.
Figure 3.8 shows a typical fibre section with the fibre width and thickness
dimensions determined in the image analysis. The orientation of the fibre was
optimised so as to minimise the fibre area, according to the definitions listed
below.
81
Fibre area (bounded

by rectangle)
Fibre perimeter
Fibre thickness
Fibre width
Figure 3.8 An image of a bagasse fibre cross section showing fibre width
and thickness for the microscopy investigation.
The following measurements were calculated for each fibre, amongst others:
• Fibre width. This is the longest cross-sectional dimension as shown

in Figure 3.8.
• Fibre thickness. This is the shortest cross-sectional dimension as

shown in Figure 3.8.
• Wall area. The area of the black portion in Figure 3.8.
• Centreline perimeter. The perimeter of a line drawn between the

inside and outside walls of the fibre as shown in Figure 3.8.
• Wall thickness. The wall area divided by the centreline perimeter.
• Fibre area. This is the area bounded by a rectangle around the fibre.
• Fibre perimeter. The perimeter of the outside wall of the fibre.
• Lumen area. The area of the lumen inside the inner fibre wall.
• Lumen perimeter. The perimeter of the inside wall of the fibre.
• Collapse ratio. The fibre width divided by the fibre thickness.
• Maximum and minimum wall thicknesses.
82
These measurements were compiled for each sample of 500 fibre sections.
The distributions of these parameters were collected.
Elsewhere in this thesis, Student’s t test is used for statistical comparisons of

populations. For the microscopy investigation, a different statistical test was used.
For this analysis the variability data were supplied by an external organisation and
their statistical test was employed. The results of the image analysis provide the
mean of each parameter as well as a ‘Least Significant Difference’ (LSD) between
means. If the difference in means of two pulp samples is greater than the LSD,
then the samples are significantly different using a 95% confidence interval.
3.4. Steady-state permeability testing equipment and experimental

procedure
The primary objective of the steady-state permeability study was to examine

the effect of bagasse preparation and processing on pulp permeability properties
and to compare the permeability data with the findings of previous workers for
wood pulp (e.g. 81) and bagasse pulp (64).
Australian bagasse from a sugar mill and a diffuser was separated into three
size fractions (i.e. ‘coarse’, ‘medium’ and ‘fine’ fractions) prior to chemical
pulping. For comparative purposes, the permeability properties of kraft eucalypt
pulp, a hardwood pulp with short fibres typically around 0.8 mm in length, were
determined as the benchmark for this study. The permeability of several other
pulp samples was also measured including pulp made from milled bagasse that
has had 30% of the finest material removed (Sample 58), unfractionated milled
Australian bagasse (i.e. ‘whole’ bagasse) pulp (Sample 53), and depithed bagasse
pulp from Ledesma Sugar, Pulp and Paper Mill in Argentina (Sample 32).
Finally, the permeability of a kraft pine pulp, a long fibre pulp typically 3 mm in
length, was measured.
The pressure drop and flow rate data from the experiments were used to
determine Darcy’s permeability, K, and consequently the specific surface area, Sv,
and the swelling factor, , an indicator of the strength generation potential during
refining, were determined for use in the Kozeny-Carman permeability model (78,
79).
83
The ‘Kozeny factor’, k, is actually a function of pulp porosity, although a

constant is often used. The optimum values of Sv and depend on whether a
constant or a variable k is used. For this study, both constant and variable k was
used. Ingmanson and co-workers (81) found that using a variable Kozeny factor
resulted in an increase in the prediction for of around 25% and a decrease in the
prediction for Sv of around 7% for wood pulp.
The secondary objective of the permeability experiments was to obtain data

for the dynamic filtration model examined.
Pulp permeability was measured in a simple, custom built, experimental

cell, hereafter referred to as the ‘permeability cell’.
Figure 3.9 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental equipment

assembly which was custom built to obtain the permeability data. A photograph
is also provided (Figure 3.10) with the permeability cell highlighted in the bottom
right hand corner of the figure. The main feature of the permeability apparatus is
a permeability cell made from a Perspex tube with an internal diameter of 41 mm
and height of 300 mm. The cell has an airtight seal at the top - a rubber bung that
is connected to a manual valve. The bottom is supported by reinforced screen of
100 mesh. The cell is connected to two manometers to measure the pressure drop
(p) across two positions of the pulp pad (l).
30 g of equivalent dry pulp and 3 L of distilled water were added to a

disintegrator to make a pulp slurry of 0.9 % consistency. Two litres of this slurry
was slowly poured into the permeability cell to form a saturated pad. The slurry
was vigorously agitated as it was added to the cell to ensure uniform layering of
the pulp fibres in the cell. Although the water supply was not de-aerated, it was
consistent in every experiment. The data is similar to that obtained by other
workers using de-aerated water (86).
84
Water level
Constant
head tank
Town water
supply
Overflow
p
Manual
valve
Cell ID 41 mm
Water layer
Pulp mat
l
L, P
Figure 3.9 Schematic diagram of the apparatus used for permeability

measurements.
85
Constant
head tank
Manometer
level
Rubber bung
Manual valve
Manometer
Permeability offtakes
cell
Mesh screen
Figure 3.10 Photograph of permeability cell.
The town water supply valve to the constant head tank was opened until the
tank overflowed and a constant head was maintained above the manual water
valve to the cell. The manual valve was opened and water flowed from the
constant head tank through the cell. The manual valve was adjusted until the
height in the manometer was constant (typically 5-15 min). The pulp pad height
(L) was recorded to determine the pulp concentration for a known pulp mass.
The flow rate of the water through the cell was measured (Q) with a measuring
cylinder and a stopwatch and the difference in water height between the two
86
manometers was recorded (p). The pressure drop p applies over the distance
between the two manometers, l. The hydraulic compression is negligible so
p/l is extrapolated over the full height of the pulp pad to determine P/L that
is required for the calculation of K using Darcy’s Law (Equation 2.2).
The town water supply temperature was 23 °C. The temperature of the
water supply varied only 2 °C during the period of the experiments. The variation
of the town water supply temperature did not significantly affect the pulp pad
permeability.
Great care was taken to ensure that the pulp pad was constantly saturated
with water by maintaining a pool of water above the pulp pad at all times. If the
pulp pad dries out, the fibres contract and the pulp pad could become unevenly
distributed across the cross section of the cell and channelling of water could
occur.
After these measurements at the lowest flow rate were recorded, the flow
rate of water through the cell was increased incrementally and the values for p,
L and Q were recorded.
Once these measurements were completed the supply of water to the cell
was turned off and another 500 mL of pulp slurry was then added to the
permeability cell. Values for L, Q, and p were again recorded over a range of
flow rates. Finally the remaining pulp slurry was added.
When fully loaded with pulp, the pad was compressed to heights of
210 mm, 180 mm and 150 mm using compressed air. In order to compress the
pulp pad, the permeability cell, including the rubber bung was detached from the
constant head tank. A compressed air line was attached to the rubber bung (and
hence the permeability cell) by a barbed nipple. At this point, the pulp pad is very
compressed (>0.1 g/cm3) and a pool of water above the pulp pad was easily
maintained as the compressed air was applied. Obtaining pressure drop and flow
rate data over a wide concentration range was important for accurate calculation
of Sv and .
87
Sv and were calculated from the intercept and slope of a graph of

concentration against (Kc2)1/3 as per Equation 2.23.
It was observed during the permeability experiments that at high pulp

concentrations (i.e. >0.1 g/cm3) repeatable results were readily obtained since it
was easier to avoid channelling than at low concentrations. Obtaining repeatable
results was more challenging in the low concentration range between 0.06 g/cm3-
0.08 g/cm3. At these low concentrations, the following problems were
occasionally encountered: (i) channelling. This problem could often, but not
always, be observed by water ‘fast-tracking’ down the inner walls of the Perspex
cell. At lower concentrations, the calculated permeability data obtained was
continuously checked by plotting (Kc2)1/3 against concentration, c. When
channelling occurred, the datum was obviously far too high (typically an order of
magnitude higher) and the datum was subsequently rejected; and (ii) pulp slurry
entrained in the manometer lines. This was overcome by purging the lines.
For the Australian bagasse pulp samples, the permeability experiment was
performed at least twice and the average Sv and are presented in the results
section. For the other pulp samples, the permeability experiments were performed
typically five times and the average for Sv and are presented in the results
section.
3.5. Quasi steady-state compressibility experimental procedure
The primary objective of the steady-state compressibility study was to

examine the effect of bagasse preparation on pulp steady-state compressibility
properties and to compare the findings with those for wood pulp (21, 6,7, 8).
The secondary objective of the compressibility study is to verify the steady-

state compression model and obtain steady-state compressibility data required for
the dynamic filtration model in section 3.6.
A simple, custom made, ‘compression cell’ (this term is used hereafter) was
designed, fabricated and mounted to an Instron 5500R capable of a maximum
load of 100 kN although for this study the load applied did not exceed 5 kN.
Photographs of the cell assembly are shown in Figure 3.11. The engineering
88
drawings are available in Appendix F. The cell is 100 mm in height, the platen is
10 mm thick, resulting in a total possible working height of 90 mm. The platen is
fitted with a shamband and Teflon ring to prevent water flowing around the
platen, and the platen is drilled with thirty 6 mm holes for the water to evacuate
(see Figure 3.11).
Pulp samples were disintegrated to 0.9% consistency. The barrel of the

compressibility cell was removed from the base and suspended on a screen of
100 mesh. The disintegrated pulp was added to the barrel of the compressibility
cell and the bulk of the water was allowed to drain through the mesh. Once the
desired height of pulp in the barrel was reached, the barrel, the supporting screen
and the loaded pulp could be transferred to the base and bolted in. The pulp pad
remained saturated during the transfer; in practice, this was easy to achieve. The
platen of the compressibility cell is then connected to the Instron, ready to
commence the compression experiment (see Figure 3.11).

(a) (b)
Figure 3.11 Photographs of (a) the loaded compressibility cell with the
barrel fixed onto the base and (b) the top platen and the base of
the cell when the cell is dismantled.
‘Quasi steady-state’ behaviour is the experimental approximation to the

actual steady-state behaviour. This is reached by compressing the pulp pad over a
very long time period. During steady-state compression, the permeability effects
are insignificant. The hydraulic load (i.e. the head of water above the platen) is
89
negligible compared to the applied mechanical load, and so the concentration

distribution is uniform throughout the bed. The graph of log(Ps) against log(c) is
linear. Values of M and N are obtained from the slope and intercept of the graph.
For all of the quasi steady-state compressibility tests, the platen finished
compressing the pulp pad 15 mm above the base of the cell. The platen was
lowered very slowly over 300 min at a constant rate of 0.25 mm/min (that is,
75 mm over 300 min). The wood pulp samples and the Argentinean bagasse pulp
(Sample 32) were compressed several times to obtain average values of M and N.
The Instron load and time were logged. The load on the platen was recorded by
the Instron and the applied pressure was calculated. The measured load was
reduced by the frictional resistance between the Teflon seal and the barrel. This
was typically equivalent to 2.5 – 4.5 kPa. This was measured by compressing the
cell when loaded with water.
3.6. Dynamic filtration modelling and experimental verification

procedure
This development of a dynamic filtration model was performed to assist

with the future development of specialised equipment for the processing of
bagasse pulp and also because a dynamic model more closely resembles the
industrial paper manufacturing process.
Two pulp parameters affect the drainage properties of fibre beds;

compressibility and permeability under dynamic conditions (84).
The steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters required for

the dynamic filtration model were previously collected (sections 3.4 and 3.5).
The model was coded (section 3.6.1) and pulp pad experimental data was obtained
under dynamic conditions for comparison and verification of the bagasse pulp
dynamic filtration model (section 3.6.2). The verification of the dynamic model
followed the sequence,
1. Steady-state permeability tests of depithed bagasse pulp to calculate the

permeability constants (the specific surface area, Sv and swelling factor, )
(section 3.4).
90
2. Compression tests of depithed bagasse pulp to calculate the steady state

compressibility constants, M and N (section 3.5).
3. Calculation of the fibre pressure at the top surface of the pulp pad at higher
compression rates using the dynamic model (section 3.6.1). The model uses
the physical constants obtained from section 3.4 and 3.5.
4. Dynamic filtration of depithed bagasse pulp for comparison with the
predictions of the dynamic model (section 3.6.2).
3.6.1. Dynamic filtration modelling procedure

The governing equations (Equation 2.25 to Equation 2.28) were non-
dimensionalised, programmed in the language FORTRAN 77 and compiled.
FORTRAN 77 was chosen for its compatibility with the library subroutines used
to solve the non-dimensionalised governing equation. The derivation of the non-
dimensional governing equation from the dimensional governing equation is
available in the supplementary modelling material in Appendix A, as is the
FORTRAN code. The resolution of the output was 100 increments in height, h,
and time, t. The experimental compressibility constants M and N for each pulp
sample were converted to m and n for use in the dynamic model. The four
physical constants, m, n, Sv and are inputs for the program. Other inputs into
the model include the initial pulp concentration and the platen speed.
The program outputs the solidity throughout the height of the cell for many
discreet time intervals. For comparison with the experimental data, the predicted
solidity at the top platen is determined and converted to fibre pressure (using
Equation 2.24). The model predictions using both a constant k (k = 5.55) and a
variable k (Equation 2.12) can then be compared with experimental data.
3.6.2. Verification of the dynamic model
The same pulp samples which were tested for their steady-state permeability
and compressibility properties were also tested under dynamic conditions. The
model was verified with over 20 pulp samples.
The experimental procedure for the dynamic filtration experiments used the
equipment and procedure used for the steady-state compression experiments
91
outlined in section 3.5, but with a higher compression rate so that the dynamic
effects can be observed. In the dynamic filtration experimental phase, the
compression speed was increased by 100 times in most instances to 25 mm/min
(that is 75 mm over 3 min) and the load on the platen was recorded and converted
to average pressure over the platen.
For the dynamic filtration experiments, the compression cell was loaded to
75 mm in depth, leaving 15 mm clearance to the platen, and compressed to 15
mm. The lower initial height of the pad is required for the dynamic testing
because the calculated values of the compressibility constants are valid over the
limited range of pressures used in the quasi steady state testing.
The repeatability of the dynamic filtration experiments was investigated

using two samples of ‘medium’ diffuser bagasse pulp. The pulp samples were
made into pulp pads, compressed under dynamic conditions, slurried again and
the experiment was repeated.
A sample was also tested under dynamic conditions before and after
bleaching.
3.7. Equipment and procedure for testing the effect of chemical additives
The chemical additives experiments were conducted in three phases. A

suitable shear stable chemical additives system was optimised using a DDJ and
bagasse pulp slurry. Section 3.7.1 provides the methodology used for optimising
a flocculant system for a bagasse pulp slurry with a DDJ (DDJ equipment has
already been described in length in section 2.4.4). The DDJ was then modified to
investigate the performance of the chemical additive under vacuum. The modified
DDJ was used to obtain additional information on the behaviour of thin pulp mats,
without chemical additives (section 3.7.2). Finally, the chemical additives were
used to make pulp pads. The steady-state permeability and compressibility
experiments and dynamic filtration experiments were repeated (section 3.7.3).
Data obtained using the DDJ was collected in duplicate. The work program for
this section of work is outlined in Figure 3.12. Up until this point, all the
92
permeability and compressibility testing was performed without chemical

additives.
1. Develop a shear stable

flocculant system for a bagasse
pulp slurry
Use a DDJ looking at shear only on
pulp slurry
(Section 3.7.1)
2. The effect of vacuum on bagasse

pulp slurry flocculation
with and without the flocculant system
developed in (1)
using a modified DDJ (Section 3.7.2)
3. The effect of the flocculants on

pulp pad steady-state and dynamic
permeability and compressibility
Pulp pads made using the flocculant
system developed in (1) and measured
in the permeability and compressibility
cells (Section 3.7.3)
Figure 3.12 Flow diagram of the experimental program for chemical

additives.
Four types of bagasse pulp produced in the 18.5 L batch Parr reactor were
investigated; a ‘whole’ bagasse pulp (Sample 53); a depithed Australian bagasse
pulp (30% of shortest material removed as “pith” prior to pulping, Sample 58); a
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56); and a ‘medium’ bagasse pulp (Sample 60).
The pulping conditions were 90 min, 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, at 170 °C.
A range of additives used for pulp and paper manufacture were obtained
from Ciba Specialty Chemicals. Ciba recommended Percol 182, a high molecular
weight cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) in conjunction with Hydracol ONZ, a
modified bentonite microparticle, as the most effective chemical additives based
on their own work. Hence, this study only optimised one chemical additives
system.
93
Up until this point in the study, the permeability and compressibility of thick
pulp pads was studied. In reality, industrial paper manufacture actually involves
water draining through thin pulp mats. Thin pulp mats were produced, without
using chemical additives, in the modified DDJ. The drainage of pulp slurry
through thin pulp mats provided complementary information to the pulp pad
filtration data collected in the previous phases.
3.7.1. Methodology – Effect of shear

The efficacy of the flocculants was tested using a DDJ (Figure 2.6) for their
suitability in bagasse paper manufacture. Their efficacy was quantified using
fines retention in this part of the study. CPAM was tested in the range 0.01% to
0.5% (on dry fibre) and the bentonite was tested from 0% to 1.6% (on dry fibre).
Tappi test method T 261 cm-00 was followed for measuring the retention of fines
(141). A standard 76 m screen was used.
500 mL of pulp slurry was made up to 0.1% consistency. The pinch valve
at the base of the vessel, below the screen, was opened for 30 s and the fines in the
filtrate (typically 120 mL) were collected and measured by filtering the filtrate
through a GP-C glass microfiber filter paper. The experiments were conducted
over a range of stirrer speeds from 500 rpm to 1500 rpm as recommended by the
test method.
To measure the total quantity of fines, 500 mL of pulp slurry at 0.1%

consistency was washed with several quantities of wash water containing Tamol
182 dispersant until the filtrate was transparent. This is in accordance with the
test method. The determination of the total quantity of fines using this method is
required for calculating the percentage of fines retained during experiments with
CPAM and bentonite.
The addition rate of the chemical additives were optimised on a sample of

‘whole’ bagasse pulp. The optimum addition rate for the ‘whole’ bagasse pulp
was then used for the other pulp samples investigated, i.e. ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp,
‘medium’ bagasse pulp and the benchmark ‘30% depithed bagasse pulp.
94
3.7.2. Methodology – Effect of vacuum

Industrially, not only is shear applied during paper manufacture but vacuum
is also applied. There are no standard test methods although numerous attempts
have been made to simulate both shear and vacuum in the laboratory (Chapter 2).
The DDJ was modified to allow the pulp suspension to dewater under a
controlled vacuum. The DDJ was connected to a small filtrate vessel which is
under vacuum, supplied by a small vacuum pump. The vacuum level was
measured using a pressure transducer that sent a signal back to the PLC. The PLC
regulates the position of a bleed valve to control the vacuum level. The flow rate
was measured by a 2000 g set of scales with an analogue output. The data output
from the scales and the pressure transducer were logged. A diagram of the setup
is shown in Figure 3.13 and a photograph is provided in Figure 3.14. The
experimental setup closely resembles that described by Forsberg (104).
Data logger
Bleed line
DDJ
PLC
Vacuum
Receiver
PT Pump
Scales
Figure 3.13 Diagram of modified Dynamic Drainage Jar to measure the

drainage properties of pulps.
95
Stirrer
Vacuum line Controllers
and data
logging
equipment
Pressure
transducer
Filtrate receiver
vessel
Vacuum
controller
solenoid
DDJ
Filtrate line
Vacuum bleed line Digital weigh scales Flowmeter
(logged)
Figure 3.14 Photograph of the modified dynamic drainage jar with vacuum
control and data logging.
The vacuum was varied between 0 kPa and 40 kPa. Applying even a small
vacuum to the DDJ resulted in the entire amount of water in the slurry (i.e. almost
all of the 500 mL) passing through the screen in well under the 30 s required by
the Tappi test method. Tappi test method T 261 cm-00 was modified so that the
experiment ended when there was no water level in the DDJ (i.e. it had all passed
through the screen to become filtrate). The time for the water to pass through the
screen was recorded and the fines retention was calculated.
The effect of vacuum on the bagasse pulp fines retention and drainage time
was studied both with and without CPAM and bentonite drainage aids.
The fines retention data obtained using this method are not comparable with
the fines retention data presented in the previous section. The formation of a pulp
pad using the modified method increases the fines retention when compared to the
standard Tappi method.
96
3.7.3. Methodology – Effect of chemical additives on permeability and

compressibility.
The procedure for measuring the steady-state and dynamic permeability and
compressibility in sections 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 were repeated using the four types of
bagasse pulp used in the study of chemical additives (i.e. samples 53, 56, 58 and
60) but with the addition of the CPAM and bentonite dual additive system
optimised in section 3.7.1. The required concentrations of flocculants were
determined (see section 4.6).
For both the permeability and compressibility experiments, the chemical

additives were added to the pulp slurry immediately prior to loading into the
respective equipment. The CPAM was added first and the slurry was stirred with
a large spatula for 30 s, followed by the addition of bentonite.
3.8. Summary of the experimental investigation
The washing, drying and cold storage of bagasse were necessary to

minimise degradation of the bagasse. This was undertaken as quickly as possible
once the bagasse was delivered from the sugar factory. Turning the bagasse over
at the factory in order to cool it quickly from the processing temperature of the
milling train is also thought to reduce degradation. The large volume of bagasse
required for this thesis also presented logistical challenges.
A large number of bagasse pulp samples were produced in a ‘flow-through’

reactor in Melbourne. In order to pack the maximum amount of material into the
digester, it was necessary to impregnate bagasse with hot water to make the
bagasse more flexible. This made it easier to pack bagasse into the cells.
The chemical characterisation and the majority of the fibre length

distribution analysis was conducted in Brisbane. The response of the pulp to
beating was undertaken in India as the pulp refining equipment was not available
in Queensland. The microscopy work was conducted in New Zealand by Scion as
the expertise in pulp fibre analysis was not available here.
97
Three types of reactor were necessary to undertake the work program. The
‘flow-through’ digester was used mainly for comparing populations of pulp
samples in compressibility and permeability experiments. The 18.5 L ‘Parr
reactor’ was used for preparing large quantities of stock pulp. Pulp prepared in
this reactor was used for destructive testing such as physical property testing and
testing with chemical additives. The benchmark wood species supplied were
produced with an ‘air-bath reactor’.
Three types of experimental equipment were constructed for this thesis,

namely a simple ‘permeability cell’, a simple ‘compressibility cell’ and a
‘modified DDJ’.
The ‘permeability cell’ was used for measuring the steady-state permeability
parameters, Sv and , of bagasse and wood pulp pads.
The compressibility cell was used initially to measure the steady-state

compressibility parameters M and N of a bagasse and wood pulp pads. Quasi
steady-state conditions were reached by compressing the pulp pad over a very
long time. The compressibility cell was then used to measure the dynamic
filtration properties of a pulp pad under a constant rate of compression. The load
on the pulp pad was compared to the predictions of the dynamic filtration model
generated in FORTRAN 77 using the steady-state permeability and
compressibility parameters.
Finally, the modified DDJ was used to optimise a suitable shear-stable

chemical additives system for a bagasse pulp slurry. The chemical additives were
added to the slurry used to make pulp pads in the permeability and compressibility
experiments and the effect of chemical additives on the steady-state permeability
and compressibility parameters were measured. The effect on the dynamic
filtration was also measured in the compressibility cell. The modified DDJ
allowed for complementary information to be collected using thin pulp mats.
98
Chapter 4- Results and discussion
Chapter 4
Results and discussion
This chapter presents the findings of the investigation into bagasse pulp
filtration, comparing the permeability and compressibility data of Australian
bagasse pulp with numerous benchmark pulp samples and the findings of previous
workers, such as El-Sharkawy and co-workers for bagasse pulp (64), and
Ingmanson for wood pulp (82). The effect of bagasse preparation and flocculants
affects the permeability and compressibility properties of a bagasse pulp pad. Of
particular importance are the steady-state permeability parameters, the specific
surface area (Sv) and the swelling factor () and the compressibility factors M and
N. These parameters are independent of pulp concentration.
The dynamic filtration model developed in Chapter 3 is validated.

Supplementary information is provided to assist with identifying potential bagasse
paper products.
Similarly to Chapter 3, this chapter proceeds in the same order as the

research methodology outlined in section 3.1. An analysis of the kappa number
and yield data obtained during the pulping experiments with the ‘flow-through’
reactor is provided (section 4.1). The chemical character of the bagasse pulp was
determined and compared to the parent bagasse. The physical properties of the
99
bagasse pulp are compared to the findings of previous workers. The fibre
morphology is also measured (section 4.2). The steady-state permeability (section
4.3) and compressibility (section 4.4) of bagasse pulp pads was investigated. This
information was used to determine whether the fraction of bagasse or the mode of
juice extraction has a measurable effect on permeability and/or compressibility.
The steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters for bagasse pulp
were used in the dynamic model developed in this study. The output of the model
is compared to experimental data obtained under dynamic filtration conditions
(section 4.5). A suitable flocculant system was optimised with a DDJ using a pulp
slurry. The effect of vacuum on the drainage time of a bagasse pulp slurry was
examined. The effect of chemical additives on the permeability and
compressibility constants of a pulp pad was quantified (section 4.6).
4.1. Results of bagasse chemical pulping
In order to achieve a pulp with a kappa number of 20, kinetics experiments

were undertaken using the ‘flow-through’ reactor to determine the required
cooking time (section 4.1.1). The effect of pre-treatment conditions on the yield
(section 4.1.2) and kappa number (section 4.1.3) were examined. A summary of
the findings of the bagasse chemical pulping study is provided in section 4.1.4.
4.1.1. Bagasse pulping kinetics

The cooking conditions for the kinetics experiments were 0.4 M caustic
soda and 0.1% AQ on dry fibre at 145 °C. The pulping time was varied between
6 min and 70 min. Screening of the pulp was not possible at APPI. Figure 4.1
shows the effect of cooking time on the unscreened kappa number of the
‘medium’ milled Q208B bagasse pulp produced in the flow-through reactor. The
kappa number decreased linearly with increasing cooking time. This chemical
concentration had been previously successful for cooking bagasse in a previous
study (68). Previous work had established that the cooking time for eucalypt
using the flow-through reactor is 3 h - 5 h (136) indicating that bagasse is far more
easy to pulp compared to eucalypt.
100
30.0
25.0
Kappa number, -
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Pulping time, min
Figure 4.1 Effect of cooking time on the kappa number of ‘medium’

milled Q208B unscreened bagasse pulp.
The milled and diffuser bagasse required similar cooking conditions to

achieve a kappa number of 20 on unscreened material3. From the kinetics study it
was established that a cooking time of 30 min was adequate to achieve a kappa
number of 20.
When the pulped samples were later screened with a Packer screen (200 m
slots), the rejects was in the range 3% to 7% of total pulp weight.
Data on screen rejects are available in the summary of the pulp samples
produced for this study (i.e. Appendix B).
4.1.2. Effect of bagasse pre-treatment on Australian bagasse pulp yield

The effect of the two pre-treatment variables on the pulp yield, i.e. the
fraction of bagasse (coarse or medium fractions) and the method used to obtain
the bagasse (i.e. milled or diffuser extraction process) is presented in Table 4.1.
These pulp samples were prepared under identical conditions in the ‘flow-through
reactor’, 30 min at 145 °C. The average values presented are for Samples 20-43
(excluding the bagasse from Argentina, Samples 32 and 37). Each of these
3
The kappa number of the screened samples were 3-5 units higher than the unscreened samples.
101
samples is classified as being derived from four categories, ‘coarse’ bagasse from
a mill, ‘medium’ bagasse from a mill, ‘coarse’ bagasse from a diffuser and
‘medium’ bagasse from a diffuser. The variables were tested for statistical
significance using Student’s pooled t-test at a 95% confidence interval.
The fraction of bagasse used (‘coarse’ or ‘medium’) had a significant effect

on pulp yield for both the milled and diffuser bagasse, as shown by the high (i.e.
Student’s test statistic) values. The pulp yield of ‘coarse’ bagasse was higher than
that for ‘medium’ bagasse. The value of PE for pulp yield is very small (1.3% for
milled bagasse population and 1.8% for diffuser bagasse population).
Although ‘coarse’ diffuser bagasse had 1.5% higher pulp yield than ‘coarse’
milled bagasse, this was found not to be statistically significant implying that the
method of bagasse preparation was not a factor.
Table 4.1 Summary of average bagasse pulp yield fraction obtained in

the ‘flow-through’ reactor.
Milled, % Diffuser, % (number of

(number of samples) samples)
Coarse 54.04 (6) 55.71 (3)
Medium 50.15 (5) 50.66 (4)
ıPE 1.31 1.83
Ĳ 4.909 3.614
The overall average pulp yield for Australian bagasse samples was 52.5%.
The screened rejects were 3% - 7%. However, the screened yield for the
Argentinean sample was much higher, 61.8%. The difference between the
Australian pulp and Argentinean pulp may be related to differences in cane
variety.
The average pulp yield for Australian bagasse obtained is slightly lower
than found by previous workers, perhaps due to the reasonably high level of
screened rejects or simply due to the type of digester used in pulping. Paul and
102
Kasiviswanathan (70) reported screened pulp yield of 54.4% with 0% screen

rejects for a highly depithed soda pulp. Giertz and Varma (4) reported 51% pulp
yield with screen rejects of 7.6%. This was increased to 56.9% when increased
cooking time to reduce the screened rejects to 2%.
4.1.3. Effect of bagasse pre-treatment on bagasse pulp kappa number

Student’s t test, as in the previous section, was used to analyse the kappa
number of pulp samples originating from different bagasse preparation methods.
The average kappa number of ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp was 2 units higher than that
for ‘medium’ bagasse pulp (Table 4.2). As PE for the kappa number was very
low there was a statistically significant difference in kappa number at a 95%
confidence interval between the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp. This is
supported by the high value. The increase in residual lignin content for ‘coarse’
bagasse pulp accounted for a small part (0.3%) of the 4% increase in the pulp
yield between the bagasse fractions. No statistically significant difference in
kappa number was observed between the pulp obtained from the diffuser bagasse
and the pulp obtained from milled bagasse for either the ‘coarse’ or ‘medium’
fractions.
Table 4.2 Summary of average bagasse pulp kappa number in the ‘flow-
through’ reactor.
Milled, - Diffuser, -
(number of samples) (number of samples)
Coarse 25.2 (6) 25.8 (3)
Medium 23.3 (5) 23.5 (4)
ıPE 1.01 1.00
Ĳ 2.97 3.00
4.1.4. Summary of bagasse pulping analyses

A brief kinetics study that only considered time as a variable was performed
on the delignification of Australian bagasse in the ‘flow-through’ reactor. The
chemical concentration was 0.4 M caustic and 0.1% AQ and the temperature was
103
145 °C. It was found that a cooking time of 30 min was required to make bagasse
pulp with an unscreened kappa number of 20.
Fractionation of bagasse had a significant effect on pulp yield and kappa

number.
The bagasse pulp yield and the pulp’s kappa number were not affected by
whether the pulp originated from bagasse was processed by a mill or a diffuser.
4.2. Results of physical and chemical property testing
In this section, the results of the pulp chemical and physical properties are
presented and discussed (section 4.2.1 and section 4.2.2). The fibre length
distribution data is provided in section 4.2.3. The findings of the microscopy
investigation are shown in section 4.2.4. The chemical and physical property
testing are summarised in section 4.2.5.
4.2.1. Pulp chemical analysis results

The results from the chemical analysis of the bagasse and pulp samples are
presented in Table 4.3 along with those of eucalypt pulp. All samples had
negligible quantities of Dichloromethane (DCM) extractives. The acid insoluble
lignin content was typically 21% in bagasse and less than 3% for the pulp. Both
the pulp and bagasse had around 1% acid soluble lignin. The lignin content is
consistent with the pulp kappa number (Appendix B).
The ash content of the whole bagasse (6.9%) was significantly higher than
for the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ fractions of the bagasse (1.8%-2.5%). Depithing
the bagasse has the added effect of reducing the ash content. Depithing removed
some fine dirt that was entrained in the whole bagasse. This effect has been noted
by previous workers, for example, Paul and Kasiviswanathan (70). For the
fractionated bagasse samples that were generated using the ‘flow-through’ reactor,
around 75% of the ash was removed during pulping. Less than 20% of the ash
from the whole bagasse produced in the ‘Parr’ reactor was removed during
pulping. This is believed to occur in the ‘flow-through’ reactor by liquor washing
the ash out of the pulp. The geometry of the ‘flow-through’ reactor is more
conducive to circulation of liquor through the bed of bagasse.
104
The glucan content of the bagasse pulp hydrolysate was increased slightly
by fractionating the bagasse prior to pulping from 65.7% for the whole bagasse
pulp up to 75% for ‘coarse’ diffuser pulp. The diffuser pulp had slightly higher
glucan content than the milled bagasse pulp (around 69%).
The arabinan content of all the bagasse pulp samples was similar (mainly 4-
5%).
The depithed Argentinean bagasse had a lower glucan content and higher
arabinan content than the fractionated Australian bagasse pulp. However this did
not translate to any difference in the pulp composition.
The chemical composition of the eucalypt pulp hydrolysate is unremarkable

except to note that it has a higher glucan content and lower arabinan content than
any of the bagasse pulp samples. This result was expected because eucalypt is
grown primarily for its fibre content, unlike Australian sugarcane.
105
106
Table 4.3 Chemical analysis of bagasse, bagasse pulp and eucalypt pulp.
%DCM %Acid %Acid %Ash on

Sample extractives Insoluble soluble OD %Glucan %Xylan %Arabinan
on air dry wt Residue lignin bagasse
Milled coarse bagasse (parent of Sample 26) 0.42% 21.05 1.02 2.245 45.6 27.2 2.2
Milled medium bagasse (parent of Sample 27) 0.49% 21.45 1.03 2.588 40.5 24.3 3.4
Bagasse
Diffuser coarse bagasse (parent of Sample 20) 0.45% 21.44 1.01 1.784 42.4 24.2 3.8
Diffuser medium bagasse (parent of Sample 39) 0.34% 21.69 0.99 2.477 40.9 24.3 5.8
Argentinean depithed bagasse (parent of Sample 32) 0.79% 21.29 0.99 2.330 37.0 23.7 7.1
Whole bagasse (parent of Sample 53) 0.48% 24.16 0.96 6.869 38.9 22.4 6.9
Milled coarse pulp (Sample 26) 0.17% 3.00 0.93 0.484 68.4 23.3 4.1
Bagasse pulp
Milled medium pulp (Sample 27) 0.19% 2.42 0.94 0.659 69.2 23.6 2.7
Diffuser coarse pulp (Sample 20) 0.18% 2.32 0.97 0.378 73.3 25.3 4.6
Diffuser medium pulp (Sample 39) 0.32% 2.60 0.96 0.551 75.3 25.4 5.9
Argentinean bagasse pulp (Sample 32) 0.46% 3.42 0.90 0.862 71.8 26.9 4.2
Whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53) 0.15% 1.43 0.95 5.704 65.7 23.9 4.1
Eucalypt pulp 0.24% 2.60 1.04 0.799 77.7 23.2 1.0
106
Chapter 4 - Results and discussion
4.2.2. Pulp physical property results

For this study, only one bagasse pulp (‘coarse’ pulp, Sample 56) was
evaluated for its physical properties. The results presented in Table 4.4 are
compared to the benchmark “30% depithed” Australian bagasse pulp (Sample 58).
Additional comparisons were also conducted with the findings of previous
workers.
Table 4.4 Physical properties of a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp with a

benchmark Australian bagasse pulp (142).
Benchmark bagasse
‘Coarse’ bagasse pulp
Property pulp; ‘30% depithed’
(Sample 56)
pulp (Sample 58)
0 1000 2000 0 500 1000
Amount of PFI refining
(rev) (rev) (rev) (rev) (rev (rev)
Freeness CSF (mL) 615 410 290 485 250 200
Tensile Index (Nm.g) 70.2 73.4 76.0 74.0 81.5 82.5
Tear Index (mN.m2/g) 7.05 6.20 5.60 5.60 4.35 4.30
Burst Index (kPa.m2/g) 3.50 3.80 4.25 3.60 4.50 5.35
Short Span Compression

31.2 32.1 34.0 32.6 35.0 37.7
Index (kNm/kg)
Water Retention Value (%) 255 262 281 274 287 292
Apparent Density (g/cm3) 0.67 0.72 0.75 0.60 0.72 0.81
Fibre Strength Index 10.5 - - 9.0 - -
The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56) starts with a much higher freeness
than the benchmark pulp (Sample 58, Table 4.4) as would be expected from its
higher permeability (see section 4.3).
107
In comparison to the benchmark Australian bagasse pulp, the ‘coarse’

bagasse pulp has similar tensile strength for a given freeness. For both pulp
samples, refining, as shown in Figure 4.2, only made a modest improvement in
tensile strength (+10%). The Australian benchmark pulp had slightly higher
tensile strength than reported by most previous workers (4, 70). The pulp had
lower tensile strength than reported by Gartside and co-workers (28).
The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp had much higher tear strength than the
benchmark pulp but for both samples, as shown in Figure 4.3, refining had a
significant detrimental effect on its tear index (-20%). The Australian bagasse
pulp had tear strength similar to those reported by previous workers (4, 70).
As shown in Figure 4.4, ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp had similar burst strength to
the benchmark pulp, but higher than the findings of other workers (4). Refining
was moderately effective for the burst index of ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (+21%) but
was extremely effective for the benchmark pulp (+49%). The datum from
Gartside and co-workers (28) are unusually high and may be as a consequence of
the much longer fibre length of their pulp. It is noted that the bagasse pulp used
by Gartside and co-workers had a longer fibre length, typically 1.38 mm for most
species of cane (although one variety is reported to be as long as 1.55 mm) than
the bagasse pulp in this study (~1 mm).
In this study, tensile and burst strengths did not improve by changing the
treatment conditions which is a different finding to that reported by Paul and
Kasiviswanathan (70). In this study, tear improved dramatically by changing the
pre-treatment conditions.
108
120
100
Tensile Index (Nm/g)
80
60
40 Sample 56 - 'Coarse' bagasse pulp

Sample 58 - 'benchmark bagasse pulp
Gartside and coworkers
Giertz and Varma
20 Paul and Kasiviswanathan
Linear (Sample 56 - 'Coarse' bagasse pulp)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Canadian Standard Freeness (ml)
Figure 4.2 Tensile index as a function of freeness.
7
Tear Index (mN.m /g)
6
2

Sample 58 - benchmark bagasse pulp
2 Gartside and coworkers
Giertz and Varma
Paul and Kasiviswanathan
1 Linear (Sample 56 - 'Coarse' bagasse pulp)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 4.3 Tear index as a function of freeness.
109
6
Burst Index (kPa.m /g)
2

Gartside and coworkers
1 Paul and Kasiviswanathan
Linear (Sample 56 - 'Coarse' bagasse pulp)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 4.4 Burst index as a function of freeness.
The benchmark pulp had slightly better compression properties than the
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Figure 4.5). Refining provided a minor improvement to
compressive strength. The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp had better WRV than the
benchmark pulp (Figure 4.6). Refining was slightly detrimental to WRV. The
density of the benchmark pulp was initially better than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp
but deteriorated rapidly when refined (Figure 4.7).
The short-span compression, WRV and density of the bagasse pulp in this
study were not compared with previous workers as the associated pulp freeness is
not reported in other literature.
110
Short span compression index (kN.m/g)

40
38
36
34
32
30
28
24 Sample 58 - benchmark bagasse pulp
22
20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 4.5 Short span compression as a function of freeness.
300
Water retention value, %
280
260
240
Sample 56 - 'Coarse' bagasse pulp

220
200
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 4.6 Water Retention Value as a function of freeness.
111
0.9
0.8
Apparent density (g/cm )

3 0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Sample 56 - 'Coarse bagasse pulp
0.2
0.1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 4.7 Density of bagasse pulp as a function of freeness.
4.2.3. Fibre length distribution analysis

Table 4.5 provides a summary of the average fibre length of the samples
analysed mainly using the FS100 unit. The order of decreasing average fibre
length is ‘coarse’ (1.09 mm) > ‘medium’ (0.95 mm) > ‘fine’ (0.52 mm). The
presence of short pith fibres reduced the average fibre length of the ‘whole’
bagasse pulp (Sample 53) and the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58). The
Argentinean bagasse pulp (Sample 32) has the same average fibre length as the
‘30% depithed’ Australian bagasse pulp (Sample 58). All bagasse pulp samples
have a longer fibre length than the eucalypt pulp (0.77 mm), apart from the ‘fine’
bagasse pulp. Pine pulp has the longest fibre length (2.65 mm). There was no
difference between diffuser and mill bagasse pulp.
Table 4.5 also presents a summary of the fines content. The FS100 unit
reported this information as the length of the first decile of the population, i.e. the
more fines, the shorter the length of the smallest 10% of fibres. It is noted that
every bagasse pulp sample have a higher proportion of short fibres than the
eucalypt pulp.
112
Table 4.5 Summary of fibre length analyses using a Kajaani FS100 on a

length weighted basis.
Average Maximum length of

Pulp sample fibre the shortest 10% of
length, mm fibres, mm
'coarse' (average for
1.09 0.31
all samples)
'medium' (average for
0.95 0.27
all samples)
'fine' (Sample 51) 0.52 0.11
‘whole' (Sample 53) 0.8 0.21
Bagasse pulp with
30% fibre removal 0.965 Not available
(Sample 58) *
'Argentinean bagasse'
0.96 0.23
(Sample 32)
Eucalypt 0.77 0.39
Pine pulp 2.65 0.65
*sample analysed on FQA at UBC. The maximum length of the smallest 10% of fibres is not
available on this unit.
Figure 4.8 shows the fibre length distribution of Australian pulps derived
from fractionated bagasse, with those of Argentinean and eucalypt pulps. The
figure shows that the fraction of fibres shorter than 0.3 mm in length for bagasse
pulp is far higher than that for the eucalypt pulp. However, the bagasse pulp
samples have more fibres greater than 1.3 mm in length. The ‘coarse’ and
‘medium’ bagasse pulp samples often have a bimodal distribution which is more
pronounced in the ‘coarse’ bagasse samples than the ‘medium’ bagasse samples; a
curious observation. More data is available in Appendix E.
113
20
Percent length fraction (%) 15
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Fibre length (mm)
Eucalypt
Argentinean bagasse pulp (Sample 32)
Pulp from coarse bagasse material (Sample 20)
Pulp from medium bagasse material (Sample 30)
Pulp from fine material (Sample 51)
Figure 4.8 Fibre length distribution of pulp samples including ‘coarse’

‘medium’ and ‘fine’ bagasse pulp, bagasse pulp from
Argentina and eucalypt pulp.
The results for curl and kink index are presented in Table 4.6 as they were
produced on a FQA. The curl and kink index for the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp was
slightly lower than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp. It is presumed that the higher level
of mechanical damage may give appreciably higher curl and kink index for the
‘medium’ bagasse pulp fibres. Both the coarse and medium bagasse pulp fibres
were found to have a lower kink index than the 30% depithed bagasse pulp and
slightly lower curl.
Table 4.6 Curl and kink index measurements for bagasse pulp samples
Curl, length Kink index (mm-1)

weighted basis (-)
Coarse bagasse pulp (Sample 56) 0.055 0.78
Medium bagasse pulp (Sample 60) 0.045 0.65
30% depithed bagasse pulp (Sample 58) 0.079 1.24
114
4.2.4. Microscopic analysis
Confocal laser microscope and image analyses were used to obtain

additional information about fibre morphology. Over 500 fibre sections were
analysed for each of three pulp samples, ‘coarse’ milled bagasse (Sample 26),
‘medium’ milled bagasse (Sample 27) and the eucalypt pulp. Some of the key
results of the microscopy investigation are reported in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Results of microscopy study using a confocal laser microscope

and image analysis (143).
Bagasse pulp Bagasse pulp

derived from derived from Least Significant
Eucalypt
the coarse the medium Difference (LSD)
pulp
fraction of fraction of between means
milled bagasse milled bagasse
Fibre width (m) 20.2 20.7 18.6 0.820
Fibre thickness (m) 13.9 12.7 11.6 0.365
Wall thickness (m) 5.13 4.72 4.19 0.151
2
Fibre area (m ) 214 200 159 12.4
Fibre perimeter (m) 68.5 67.6 60.9 2.26
Wall area (m2) 186 169 132 9.65
Lumen area (m2) 31.0 27.9 26.3 4.41
Collapse ratio (-) 1.48 1.66 1.63 0.0591
Minimum wall thickness 3.46 3.18 2.75 0.126
(m)
Maximum wall 7.03 6.70 6.09 0.243
thickness (m)
The fibre widths of the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulp samples were around
20.5 m. The difference between the means of the two samples was less than the
Least Significant Difference, so there is no statistically significant difference in
fibre width between the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp samples. The
bagasse pulp width was slightly wider than the eucalypt pulp, 18.55 m.
The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp fibres were significantly thicker (13.86 m) than
the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp fibres (12.67 m). Fibres from both bagasse pulp
115
samples were thicker than those from the eucalypt pulp sample, 11.63 m.
Similarly, the fibre walls of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp fibres (5.13 m) were
significantly thicker than for the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp fibres (4.72 m) and the
eucalypt pulp fibres (4.19 m).
The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp fibres had a higher wall area (186 m2) than the
‘medium’ bagasse fibres (169 m2). The fibres from both bagasse pulp samples
had much higher wall area than the eucalypt pulp sample (132 m2). The lumen
area for the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp res (31.0 m2) was found to be slightly larger
than the eucalypt pulp fibres (26.3 m2). The mean lumen area of the ‘medium’
bagasse pulp fibres could not be differentiated statistically from either the ‘coarse’
or eucalypt pulp fibres.
The collapse ratio for the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (1.48) was substantially
greater than for the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp and the eucalypt bagasse pulp. This is
potentially due to the higher mechanical damage to the ‘medium’ bagasse material
in the milling train.
The morphological data suggests that the bagasse pulp fibres have thicker
cell walls and are less likely to collapse than the eucalypt pulp fibres.
4.2.5. Summary of pulp physical and chemical property testing

The ash content of the bagasse is significantly reduced by the pre-treatment.
More ash is washed away by the ‘flow-through’ reactor than by the ‘Parr’ reactor.
However, there was little difference in composition between the fractionated
Australian bagasse and the Argentinean bagasse.
The ‘coarse’ fraction of bagasse significantly improved the initial freeness,

tear properties and WRV of the pulp compared to the benchmark Australian pulp.
The pre-treament did not improve tensile or burst properties and had a slightly
negative impact on apparent density and compressive strength. Refining did not
significantly improve any strength properties and reduced the tear strength.
Fractionating the bagasse makes the bagasse pulp more suitable for products
where tear strength is important. As shall be shown in more detail in the next
116
section, the increase in freeness with pre-treatment improves permeability and

improves the prospects for increasing production rates.
The fibre length of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp is longer than the ‘medium’
bagasse pulp. The Argentinean bagasse pulp has similar fibre length to Australian
bagasse pulp prepared under the same conditions. All bagasse pulps had a much
wider fibre length distribution than the eucalypt pulp. They also had far more
short fibres than the eucalypt pulp.
The bagasse pulp fibres have thicker walls than the eucalypt fibres. This
suggests that they may be more rigid.
4.3. Results of steady-state permeability testing
This section gives data for K (for two fixed concentrations), Sv and . The
effect of using a constant and variable k on the optimum values for Sv and is
reported (section 4.3.1). A statistical analysis to determine the effect of pre-
treatment conditions on pulp pad permeability is shown in section 4.3.2. A
discussion of the suitability of the Kozeny-Carman steady-state permeability
model for bagasse pulp is provided in section 4.3.3. The results are compared with
the findings of previous workers (section 4.3.4). The findings of the permeability
study given the high proportion of short material are surprising. Finally a
summary of the steady-state permeability results is given in section 4.3.5.
4.3.1. Data from steady-state permeability testing

For each pulp sample tested, K was determined from Darcy’s Law over a
wide concentration range. Table 4.8 shows K, at only two concentrations,
0.08 g/cm3 and 0.12 g/cm3. Sv and values were determined from the intercept
and slope of graphs of (Kc2)1/3 against concentration, such as those shown in
Figure 4.9.
117
118

Table 4.8 Comparison of permeability parameters obtained from the Kozeny-Carman model with both a constant and variable Kozeny
factor.
Permeability Permeability Swelling Swelling

K K Specific surface area Specific surface factor factor
Sample
Fraction (×108 cm2) (×108 cm2) Sv (cm-1) area Sv (cm-1), (cm3/g), (cm3/g),
name
at = at = constant k factor variable k factor constant k variable k
0.08 g/cm3 0.12 g/cm3 factor factor
43 Coarse Milled 37.3 9.31 1540 1160 3.44 4.03
26 Coarse Milled 51.7 13.3 1420 1010 3.27 3.96
38 Coarse Milled 26.9 5.19 1570 1180 3.84 4.50
20 Coarse Diffuser 37.5 8.56 1520 1120 3.52 4.19
21 Coarse Diffuser 40.9 6.15 1390 980 3.61 4.39
Crude average for Coarse fraction 38.8 8.51 1490 1090 3.54 4.21
18 Medium Milled 30.6 7.47 1820 1290 3.33 4.04
27 Medium Milled 26.6 6.95 1830 1290 3.38 4.10
42 Medium Milled 23.1 6.45 2260 1610 3.10 3.75
39 Medium Diffuser 24.1 6.15 2170 1630 3.20 3.76
35 Medium Diffuser 18.2 4.81 2760 1970 3.00 3.64
Crude average Medium fraction 24.5 6.37 2170 1560 3.20 3.94
58 30% depithed Milled 6.80 1.77 4640 4020 2.97 3.19
51 Fine 2.2 0.58 14100 9880 2.01 2.52
53 Whole 4.40 1.73 20200 11200 1.11 1.67
32; Argentinean depithed bagasse 17.8 4.16 2100 1510 3.58 4.29
Eucalypt 15.4 3.88 2480 1920 3.38 3.93
Pine 36.4 1.59 327 319 7.17 7.60
118
0.002 Coarse bagasse pulp

Medium bagasse pulp
Unfractionated bagasse pulp
Fine bagasse pulp
0.0015
-4/3
(Kc ) , g cm
2/3
0.001
2 1/3
0.0005
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
3
c (g/cm )
Figure 4.9 Graphs of (Kc2)1/3 against concentration
A statistical analysis of K would only provide a comparison for a specific

pulp concentration. A statistical analysis was performed on Sv and rather than K
as they are independent of concentration. Optimum values for Sv and were
determined for both constant and variable k using a least squares regression
method. The following analysis between pulp samples compares the results for Sv
and using a constant k.
Table 4.8 shows that fractionating the bagasse prior to pulping has a
significant effect on Sv. For Australian bagasse pulp samples, the samples
obtained from the ‘coarse’ bagasse fraction has the lowest Sv value whilst the pulp
obtained from ‘whole’ bagasse has the highest Sv value. The average Sv was
1490 cm-1 for Australian bagasse pulp obtained from the coarse bagasse fraction
and 2170 cm-1 for Australian bagasse pulp obtained from the medium bagasse
fraction.
The benchmark ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp also had higher Sv, 4640 cm-1
(Sample 58) than the pulp samples obtained from coarse and medium fractions of
bagasse. The very high values for Sv obtained for the fine bagasse pulp (Sample
119
51) and the whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53) was associated with the very high
proportion of pith material. Pith has a very high surface area to volume ratio and
consequently increases Sv.
The Sv of Argentinean bagasse pulp (Sample 32), 2100 cm-1, was higher
than the Australian pulps derived from the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse
fractions.
Although both the Australian ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58) and
the Argentinean bagasse pulp both had 30% of the shortest material removed, they
have quite different values for Sv. The difference between the Sv values was
possibly due to the difference between the APPI ‘flow-through’ reactor and the
batch Parr reactor. Alternatively the difference may have been related to the cane
variety. Argentinean sugarcane is bred specifically to produce fibre for paper
manufacture (144).
Significantly, the Australian bagasse pulp had a lower Sv than the eucalypt
pulp, 2480 cm-1, meaning that it has higher permeability. This is the most
important finding of this bagasse pulp study. The thicker fibre walls and the
higher proportion of longer fibres contributed to a more open pulp pad matrix,
despite the higher fraction of short fibres (section 4.2.3). A significant proportion
of pith was removed by the pre-treatment and possibly also by the cooking
process in the ‘flow-through’ digester, reducing the influence of pith on bagasse
pulp permeability.
The Sv for eucalypt pulp was much less than the benchmark ‘30% depithed’
bagasse pulp as expected.
The Sv for pine pulp was much lower than the pulp obtained from Australian
bagasse pulp because of its longer fibre length.
For the Australian bagasse pulp samples, when a variable k is used in the
calculation of Sv the value of Sv is about 400 cm-1 (~25%) on average lower than
when it is calculated with constant k. As mentioned previously, the factor k gives
an indication of the tortuosity for the capillaries through the pulp pad.
120
The values of the pulps derived from coarse and medium Australian
bagasse fractions were not very different from Argentinean bagasse (Sample 32)
and eucalypt pulp (see Table 4.8). The benchmark ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp
(Sample 58), also had a slightly lower value. affects the permeability
properties as well as Sv. values obtained with a variable k were about 25%
higher than the values obtained with a constant k. High values should also
indicate the potential for strength generation during refining. However, pulp
samples with higher values of were not observed to have better strength
generation properties during refining.
4.3.2. Effect of bagasse pre-treatment on pulp permeability properties

The breakdown of Sv and values for pulp samples originating from
different bagasse fractions and different sugar extraction processes are shown in
Table 4.9.
Table 4.9 Average Sv and Į values for pulp samples originating from
Australian bagasse.
Sv (cm-1) (cm3/g)
Coarse Medium Coarse Medium
Milled 1510 1970 3.52 3.27
Diffuser 1460 2470 3.57 3.10
The Sv and values for each type of bagasse pulp were compared using
Student’s pooled t-test with a 95% confidence interval. The test statistic, , used
to compare ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp is shown in Table 4.10 The
value indicates that there is a difference in Sv between coarse and medium bagasse
pulp for either milled and diffuser bagasse pulp. The test statistic for is less
clear. There is very strong evidence that there is a difference in between pulp
derived from coarse and medium bagasse from the diffuser (high = 6.07) but not
from the mill (low = 1.83).
121
Table 4.10 Ĳ values for Sv and Į for pulp samples obtained from different
bagasse fractions.
for Sv values for values

(-) (-)
Ĳ within milled bagasse population 4.24 1.83
Ĳ within diffuser bagasse population 4.69 6.07
The low values for the test statistic, , show that there is no difference
between the pulp samples obtained from the two sugar extraction methods for
either Sv nor (Table 4.11).
Table 4.11 Ĳ values for Sv and Į test statistic for pulp samples obtained
from different sugar extraction methods.
for Sv values for values

(-) (-)
within coarse bagasse population 0.87 0.25
within medium bagasse population 2.41 1.78
4.3.3. Review of bagasse pulp steady-state permeability model

The values of Sv and presented in Table 4.8 obtained using a constant and
variable Kozeny factor were inserted back into the Kozeny-Carman model and
compared with the original experimental data (shown in Figure 4.10). The
Kozeny-Carman model with either a constant k (the solid line) or a variable k (the
dashed line) reasonably predicts the experimental permeability data over the
concentration range used in this study.
A dynamic permeability and compressibility model is developed and

verified later in this chapter. The dynamic model uses data extrapolated beyond
the concentration range considered here. Extrapolating the permeability model
slightly above the concentration range used in the cell shows that the model
predicts higher permeability with a variable Kozeny factor than with a constant
factor. This suggests that the tortuosity of the capillaries in the pulp pad decrease
122
as the pulp concentration increases. It will be shown later in this chapter that
extrapolating the Kozeny-Carman model with a variable Kozeny factor beyond
this concentration range allows the dynamic model to give good predictions.
Experimental results, coarse bagasse pulp

1.00E-06 Experimental results, medium bagasse pulp
Experimental results, fine bagasse pulp
Kozeny prediction
Permeability, K (cm )
2
Kozeny prediction with Davies Kozeny factor

correction
Kozeny prediction (medium)
1.00E-07
1.00E-08
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Concentration, c (g/cm3)
Figure 4.10 Comparison of the Kozeny-Carman model with experiment

data with both a constant and variable Kozeny factor.
4.3.4. Comparison of steady-state permeability data with previous work

The only published bagasse pulp permeability data is by El-Sharkawy and
co-workers who examine a commercial bagasse pulp from India (50, 64).
Unfortunately, it was not possible to determine values of Sv from their study as
the variation of K with concentration was not provided. This work reported a
“Kozeny-Carman permeability constant”. The paper contained unusual units for
the constant (cm2) when k is normally unitless. Upon discussion with the authors,
this paper used an obscure permeability model and not the Kozeny-Carman
model, viz
ε
K = k' Equation 4.1
(1 − ε )2
where k’ is a permeability constant
123
In their study, bagasse pulp was fractionated using an axial feed pressure
screen with 0.06 mm slots to reduce the fines content and improve steady-state
permeability. Their data is presented in Table 4.12. They were able to improve
permeability by 30% by pressure screening increasing k’ from 2.36×10-9 cm2 to
3.08×10-9 cm2.
Table 4.12 Values for bagasse pulp “Permeability constant” reported by

El-Sharkawy and co-workers (50, 64)
Permeability constant Canadian Standard

of original pulp (cm2) Freeness (ml)
Original pulp 2.36×10-9 290
Screened pulp 3.08×10-9 459
Rejected
5.61×10-10 200
material
The results of this work have been recalculated into the form of their
‘permeability constant’. It was found that the ‘permeability constant’ for ‘coarse’
and ‘medium’ Australian bagasse pulp was between 2×10-8 cm2 and 4×10-8 cm2.
This is compared to 2.36×10-9 cm2 for El-Sharkawy and co-worker’s original
Indian bagasse pulp, and 3.08×10-9 for their most permeable screened pulp, a ten-
fold improvement.
For data collected in this study, the form of the conventional Kozeny-
Carman model was found to have better agreement with the experimental data
than the permeability model used by El-Shakawy and co-workers.
Table 4.13 shows a comparison of the Sv and values from this study with
those of previous workers that investigated wood pulp. Most of these workers did
not specify the wood species used. The specific surface area, Sv, for the bagasse
pulp samples was lower than that found by previous workers for wood pulp.
Previous workers have reported a wide range for , from 1.65 cm3/g up to
124
4.5 cm3/g. The values of for bagasse pulp were in this range. Sv and for the
benchmark eucalypt pulp sample measured in this study was very similar to that
of Robertson and Mason for a kraft wood pulp (86).
Table 4.13 Comparison of Sv and Į measured by various workers.
Pulp source Investigator Kozeny Other details Specific Swelling

factor surface area, factor, Į
Sv (cm-1) (cm3/g)
Soda AQ ‘Coarse’ This study Constant, Not dried 1490-2170 3.20-3.54
and ‘Medium’ 5.55
Australian Bagasse
Soda AQ ‘Coarse’ This study Variable Not dried 1100-1600 3.94-4.21
and ‘Medium’
Australian Bagasse
Eucalypt pulp This study Constant Not dried 2480 3.38
Soda AQ bagasse This study Constant, Not dried 4644 2.97
with 30% of pith 5.55
removed
Sulfite wood pulp Robertson and Constant, Previously dried ~4100 2.80-3.08
Mason (86) 5.55
Not dried ~2300 4.4-4.5
Kraft wood pulp Robertson and Constant, Not dried ~2300 3.66-4.27
Mason (86) 5.55
Wood pulp Ingmanson Constant 4200 1.65
and co-
workers (81)
Variable ~2900 ~2.07
Sulphate wood pulp Gren (84) Constant, 2000-3000 4.8
5.55
The relative changes in bagasse pulp Sv values (~25%) between a variable

and constant k were more than the 7% previously reported by Ingmanson and co-
workers (81) for wood pulp. The change in values was the same as previously
reported for wood pulp, 25%.
4.3.5. Summary of steady-state permeability experiments

The steady-state permeability properties of Australian bagasse pulp have
been measured in a simple custom built cell and reported. The steady-state
permeability data are needed for the dynamic filtration model.
125
Pulp derived from fractionated Australian bagasse was produced in the

laboratory with permeability that compares favourably with eucalypt pulp, despite
a higher overall fine fibre content. It is thought the fibre stiffness and the high
proportion of fibres greater than 1.3 mm in length creates a highly permeable
bagasse pulp pad.
Australian pulp derived from the ‘coarse’ bagasse fraction has better steady-
state permeability than the ‘medium’ fraction, as measured by lower Sv. The
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp from a diffuser has a higher value. This confirms that
there is a difference between the fractions of bagasse (Objective 1a) with respect
to pulp permeability.
There was not found to be a difference in bagasse pulp permeability

between bagasse pulp from a diffuser and a mill (Objective 1b).
For bagasse pulp, a variable k gives a 25% higher value for and a 25%
lower value of Sv compared with a constant k. This is similar to the findings
obtained for wood pulps.
The findings from the steady-state permeability study are consistent with the
findings of previous workers. A standard Australian bagasse pulp (Sample 58)
had worse Sv than wood pulp but was improved dramatically by the pre-treatment
and pulping procedure. The values of for bagasse pulp are within the range of
findings for other workers using wood pulp.
Good agreement was found to exist between the experimental data and the
theoretical predictions for the permeability properties of Australian bagasse pulp
using the Kozeny-Carman model with a constant or variable k.
4.4. Results of quasi steady-state compressibility testing
In this section, the steady-state compressibility parameters of pulp pads, M

and N, are determined from experiments using the compressibility cell. The
steady-state power law compressibility model was found to be suitable (section
4.4.1). The values of M and N are presented and compared to the findings of
previous workers (section 4.4.2). These values for M and N are used in the
126
dynamic model later in this chapter. The effect of pre-treatment conditions on the
compressibility parameters is compared statistically (section 4.4.3). A summary
of the quasi steady-state compressibility tests is presented in section 4.4.4.
4.4.1. Suitability of the power law steady-state compressibility model

The pressure of the platen was calculated from the load recorded by the
Instron. For each pulp sample, the platen pressure was plotted as a function of
concentration on a log-log scale. The compressibility factor, N was determined
from the slope of the linear approximation and the compressibility factor, M was
determined as the exponent of the abscissa intercept. Figure 4.11 is an example of
this graph for experimental data.
2.5
2 log(P) = 2.65*log(c) + 3.50

log (pressure) (kPa)
1.5
0.5
0
-1.3 -1.2 -1.1 -1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5
3
log (concentration) (g/cm )
Figure 4.11 Plot of the log of the platen pressure against the log of the pulp
concentration for a sample of bagasse pulp compressed under
quasi steady-state conditions (Sample 39; experimental data is
shown as the thin solid line and the linear approximation is
shown as the thick dashed line).
The figure demonstrates that the power law steady-state compressibility

relationship, Ps = M Ɏ N is suitable.
127
4.4.2. Pulp steady-state compressibility data and comparison with the

findings of previous workers
Table 4.14 is a summary of the compressibility constants M and N obtained
from quasi steady state compressibility experiments using a range of pulp
samples. These values were used as inputs to the dynamic model presented later
in this chapter.
Table 4.14 Table of values for the compressibility factors N and M found
in this study.
This study
Sample number Fraction Source N M (kPa)
Sample 26 Coarse Mill 2.83 7650
Sample 20 Coarse Diffuser 2.66 4990
Sample 21 Coarse Diffuser 2.68 3960
Sample 18 Medium Mill 2.72 6090
Sample 35 Medium Diffuser 2.72 4490
Sample 39 Medium Diffuser 2.65 3190
Average 2.70 4920
Whole bagasse pulp Whole Mill 2.74 4960
Fine bagasse pulp Fine Mill 3.23 25900
Argentinean bagasse pulp 2.82 8450
Eucalypt pulp 2.43 4780
Pine pulp 2.47 6010
The compressibility parameters for wood pulp determined by previous

workers were recalculated in terms of M and N. The results for eucalypt and pine
from this study are similar to the findings by previous workers for wood pulp
(Table 4.15).
Gren and Hedstrom (85) report N over the full range of kappa numbers for
chemical pulps, from 2.22 for a fully bleached pulp to 2.37 for a 100 kappa pulp
whilst Ingmanson reports N to be between 2.66 and 3.17 (81-83). Gren and
Hedstrom (85) noted that the difference in their results compared to Ingmanson’s
(81) is due to the different compression range used in their experiments. Our
results for N were all within the range reported by these authors.
128
Table 4.15 Table of values for the compressibility factors N and M found
by other workers.
Previous studies
Sample description N M (kPa)
Unclassified wood pulp at moderate Not
2.22-2.37
levels of compression (85) provided
Wood pulp (81) 2.66 1450
Beaten wood pulp (82, 83) 3.12 2950
Beaten wood pulp (82, 83) 3.14 3160
Unbeaten wood pulp (82, 83) 3.17 3480
Unbeaten wood pulp (82, 83) 3.14 3190
M was found to vary significantly between samples, however N was less

variable. The values of M reported in this study (generally 3000 kPa to 8000 kPa)
were often slightly higher than previously reported (1450 kPa to 3480 kPa). This
is possibly due to the concentration range which was selected as being suitable for
the dynamic filtration study in the next phase of the project.
The bagasse pulp was not statistically different from the eucalypt pulp in
terms of M and N (determined using Student’s t-test with a 95% confidence
interval). This is despite the significant difference in the fibre morphology.
Bagasse pulp has a longer fibre length and thicker cell walls than the eucalypt
pulp.
4.4.3. The effect of pre-treament on bagasse compressibility

The pulp compressibility parameters were again statistically compared using
Student’s t test. The pulp samples analysed were subdivided into four categories.
These categories are pulp produced from ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ fractions of
milled and diffuser bagasse.
The average values for N and M within each of the milled and diffuser
bagasse pulp populations are provided in Table 4.16
129
Table 4.16 Table of average N and M values for milled and diffuser,
coarse and medium bagasse.
N (-) M (kPa)
Coarse Medium Coarse Medium
Milled 2.79 2.63 5890 4410
Diffuser 2.67 2.57 4440 3030
Firstly the effect of the bagasse fraction on N and M will be determined

followed by the effect of the method of juice extraction
4.4.3.1. The effect of bagasse fraction on N and M
The values of comparing the difference between coarse and medium

bagasse pulp is presented for each of the milled and diffuser bagasse pulp
samples. The low values of in Table 4.17 indicates that the bagasse fraction did
not affect the value of N within either the milled or diffuser bagasse pulp
populations. Similarly, the bagasse fraction was not found to affect the value of
M.
Table 4.17 Ĳ values for N and M comparing ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’

bagasse pulp.
Value of for Value of for

comparing N comparing M
values (-) values (-)
Ĳ within milled bagasse population 1.46 0.866
Ĳ within diffuser bagasse population 1.30 2.64
4.4.3.2. The effect of the mode of juice extraction on N and M
The effect of the mode of juice extraction on N and M is now determined

within each of the milled and diffuser bagasse pulp populations. Table 4.18
shows the test statistic, , calculated to determine whether there is an effect of the
130
mode of juice extraction on M and N firstly within the ‘coarse’ bagasse population
and then the ‘medium’ bagasse population.
Table 4.18 Ĳ values for N and M comparing pulp from two methods of
juice extraction.
values comparing values comparing

mean N values (-) mean M values (-)
within coarse bagasse population 0.940 0.724
within medium bagasse population 0.709 1.36
4.4.4. Summary of steady-state compressibility testing

The power law compressibility model is suitable for bagasse pulp and wood
pulp samples. The values for M and N were measured for use in the dynamic
model. The values for N were consistent with the findings of previous workers
for wood pulp, but the values of M were slightly higher than previously reported.
Bagasse pre-treatment was not found to affect the compressibility

parameters, rejecting the notion that either fractionated bagasse or the mode of
juice extraction (i.e. Objective 1a and Objective 1b) affects the steady-state
compressibility.
4.5. Results of dynamic filtration modelling and validation
The output of the dynamic model was tested using a sensitivity analysis of
the key permeability and compressibility variables, Sv, , M and N (section 4.5.1).
The output of the dynamic model was compared with experimental data obtained
under dynamic filtration conditions (section 4.5.2) and a summary is provided
(section 4.5.3).
4.5.1. Predictions of the dynamic model

The output from the dynamic model (Equation 2.25 to Equation 2.28)
calculated by the FORTRAN program provides the solidity as a function of both
the position within the cell as well as time. The dimensionless output of the
model is easily converted back to dimensional form. An example of the output for
131
Australian bagasse pulp is shown in Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13 where the time
axis was scaled to 3 min. The data presented used typical values for the
permeability and compressibility parameters obtained in this study. The solidity,
ĭ = c is initially constant through the cell (in Figure 4.12 as t 0 min) but
during the experiment, the solidity at the top platen is higher than lower in the cell
(Figure 4.13). The concentration gradient throughout the cell is roughly uniform
and small.
0.9
0.8 t = 0 min
0.7 t = 1 min
0.6 t = 2 min
ĭ (-)
0.5 t = 2.5 min

0.4
t = 3 min
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80
x (mm)
Figure 4.12 Output from the dynamic model for Sample A; graph of ĭ as a
function of depth below the platen.
0.8
at the top platen
0.7
at the base
0.6
0.5
ĭ (-)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3
t (min)
Figure 4.13 Output from the dynamic model for Sample A; graph of ĭ as a
function of time.
132
Sv and were determined from the permeability experiments in the

concentration range 0.05 g/cm3 to 0.2 g/cm3. The dynamic filtration model
governing equation used these factors beyond this concentration range in the
dynamic filtration experiments, as mentioned in section 4.3.3. It will be shown in
section 4.5.2 that this is a valid assumption provided a variable Kozeny factor, k,
is used.
A sensitivity analysis of the effect of compression rate, M, N and Sv on the

calculated Ps was performed. Each of these parameters were varied one at a time
and compared to a ‘base-case’ where all other parameters were fixed. The solidity
predicted from the FORTRAN model was converted to platen pressure, Ps using
Equation 2.24.
The effect of was not studied explicitly. is assumed to be invariant with

concentration for a given pulp sample. Increasing has the same effect as
increasing concentration viz
Ps = m(αc )
n
Equation 4.2
recalling that m and n are calculated from M and N. Hence has a
considerable effect on the dynamic model.
Firstly, it was necessary to determine the compression rate required to

observe dynamic effects for use in the ‘base-case’ conditions. Figure 4.14 shows
the dynamic filtration effects where the compressibility and permeability
parameters were held constant. There was only a small increase in solids pressure
when the compression (75 mm) was undertaken over 20 min compared to 5 hr.
From the modelling, steady-state compression behaviour appears to occur when
the pulp pad is compressed for around 20 minutes. Compressing the pulp pad
over 5 hr in the previous experimental phase appears to be a valid timescale that
achieves quasi steady-state conditions. The data in Figure 4.14 was obtained
using Ɏ0 = 0.04 and Sv =1740 cm-1 which is the crude average for the milled
bagasse samples in Table 4.9, N=2.71 and M=5100 are the crude averages for
milled bagasse samples in Table 4.16. A compression time of 3 min for the
133
experiments was selected based on the observation in the figure that this
compression rate is fast enough for the model to exhibit the effects of dynamic
filtration.
300
75 mm compression over 5 hr
75 mm compression over 20 min
250 75 mm compression over 3 min
75 mm compression over 1 min
200
Sv=1740; N=2.71
Ps (kPa)
150
100
50
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
C/Cmax
Figure 4.14 Effect of compression rate on the fibre pressure; dynamic
model predictions; Ɏ0 = 0.04, Sv = 1740 cm-1; N = 2.71 kPa; M
= 5100.
The effect of M, N and Sv were compared by changing one variable at a

time and comparing it to the ‘base case’. The ‘base case’ uses the same values for
the permeability and compressibility parameters in Figure 4.14, at a compression
rate of 75 mm in 3 min, i.e. Ɏ0 = 0.04, Sv =1740 cm-1, N=2.71 and M=5100. The
results are shown in Figure 4.17 to Figure 4.19. Figure 4.17 shows the effect of
increasing Sv from 1740 cm-1 to 2000 cm-1, Figure 4.18 shows the effect of
increasing N from 2.71 to 3.2, and Figure 4.19 shows the effect of increasing M
from 5100 kPa to 7000 kPa. Sv and N have quite a significant affect on Ps but M
only has a minor effect.
134
300
250 Sv=1740 - Base case

Sv=2000
Ps (kPa) 200
150
100
50
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
C/Cmax
Figure 4.15 Effect of Sv on the dynamic model predictions compared to the

base case; Ɏ0 = 0.04, Sv = 1740 cm-1; N = 2.71 kPa; M = 5100,
compression time = 3min.
300
250 N=3.2
N=2.71 - Base case

200
Ps (kPa)
150
100
50
0
0
C/Cmax
Figure 4.16 Effect of N on the dynamic model predictions compared to the

135
300
250 M=5100 - Base case M=7000
200
Ps (kPa)
150
100
50
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
C/Cmax
Figure 4.17 Effect of M on the dynamic model predictions compared to the

4.5.2. Dynamic filtration experiments and comparison with predicted

values
In order to verify the dynamic model, the fibre pressure Ps at the top platen
was calculated from ĭ at the top platen using Equation 2.24 and compared to
experimentally derived data.
Figure 4.18 and Figure 4.19 show the experimentally determined pressure at
the top platen compared to Ps calculated from the dynamic model. It was found
that for all pulp samples, the best agreement with experimental data occurs when
using a variable Kozeny factor (Equation 2.12) rather than a constant Kozeny
factor (i.e. k = 5.55). This means that the tortuosity of the capillaries through the
pulp pad is changing as the pad compresses. The bagasse pulp samples and the
pine pulp sample had very good agreement between the experimental data and the
model predictions. The eucalypt pulp had only fair agreement. The reason for the
poorer performance in predicting the behaviour of eucalypt pulp is not known.
Two pulp samples had poor agreement between the dynamic model and
experimental data; the pulp made from whole bagasse (Sample 53) and fine
bagasse (Sample 51). These pulp samples have the highest fine fibre content and
136
deviation from the dynamic model is thought to have been caused by incomplete
retention of fine fibre by the platen. The comparison between the predictions of
the dynamic model and the experimental data for other pulp samples are presented
in the supplementary material (Appendix A).
The repeatability of the dynamic filtration experiments was studied using

two medium fractions of bagasse pulp. Each pulp pad was compressed twice
under identical conditions. The experiments were repeatable. The data from
these experiments is attached in Appendix A.
During the dynamic filtration testing, the compression of a sample of pulp

was measured both before and after bleaching. Bleaching the pulp did not affect
the dynamic filtration behaviour of the pulp.
4.5.3. Summary of dynamic filtration modelling
Two purpose built pieces of laboratory equipment were used to determine

the steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters of bagasse pulp pads.
These steady-state parameters were used in a dynamic filtration model to
accurately predict the compressive load during dynamic filtration of a bagasse
pulp pad. The sensitivity of the variables M, N and Sv on the platen load pressure
was determined.
The dynamic filtration model provided good prediction of the fibre pressure
of a compressed bagasse pulp pad at high compression rates when significant
dynamic effects occur. It is particularly accurate for bagasse pulp, provided some
pith is removed, and pine pulp. The model only provides qualitative predictions
for eucalypt pulp at high compression rates. The Kozeny-Carman permeability
model allows the dynamic model to give excellent predictions, particularly when a
variable Kozeny factor is used (Equation 2.12), rather than a constant Kozeny
factor (i.e. k = 5.55).
137
100
Experimental 100
Experimental
80 Theoretical; constant k
Pressure (kPa)
80 Theoretical; constant k
Pressure (kPa)
60 Theoretical; variable k Theoretical; variable k
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
Time (min)
Time (min)
(a) (b)
100 100
Experimental Experimental
Pressure (kPa)
80 80
Pressure (kPa)
Theoretical; constant k Theoretical; constant k

60 Theoretical; variable k 60 Theoretical; variable k
40 40
20 20
0
0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (min) Time (min)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.18 Comparison of the dynamic model with experimental data for
bagasse pulp (constant and variable k) (a) Medium milled
bagasse pulp (Sample 20); (b) Coarse milled bagasse pulp
(Sample 26); (c) Medium diffuser bagasse pulp (Sample 18); (d)
Coarse diffuser bagasse pulp (Sample 39).
138
100 100
Experimental Experimental
80 80 Theoretical; constant k
Pressure (kPa)
Pressure (kPa) Theoretical; constant k
60 Theoretical; variable k
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (min)
Time (min)
(a) (b)
100
Experimental
80
Pressure (kPa)
Theoretical; constant k
40
20
0
0 1 2 3
Time (min)
(c)
Figure 4.19 Comparison of the dynamic model with experimental data for
(a) Argentinean bagasse pulp, (b) eucalypt pulp and (c) pine
pulp (constant and variable k).
4.6. Results of chemical additives testing
A chemical additive system which is stable under shear conditions was

optimised for use with a bagasse pulp slurry using a DDJ. Pulp retention was the
principal measure of efficacy for determining the addition rate for the chemical
additives (section 4.6.1). The DDJ was modified to investigate the effect of
vacuum on the drainage time and retention of bagasse pulp slurries both with and
without flocculants (section 4.6.2). The modified DDJ simulates the Fourdrinier
forming process. The effect of chemical additives on the steady-state and
dynamic permeability and compressibility behaviour of bagasse pulp pads was
139
determined (sections 4.6.3 and 4.6.4). A summary of the effect of chemical

additives is presented (section 4.6.5).
4.6.1. The effect of shear and additives on pulp retention

A high molecular weight cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM), a flocculant
commonly used for wood-based paper manufacture, was investigated at varying
concentrations. The supplier recommended applying CPAM in the range of
0.02%-0.08% (on dry fibre) which is typical for mechanical wood pulp with a
high quantity of short fibre. The product is sold commercially as Ciba Percol 182.
The effectiveness of various concentrations of CPAM was measured on

‘whole’ bagasse pulp (Sample 53) beyond the ranges suggested by the supplier
using a DDJ. The effectiveness of flocculants was quantified by measuring the
retention of short fibres (i.e. ‘fines retention’). The flocculation improved with
increasing levels of CPAM as shown in Figure 4.20. Even a very small quantity
of CPAM improved flocculation. At 0.5% CPAM, over-flocculation was
observed which would lead to a ‘patchy’ paper sheet appearance and poor sheet
strength properties. An addition rate of 0.05% CPAM, which is the mid-point
recommended by the supplier for a mechanical pulp heavily laden with fine fibre
was used as a basis for further experiments with flocculants. This concentration is
known to be economical for wood-based paper production, improving fibre
distribution, whilst also improving drainage and retention.
140
100
90
80
70
Fines retention, % 60
50
40
30 Whole bagasse pulp
Whole bagasse pulp + 0.01% CPAM
20
Whole bagasse + 0.05% CPAM
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.20 The effect of CPAM concentration and shear on fines retention
on a whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53).
The effect of bentonite addition to a pulp slurry containing 0.1% fibre and
0.05% CPAM (on dry fibre) was investigated. Ciba recommended that their
modified bentonite, Hydracol ONZ, should be added at a rate of 0.3% after the
CPAM is added to the pulp slurry. Bentonite was added 1 min after CPAM was
added to the pulp slurry in the DDJ.
It was found that the addition of CPAM and bentonite, at this rate, actually
reduced the fines retention. A high level of bentonite was observed in the filtrate.
Consequently, the effect of bentonite addition rate on a bagasse fibre-CPAM
system was explored. Figure 4.21 shows that for a pulp slurry containing 0.1%
fibre and 0.05% CPAM, the optimum addition rate of bentonite was around
0.06%. A high level of shear (1500 rpm) was used to compare the effect of the
level of bentonite. Above this addition level, bentonite is in excess and not
attached to the fibre flocs.
141
100%
90%
80% 0.05% Percol 182 (CPAM)
in all samples
70%
Fines Retention
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
Whole bagasse pulp, 1500 rpm
0%
0.0% 0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0.8% 1.0% 1.2% 1.4% 1.6%
Bentonite addition (on dry fibre)
Figure 4.21 The effect of bentonite addition rate on the fines retention of a
whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53) with 0.05% CPAM added.
The effect of both CPAM and bentonite on the flocculation of a whole

bagasse pulp is shown in Figure 4.22 over a wide range of shear conditions.
Using 0.05% CPAM, the best fines retention was achieved with 0.06% of
bentonite. This was the most effective rate for whole bagasse pulp over the full
range of shear conditions. These addition rates of CPAM and bentonite were then
applied to other pulp samples, including ‘coarse’, ‘medium’ and the benchmark
‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp.
142
100%
Fines retention 80%
60%
40%
Whole bagasse pulp
20% Whole bagasse pulp + 0.05%CPAM +0.06% bentonite
Whole bagasse pulp + 0.05%CPAM + 0.3% bentonite
0%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.22 The effect of shear, CPAM and bentonite addition rate on the
fines retention of a whole bagasse pulp.
The addition of (i) 0.05% CPAM and (ii) 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
was then tested on the benchmark ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58).
Depithed bagasse pulp has better drainage properties than whole bagasse pulp as
shown in (section 4.3). Figure 4.23 shows that depithed bagasse pulp had the
same response to chemical additives as the whole bagasse pulp. The addition of
0.05% CPAM improved fines retention and was enhanced by the addition of
0.06% of bentonite.
143
100%
80%
Fines retention
60%
40% Depithed bagasse pulp
Depithed bagasse pulp + 0.05% CPAM

20% Depithed bagasse pulp + 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
0%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
fines retention of a ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58).
The effect of CPAM and bentonite on bagasse pulp derived from the
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56), which has high permeability, was performed
(Figure 4.24). The addition of CPAM and CPAM & bentonite on the ‘coarse’
bagasse pulp mirrored the results for the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp and the
whole bagasse pulp.
144
100%
80%
Fines retention
60%
40%
'Coarse' bagasse pulp
20% 'Coarse' bagasse pulp + 0.05% CPAM

'Coarse' bagasse pulp + 0.05% CPAM +0.6kg/t bentonite
0%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.24 The effect of shear CPAM and bentonite addition rate on the
fines retention of a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp.
Finally, the CPAM/bentonite system was tested on ‘medium’ bagasse pulp

(Sample 60, Figure 4.25), again with good performance.
100%
80%
Fines retention
60%
40%
Medium bagasse pulp
20% Medium bagasse pulp + 0.05% CPAM
Medium bagasse pulp +0.05%CPAM + 0.06% bentonite

0%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Shear (rpm)
fines retention of a ‘medium’ bagasse pulp.
145
In summary, the combination of 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite chemicals

for improving the retention of all types of bagasse pulp was effective under all
shear rates. This two chemical system gives good fines retention, typically 80%-
100%, under a range of shear conditions for every bagasse pulp except ‘whole’
bagasse pulp.
4.6.2. The effect of chemical additives and vacuum

The effect of vacuum and shear on the fines retention of a whole bagasse
pulp, without any flocculants added, was studied to look into the effect of
vacuum. During this process, a pulp mat was formed through which the pulp
slurry was filtered. This did not occur in the previous experiments with the DDJ.
The data is shown in Figure 4.26. Vacuum clearly had a profound effect on fines
retention.
100%
90%
80%
70%
Fines retention
60%
50%
40%
30% Whole bagasse pulp
Not Tappi method-
20% 0kPa vacuum 100% of water is
20kPa vacuum removed
10%
40kPa vacuum
0%
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Shear (rpm)
Figure 4.26 The effect of vacuum and shear on the fines retention of a
whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53), no chemical additives.
The time taken for the DDJ to drain was measured as a function of vacuum.
The drainage time decreased quickly as the first 10 kPa of vacuum were applied
(Figure 4.27). The data in Figure 4.27 was collected at a single moderate level of
shear. The stirrer speed was set to 1000 rpm.
146
100% 200
Read from left hand axis
90% 180
80% 160
70% 140
Drainage time (s)

Fines retention
Whole bagasse pulp
60% Read from right hand axis 120
Stirrer speed 1000rpm
50% 100
40% 80
30% 60
20% 40
10% 20
0% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Vacuum kPa
Fines retention Drainage time
Figure 4.27 The effect of vacuum on the fines retention and drainage time
of a whole bagasse pulp (Sample 53), 1000 rpm shear, no
chemical additives.
The experiment was repeated for ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58,
Figure 4.28), ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56, Figure 4.29) and ‘medium’
bagasse pulp (Sample 60, Figure 4.30). In these experiments, the effect of
chemical additives was also investigated as a function of vacuum. The chemicals
added were 0.05% CPAM and 0.06% bentonite.
147
100% 100
90% Read from left hand axis 90
80% 80
Drainage time (s)

70% 70
Fines retention

50% 50
40% 40
30% 30
20% 20
10% 10
0% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Vacuum kPa
Fines retention 'depithed' bagasse pulp no additives
Fines retention 'depithed' bagasse pulp 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
Drainage time 'depithed' bagasse pulp no additives
Drainage time 'depithed' bagasse pulp 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
Figure 4.28 The effect of vacuum and chemical additives on the fines
retention and drainage time of a ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp
(Sample 58), 1000 rpm shear.
100% 100
90% Read from left hand axis 90
80% 80 Drainage time (s)
70% 70
Fines retention
60% 60
50% 50
30% 30
20% 20
10% 10
0% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Vacuum kPa
Fines retention no additives Fines retention 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
Drainage time no additives Drainage time 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
retention and drainage time of a ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample
56), 1000 rpm shear.
148
100% 100
90% 90
Read left right hand axis
80% 80
Drainage time (s)

70% 70
Fines retention
60% 60
50% 50
40% 40
Read from right hand
30% axis 30
20% 20
10% 10
0% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Vacuum kPa
Fines retention no additives Fines retention 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
Drainage time no additives Drainage time 0.05% CPAM + 0.06% bentonite
retention and drainage time of a ‘medium’ bagasse pulp
(Sample 60), 1000 rpm shear.
For each bagasse pulp examined, the CPAM/bentonite system improved the
retention of fines and the drainage time.
These data provided an unexpected result. When no chemical additives

were used, the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58) initially had a longer
drainage time than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 56) but as the vacuum
increased, the drainage time of the ‘depithed’ bagasse pulp improved and the
drainage time became quicker than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp. This effect is
shown in Figure 4.31. At a vacuum level greater than 10 kPa, the ‘30% depithed’
bagasse pulp drained more quickly than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp.
149
100% 100
90% 90
80% 80
Drainage time (s)

70% 70
Fines retention
60% 60
No additives
50% 50
40% 40
Read from right hand axis
30% 30
20% 20
10% 10
0% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Vacuum kPa
Fines retention 'Coarse bagasse' Test 56 no additives Fines retention 'Depithed bagasse' Test 58 no additives
Drainage time 'Coarse bagasse' Test 56 no additives Drainage time 'Depithed bagasse' Test 58 no additives
of ‘coarse’ (Sample 56) and ‘30% depithed’ (Sample 58)
bagasse pulp, 1000 rpm shear, no flocculants added.
This effect was exacerbated when chemical additives were used (0.05%
CPAM and 0.06% bentonite). At 5 kPa, the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp had
faster drainage than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp.
150
100% 100
95% 90
90% 80
Drainage time (s)

85% 70
Fines retention
80% 60
With additives
75% 50
70% 40
Read from right hand axis
65% 30
60% 20
55% 10
50% 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Vacuum kPa
Fines retention 'Coarse bagasse' with additives Fines retention 'Depithed bagasse' with additives
Drainage time 'Coarse bagasse' with additives Drainage time 'Depithed bagasse' with additives
of ‘coarse’ (Sample 56) and ‘30% depithed’ (Sample 58)
bagasse pulp, 1000 rpm shear, with flocculants added.
It was anticipated that the drainage time of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp under
vacuum and shear conditions would be quicker than the ‘depithed’ bagasse pulp
based on its substantially lower Sv alone (~4600 cm-1 for ‘30% depithed’ bagasse
pulp compared to ~1500 cm-1 for ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp). This affect was also
observed for ‘medium’ bagasse pulp. Fibre to fibre interactions during
compression evidently plays an important role during bagasse pulp pad formation
in the DDJ. This is explored further in the next section.
4.6.3. The effects of chemical additives on permeability and

compressibility parameters
4.6.3.1. The effect of chemical additives on bagasse pulp permeability

parameters
The study into the permeability properties of bagasse pulp was revisited
using the CPAM/bentonite additive system. The experimental procedure used in
section 3.4 was repeated with the exception that the chemical additives were
added to the pulp slurry prior to loading into the cell. Figure 4.33 and Figure 4.34
show the graph of (Kc2)1/3 against c for a ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp
respectively. As can be observed from the figures, there was not found to be a
151
statistically significant difference in the slope or intercept of these plots and

consequently no difference in Sv or . This was confirmed using Student’s t-test
with a 95% confidence interval, using the pooled estimate of standard deviation
from section 4.3.
0.0018
0.0016
0.0014
0.0012
2 1/3
0.001
(Kc )
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
Sample 43 no additives
0.0002 Sample 43 with additives
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Figure 4.33 The effect of chemical additives on the permeability of a

‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 43).
152
0.0016
0.0014
0.0012
0.001
2 1/3
(Kc )
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
Sample 18 no additives
0.0002 Sample 18 with additives
Linear (Sample 18 no additives)
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Figure 4.34 The effect of chemical additives on the permeability of a

‘medium’ bagasse pulp (Sample 18).
The effect of additives was significant for a ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp
(Sample 58), see Figure 4.35. ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp had higher
permeability when chemical additives were used, although the permeability was
still lower than that of eucalypt (without additives). This was confirmed at a 95%
confidence interval.
153
0.0014
0.0012
0.001
0.0008
2 1/3
(Kc )
0.0006
0.0004
Eucalypt pulp, no additives

0.0002 Whole bagasse pulp, no additives
'Depithed' bagasse pulp, no additives
'Depithed' bagasse pulp, with additives
0 Linear (Eucalypt pulp, no additives)
0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200
3
Concentration, c (g/cm )
Figure 4.35 The effect of chemical additives on the permeability of a ‘30%

depithed’ bagasse pulp (Sample 58).
The results for Sv and are shown in Table 4.19. The chemical additives
had a strong affect on the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp, greatly reducing its Sv but
not on the ‘coarse’ or ‘medium’ bagasse pulp. There was not found to be any
statistically significant difference in for any bagasse pulp sample using a 95%
confidence interval.
Table 4.19 Effect of additives on the permeability parameters Sv and Į.
Parameter Bagasse pulp type No additives With additives

(-) Coarse (Sample 43) 3.44 3.45
PESD, =0.216 Medium (Sample 18) 3.33 2.98
30% depithed (Sample 58) 2.97 3.26
-1
Sv (cm ) Coarse (Sample 43) 1540 1580
-1
PESD, Sv=211 cm Medium (Sample 18) 1820 2080
30% depithed (Sample 58) 4640 3060
154
4.6.3.2. Effect of chemical additives on bagasse pulp compressibility

parameters
The investigation into the steady state compressibility of bagasse pulp in
section 4.4 was revisited using the CPAM/bentonite system. Figure 4.36 and
Figure 4.37 shows typical results for a ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp
respectively. In both figures, the data is shown prior to chemical additives and
after the addition of chemical additives. There was no difference in the steady-
state compression factors M and N.
Figure 4.36 The effect of chemical additives on the quasi steady-state

compression of ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp (Sample 20).
155
Figure 4.37 The effect of chemical additives on the steady-state

compression of ‘medium’ bagasse pulp (Sample 18).
The effect of chemical additives is more pronounced on the steady state

compressibility of a ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp (Figure 4.38). This mirrors the
observation that chemical additives only affect the permeability parameters of a
‘depithed’ bagasse pulp.
156
Figure 4.38 The effect of chemical additives on the steady-state

compression of ‘depithed’ bagasse pulp.
Typical results for the steady-state compressibility test are shown in Table
4.20. The results were duplicated using other pulp samples (Sample 26, a ‘coarse’
bagasse pulp and Sample 42, a ‘medium’ bagasse pulp). The only statistically
significant result is that the chemical additives system affected the ‘depithed’
bagasse pulp compressibility parameters by increasing both M and N.
Table 4.20 Typical effect of chemical additives on bagasse pulp

compressibility parameters.
Parameter Bagasse pulp type No additives With additives

Log M (kPa) Coarse (Sample 20) 3.77 3.93
PESD, m=0.15 Medium (Sample 18) 3.79 3.79
N, - Coarse (Sample 20) 2.76 2.98
PESD, n=0.12 Medium (Sample 18) 2.73 2.73
157
4.6.4. The effect of chemical additives on bagasse pulp’s dynamic

filtration behaviour
In section 4.6.3, it was found that chemical additives affected the Sv, M and
N of only the ‘30% depithed’ pulp. The ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp
could not be shown, statistically speaking, to be affected by chemical additives.
The dynamic filtration tests in section 3.6 were revisited to look at the effect
of chemical additives. The results for ‘coarse’ pulp (Sample 43), ‘medium’ pulp
(Sample 18) and ‘30% depithed’ pulp (Sample 58) are shown in Figure 4.39.
Similar results for the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulps were obtained using Sample
26 (a ‘coarse’ pulp) and Sample 42 (a ‘medium’ pulp).
Under dynamic conditions, the governing equation (Equation 2.25) is

dominated by the flexural term D(ĭ), reproduced below. In the case of the ‘30%
depithed’ bagasse pulp, the reduced load has been caused by an increase in the
permeability term (K(ĭ)) and compression term (mn ĭn-1).
φ(1 − φ) K (φ) mnφ n −1

D(φ) =

Although it could not be determined experimentally using a 95% confidence
interval that the chemical additives affect either the steady-state permeability or
compressibility properties of ‘coarse’ or ‘medium’ bagasse pulp, there was some
anecdotal evidence of their effect demonstrated in the dynamic experiment, Figure
4.39. The figure shows that there is a small reduction in load pressure when
chemicals are added to the ‘medium’ pulp.
158
100
90 '30% Depithed' pulp
80
70
'Medium' pulp
Pressure (kPa)
60
50 'Coarse' pulp
40
30
20
10
Chapter 4 – Results and discussion

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Concentration (g/cm3)
'Coarse' bagasse pulp (Sample 43) no additives 'Coarse' bagasse pulp (Sample 43) with additives
'Medium' bagasse pulp (Sample 18) no additives 'Medium' bagasse pulp (Sample 18) with additives
'Depithed' bagasse pulp, (Sample 58) no additives 'Depithed' bagasse pulp (Sample 58) with additives
Figure 4.39 The effect of chemical additives on the dynamic filtration of ‘depithed’, ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ bagasse pulp.
159
159
Let us now re-examine the finding in section 4.6.2 where the ‘30%
depithed’ bagasse pulp had faster drainage under vacuum in the modified DDJ
than the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp, particularly when chemical additives were used.
The possible mechanisms for consolidation of compressible fibrous media are
(from 102):
1. Fibre collapse
2. Bending of fibres & fibre realignment
3. Breaking of fibres
The Australian bagasse fibres are very rigid and significant fibre collapse
was not observed in the microscopy study. Fibre breakage is not occurring due to
the high repeatability of the permeability and compressibility experiments. This
leaves the bending of fibres and fibre realignment.
Further insight is gained by considering the larger improvement in drainage

rate for the ‘depithed’ bagasse when chemicals are added compared to the ‘coarse’
and ‘medium’ pulp samples. It seems unlikely that the chemical additives cause
the Australian bagasse pulp fibres to become more flexible. If there was a
significant bending effect brought about by chemical additives, one would expect
the three different types of pulp (i.e. ‘coarse’, ‘medium’ and ‘depithed’ pulp) to
exhibit a similar change in M and N. This was not observed. Although the ‘30%
depithed’ bagasse pulp had a higher load during steady-state compression when
chemical additives were used, it seems unlikely that it is more rigid than the
‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulp samples.
By a process of elimination, it seems the most likely mechanism of

Australian bagasse pulp consolidation is fibre realignment. The use of chemical
additives with bagasse pulp improves fibre realignment by creating a lubricating
effect, binding the “pith” fibres to the larger fibres. When using chemical
additives, the higher the level of pith, the greater the improvement in dynamic
filtration properties (see Figure 4.39).
In the initial stages of pad formation, without chemical additives, the pith
fibres roam freely and block pores in the pulp pad. With chemical additives, the
pith is attached to the longer fibres and are held back in suspension slightly
160
allowing a more porous pad during pad formation. Under the dynamic conditions
in the DDJ, as vacuum increased, the ‘30% depithed’ bagasse pulp pad
consolidated better than the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulp samples. Under the
dynamic conditions in the compression cell, the ‘coarse’ and ‘medium’ pulp
samples filtered more easily.
For processing low consistency pulp suspensions in conditions similar to a

DDJ, the pulp drains fastest when ‘30% depithed’ bagasse is used in conjunction
with a chemical additives system, but significant vacuum must be applied. The
difficulty with this approach is that the ‘30% depithed’ had a lower water
retention value (255% for ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp and 274% for ‘30% depithed’
bagasse pulp) which makes the sheet harder to dry. Also, the modified DDJ more
closely resembles the Fourdrinier former. It is not known how the filtration of the
pulp samples would compare in a Twin-wire former.
For processing initially networked fibre pads under dynamic conditions,

‘coarse’ bagasse pulp was the most easily dewatered bagasse pulp which
improved when chemical additives are used. The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp
performed better when either flocculants were not used or when the vacuum level
was low.
4.6.5. Summary of the effect of chemical additives on pulp permeability

and compressibility
It was found that addition of 0.05% CPAM (as Ciba Percol 182) and 0.06%
modified bentonite (as Ciba Hydracol ONZ) improved the retention of bagasse
pulp fines over a wide range of shear using a DDJ.
Applying vacuum to the DDJ had the effect of dramatically reducing the
drainage time. Every bagasse pulp benefitted from the addition of the flocculants
in the DDJ, as measured by reduced drainage time and increased fines retention, at
any level of vacuum.
In steady-state permeability and compressibility experiments, the addition of

flocculants could only be determined to improve Sv for one type of pulp; the ‘30%
161
depithed’ pulp. However, dynamic filtration experiments showed that there is

also a significant improvement for the ‘medium’ bagasse pulp.
The mechanism of bagasse pulp consolidation is by fibre realignment which

is assisted by chemical additives.
For initially unnetworked suspensions, and the conditions that occur in the
DDJ, the fastest drainage rate was achieved by a standard depithing regime
practiced by industry (i.e. removal of 30% of the shortest fibres) using high levels
of vacuum and chemical additives. These conditions most closely resemble those
of a Fourdrinier former rather than a Twin-wire former. The lower WRV of the
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp indicates that it would dry more quickly.
For initially networked fibre pads, as in the compression cell and

permeability cell, the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp was the easiest to filter.
162
Chapter 5 - Conclusions
Chapter 5
Conclusions
A study of bagasse pulp was motivated by the possibility of making highly
value-added products from bagasse for the financial benefit of sugarcane millers
and growers. In Australia, there is a perception that bagasse pulp always has poor
filtration characteristics which results in slower paper production compared to
local eucalypt pulp. Surprisingly, there has previously been very little rigorous
investigation into bagasse pulp permeability and compressibility. Only freeness
testing of bagasse pulp has been published in the open literature. Consequently,
this study focussed on improving the filtration properties of bagasse pulp pads.
This study investigated three options for improving the permeability and
compressibility properties of Australian bagasse pulp pads. Firstly, the effect of
the bagasse size, whether ‘coarse’ or ‘medium’ fractions, was considered. The
effect of the mode of juice extraction, whether from a mill or a diffuser, was
determined. Finally the effectiveness of chemical additives, which are known to
improve freeness of pulp slurries, was assessed.
The pre-treated Australian bagasse pulp samples were compared with

samples of eucalypt pulp, depithed Argentinean bagasse pulp that is used
industrially, and a benchmark Australian bagasse pulp that also had 30% of its
shortest fibres removed.
The steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters of bagasse

pulp pads were determined experimentally using two purpose-built experimental
163
rigs. These parameters were used as inputs for a dynamic filtration model which
more accurately represents industrial paper manufacture. The filtration model was
developed with a view to assist with the development of specialised bagasse pulp
processing equipment. The predicted results of the dynamic model were
compared to experimental data.
The effectiveness of a CPAM and bentonite chemical additives for

improving the retention of fines and increasing the drainage rate of bagasse pulp
slurry was determined in a modified Dynamic Drainage Jar. These chemical
additives were then used to make a pulp pad and their effect on the steady-state
and dynamic permeability and compressibility were determined.
5.1. Findings of this thesis
The most important finding presented in this thesis is that Australian

bagasse pulp was produced with permeability higher than eucalypt pulp, despite a
higher overall fine fibre content. It is hoped that this higher permeability will
enable Australian paper producers to switch from using Australian eucalypt pulp
to bagasse pulp without sacrificing paper machine productivity. The high fibre
stiffness, resulting from thicker fibre walls, and the high proportion of fibres
greater than 1.3 mm in length created a highly permeable bagasse pulp pad. By
fractionating the bagasse and using the ‘flow-through’ reactor appears to have
mitigated the negative influence of the pith particles.
The specific surface area, Sv, for eucalypt pulp was consistent with the
findings of previous workers. The benchmark Australian bagasse pulp had worse
permeability than the eucalypt pulp which is in harmony with the conventional
wisdom which holds that bagasse pulp normally has poor permeability properties.
Australian pulp derived from the ‘coarse’ bagasse fraction had higher
steady-state permeability than the ‘medium’ fraction as measured by the specific
surface area, Sv. However, there was not found to be a difference in bagasse pulp
steady-state permeability between bagasse pulp from a diffuser or a mill.
164
The values for the swelling factor, Į, were similar for the bagasse pulp
samples and the eucalypt pulp which were all within the ranges reported by
previous workers for wood pulp.
For bagasse pulp, a variable Kozeny factor, k, resulted in a higher value for
Į and a lower value for Sv compared with a constant k. This was similar to the
findings obtained for wood pulps reported by Ingmanson (81).
The values for the steady-state compressibility constants M and N were

measured for a wide range of pulp samples. The values for N were generally
consistent with the findings of previous workers for wood pulp, although the
values of M were slightly higher. The bagasse pre-treatment options were not
found to affect the steady-state compressibility parameters of a pulp pad.
The steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters, Sv, Į, M and

N, were used in a dynamic filtration model to accurately predict the compressive
load in dynamic filtration of a bagasse pulp pad. The model was particularly
sensitive to Sv, Į and N but less sensitive to M.
The dynamic model was particularly accurate for bagasse pulp, provided at
least some pith was removed. The Kozeny-Carman permeability model allowed
the dynamic model to give excellent predictions when a variable Kozeny factor
was used (Equation 2.12), rather than a constant Kozeny factor.
A microparticle chemical additive system, 0.05% CPAM and 0.06%

modified bentonite, improved the retention of bagasse pulp fines over a wide
range of shear using a DDJ. Applying vacuum dramatically reduced the drainage
time. At any level of vacuum, bagasse pulp benefitted from the chemical
additives as measured by reduced drainage time and increased fines retention.
The DDJ was also used to obtain additional information about the behaviour of
thin bagasse pulp mats without flocculants being added.
In steady-state permeability and compressibility experiments involving pulp

pads, the addition of chemical additives could only be determined to improve Sv
for one type of pulp; the ‘30% depithed’ pulp. However, dynamic filtration
165
experiments showed that there was a small improvement in permeability for the
‘medium’ bagasse pulp.
The mechanism of bagasse pulp consolidation appears to be by fibre

realignment. Chemical additives assist by lubricating the fibres during the
consolidation process.
For initially unnetworked suspensions, and the conditions found in the DDJ
which is similar to Fourdrinier forming, the fastest drainage rate was achieved by
a standard depithing regime practiced by industry (i.e. removal of 30% of the
shortest fibres) using a significant level of vacuum and chemical additives.
However, the lower WRV of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp indicates that it would dry
more quickly.
For initially networked fibre pads, as in the compression cell and

permeability cell, the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp was the easiest to filter.
The physical properties of the ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp were compared to the
benchmark Australian bagasse pulp. The ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp had significantly
improved initial freeness, tear properties and WRV of the pulp. However, the
‘coarse’ bagasse pulp did not have higher tensile strength or burst properties and
had slightly worse apparent density and compressive strength. Also, refining did
not significantly improve any strength property. The bagasse pulp had acceptable
physical properties for the production of generic versions of each paper grade
considered (i.e. photocopier papers, tissues and packaging), by comparison with
Indian bagasse pulp.
In summary, this study has shown that bagasse pulp can be produced with
pulp pad permeability properties that are superior to eucalypt pulp, contrary to
conventional wisdom. The high permeability arises from the stiff pulp fibres and
the high proportion of longer fibres creating an open matrix. Given its higher
pulp pad permeability, ‘coarse’ bagasse pulp could be used for a range of
applications where its properties are superior to conventional bagasse pulp.
166
5.2. Recommendations for future work
No optimisation of the cane varieties was performed in the study presented

in this thesis. High fibre energy canes should be developed in Australia and
evaluated for their permeability, compressibility and strength properties.
Increasing the fibre content has the benefits of improving the economy of scale for
a bagasse pulp and paper mill and it also increases the amount of renewable
energy available. Energy canes have the potential to significantly improve the
economics of a bagasse paper industry in Australia. The opinion of the author is
that should a bagasse pulp mill be built in Australia, development of energy canes
would be inevitable.
A dynamic filtration model was developed and verified for bagasse pulp at
ambient conditions. This model will be a valuable tool for assisting the
development of pulp processing equipment that is specially designed for
processing bagasse pulp. This work could be conducted as a further study.
This thesis has outlined methods to improve the filtration properties of

bagasse pulp. Using these methods, the sheet drying performance may now
become the processing step limiting machine production rate. Improving the
sheet drying performance was beyond the scope of this study. Only a few
measurements of WRV were taken. A further study on improving the sheet
drying properties of bagasse pulp would be interesting.
This study recommends careful treatment of bagasse prior to pulping and

the use of chemical additives to improve the filtration properties of bagasse pulp
pads. An investigation into the pulp properties of heavily depithed bagasse pulp
that has been post-processed by pressure screening (as recommended in 50, 64)
may reveal further improvements in bagasse pulp pad permeability.
The issues which are preventing the development of a bagasse pulp industry
in Australia (outlined in section 1.1.3) are (i) the poor filtration properties of
bagasse pulp, (ii) the poor physical strength properties, (iii) high capital cost and
167
(iv) the remoteness of cane farms to existing pulp mills. For the first issue, there
has recently been significant progress made to improve the filtration properties of
bagasse pulp as outlined in this thesis and also by El-Sharkawy and co-workers
(50, 64). For the second issue, hopefully pulp strength will be improved by
breeding more appropriate cane varieties and changing the juice extraction
method in alignment with the work by Gartside and coworkers (28, 51, 65). For
the third issue, technologies that reduce the capital cost of a bagasse pulp mill
should be explored.
Targeted research into replacing the expensive liquor chemical recovery

plant appears to have great potential for dramatically reducing the capital cost of a
bagasse pulp mill. The ease with which bagasse is pulped makes it a prime
candidate for researching alternative processes which don’t require conventional
chemical recovery technology. Three such alternative processes are: using the
liquor to make fertiliser (50, 64, 145, 146); using electrostatic membranes to
recover pulping chemicals (20); and using organic solvents, such as formic acid,
that can be recovered by distillation (147-150).
168
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181
Appendix A-Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
Appendix A
Supplementary material for
dynamic filtration modeling
183
A.1 Derivation of the dimensional governing equation for the dynamic

filtration model
This is the derivation of the governing equations for a constant rate

filtration apparatus. The mass and momentum balance equations are provided
in Chapter 2.
dh
1D assumption; u (velocity of fibres) = v (velocity of water) = at the top
dt
platen
Mass balance on the fibres

dh
+∇⋅(φu)=0
dt
dφ δφu
− =0 (C.1.1)
dt δx
Similarly, mass balance for the water

d(1−φ)
+∇⋅(1−φ)v=0
dt
dφ d(1−φ)v
− − =0 (C.1.2)
dt dx
(C.1.1)+(C.1.2)
δ(φu) d(1−φ)v
+
δx dx =0
δ[φu+(1−φ)v]
=0
δx
→φu+(1−φ)v=c(t)
where c(t) is a constant.
dh
sub in Boundary Condition: at x=h(t),u=v=−
dt
dh dh
→−φ −(1−φ) =c(t)
dt dt
dh
c(t)=−
dt
184
dh
→φu+(1−φ)v=−
dt
Momentum balance
Fibres:
Du
ρsφ
Dt =−φ∇Pf−∇Ps+∇⋅(φτs)+ρsφg+m (C.1.3)
Du
=0
Dt
as inertia not significant
g→ 0
as gravity effects insignificant
τs=0
as shear effects insignificant Fluid:
Dv
ρfφ =−(1−φ)∇Pf+∇⋅[(1−φ)τf]+ρfφg−m (C.1.4)
Dt
(C.1.3)+(C.1.4)
0=−φ∇Pf+∇Ps
in 1-D
dPf dPs
+ =0
dx dx
which is Terzaghi’s principle.
d(Pf+Ps)
=0
dx
Pf+Ps=c(t)
At bottom Ps=σ(t) since Pf=0 at x=0 recall
m=(1−φ)α(φ)(u−v)
back to equation (C.1.4)
−(1−φ)∇Pf−m=0
dPf
=α(φ)(u−v) (C.1.5)
dx
sub (C.1.5) into (C.1.3)
185
dPs
0=−φα(φ)(u−v)−
dx +(1−φ)α(φ)(u−v)
dPs
0=−(1−φ)
dx +α(φ)[(1−φ)u−(1−φ)v]
recall
dh
φu+(1−φ)v=−
dt
so
dPs dh
0=−(1−φ) +α(φ)[(1−φ)u+ +φu]
dx dt
dPs dh
→(1−φ) =α(φ)[u+ ]
dx dt
(1−φ) dPs dh
− =u
α(φ) dx dt
recall (C.1.1) is
dφ δφu
dt − δx =0
eliminate u
1−φ dPs dh
dφ[ − ]
dφ α(φ) dx dt
− =0
dt dx
dφ d φ(1−φ) dPs dh dφ

dt = dx α(φ) dx + dt dx
µ
use fitting model α(φ)=
K(φ)
and recall
Ps=MφN
dPs
f'(φ)=
dφ
dPs dPs dφ
dx = dφ dx
186
dPs dφ
→ =f'(φ)
dx dx
so
dφ d φ(1−φ)K(φ)f'(φ) dφ dh dφ
dt dx
dx dt dx
= +
µ
let
φ(1−φ)K(φ)f'(φ)
D(φ)=
µ
dφ d dφ dh dφ
=
D(φ) − (C.1.6)
dt dx dx dt dt
(C.1.6) is the governing equation
recall
(1−φ) dPs dh
u= −
α(φ) dx dt
(1−φ) dφ dh
= f'(φ) −
α(φ) dx dt
Boundary condition 1
dh
x=h(t),u=−
dt
dh (1−φ) dφ dh
− = f'(φ) dx −
dt α(φ) dt
dφ
→
dx =0
Boundary condition 2
x=0, u=0
(1−φ) dφ dh
0= f'(φ) −
α(φ) dx dt
dφ dh α(φ)
→
dx = dt (1−φ)f'(φ)
187
A.2 Non-dimensionalising of dynamic model for FORTRAN
The dimensional governing equations need to be non-dimensionalised for

use with the FORTRAN function libraries.
Dimension Dimensional variable Dimensionless variable

Distance from platen x (m) x
X (-) =
h0−u0t
Time t (min) u0
t* (-) = t
h0
Flexural term D(φ) D(φ)1
D*(φ) (-) =
u0 h0
1
by definition, the reason will be demonstrated shortly
Where h0 is defined as the initial height of the platen above the base and u0
dh
is the speed of the platen (u0= )
dt
recall the governing equation in dimensional form
dφ d dφ dh dφ

dt = dx D(φ) dx − dt dx
we can immediately transform the spatial co-ordinates
dφ d D(φ) dφ u0 d φ
= − (C.2.1)
dt dX
(h −u t) dX h0−u0t dX
2
0 0
Firstly, we need to establish a couple of simple relations, by the chain rule
dφ δφ δX δφ δt
dx = δX δx + δt δx
δt
but at a constant rate =0 so
δx
δφ 1 δφ
= (C.2.2)
δx h0−u0t δX
also
δx
x=X(h0−u0t)→=−u0X (C.2.3)
δt
By the chain rule, the LHS of (1) becomes
188
δφ δφ δt* δφ δx
= +
δt δt* dt δx δt
substitute (C.2.2) and (C.2.3) and rearranging, the LHS of (C.2.1) reduces to
δφ u0 δφ u0 X δφ
= + (C.2.4)
δt h0 δt* h0 1−t* δX
substituting (4) into (3) and rearranging
u0 δφ d D(φ) dφ u0 1−X δφ
h0 δt dX
h02(1−t*)2 dX− h0 1−t* δX
*=

h0
Multiplying all terms by (1−t*)2 we get
u0
δφ δ D(φ) dφ δφ
(1−t*)2 *=
−(1−X)(1−t*)
δt δX u0h0 dX δX
φ(1−φ)K(φ)f'(φ)
by definition D(φ)= substituting the definitions of
µ
1 (1−φ)3
K(φ)= 2 2 and f'(φ)=MNφN−1 we get
kSv φ
NM
D(φ)= 2 (1−φ)4φN−2
µkSv uoh0
applying the definition of D*(φ) we end up with the non-dimensional
form of the governing equation
δφ δ * dφ δφ
(1−t*)2 *=
D (φ) −(1−X)(1−t*) (C.2.5)
δt δX dX δX
This is the form of the Governing equation required by the FORTRAN

NAB library functions D03PCF and D03PZF
(C.2.5) is subject to the boundary conditions
Boundary condition (1) at X = 1
δφ
=0
δX
Boundary condition (2) at X = 0
δφ δh φ
=
δx δt D(φ)
189
substituting (C.2.2) and the definition of D(φ) we get
1 δφ u0φ
=
h0−u0t δX u0h0D*(φ)
substituting the definition of t* and rearranging
δφ φ(1−t*)
=
δX D*(φ)
190
A.3 FORTRAN 77 program for the dynamic filtration model
****************************************************************
*
* Tom Raineys pulp compression modelling program
* adapted from
* D03PCF Example Program Text
*
* VERSION 6: FINAL
*
* Assisted by Neil Kelson
*
* This version is used for bagasse pulp compression modelling
* by adjusting the parameters below
*
*
* To compare with experimental data need to specify PhiInit; Hinit; MPHI;
* NPHI; Sv; and DHDT.
* Generates two files: fort.21 (output for Ps) and fort.22 (output for phi)
*
****************************************************************
* .. Parameters ..
INTEGER NOUT
PARAMETER (NOUT=21)
INTEGER NPDE, NPTS, INTPTS, ITYPE, NEQN, NIW, NWK, NW
* PARAMETER
(NPDE=2,NPTS=20,INTPTS=6,ITYPE=1,NEQN=NPDE*NPTS,
* + NIW=NEQN+24,NWK=(10+6*NPDE)*NEQN,
* + NW=NWK+(21+3*NPDE)*NPDE+7*NPTS+54)
PARAMETER
(NPDE=1,NPTS=50,INTPTS=50,ITYPE=1,NEQN=NPDE*NPTS,
+ NIW=NEQN+24,NWK=(10+6*NPDE)*NEQN,
+ NW=NWK+(21+3*NPDE)*NPDE+7*NPTS+54)
* INTPTS changed from 6 to 50 to increase resolution of X in output

* .. Scalars in Common ..
* DOUBLE PRECISION DPHI
DOUBLE PRECISION PHIINIT, MPHI, NPHI
* .. Local Scalars ..
DOUBLE PRECISION ACC, HX, PI, PIBY2, TOUT, TS
INTEGER I, IFAIL, IND, IT, ITASK, ITRACE, M
* .. Local Arrays ..
DOUBLE PRECISION U(NPDE,NPTS), UOUT(NPDE,INTPTS,ITYPE),
W(NW),
+ X(NPTS), XOUT(INTPTS)
INTEGER IW(NIW)
* .. External Functions ..
191
DOUBLE PRECISION X01AAF

EXTERNAL X01AAF
* .. External Subroutines ..
EXTERNAL BNDARY, D03PCF, D03PZF, PDEDEF, UINIT
* .. Intrinsic Functions ..
INTRINSIC SIN
* .. Common blocks ..
COMMON /VBLE/PHIINIT,MPHI,NPHI
* .. Data statements ..
XOUT(1) = 1.0D-6
DO 60 I = 2, 51
XOUT(I) = 0.02+XOUT(I-1)
60 CONTINUE
* .. Executable Statements ..
WRITE (NOUT,*) 'Raineys compression testing results - Ps'
WRITE (NOUT+1,*) 'Raineys compression testing results - PHI only'
ACC = 1.0D-6
M=0
ITRACE = 0
MPHI = 4774D+0
* MPHI unitless
NPHI = 2.4333D+0
* NPHI in Pa
PHIINIT = 0.025429D+0
* Typical value in compression experiments
IND = 0
ITASK = 1
*
* Set spatial mesh points
*
PIBY2 = 0.5D0*X01AAF(PI)
HX = PIBY2/(NPTS-1)
X(1) = 0.0D0
X(NPTS) = 1.0D+0
DO 20 I = 2, NPTS - 1
X(I) = SIN(HX*(I-1))
20 CONTINUE
*
* Set initial conditions
*
TS = 0.0D0
TOUT = 0.1D-5
* for testing - reduce TOUT step
192
* TOUT = 0.05D0
* Tom:
WRITE (NOUT,99999) ACC, PHIINIT, MPHI, NPHI

WRITE (NOUT,99998) (XOUT(I),I=1,50)
* Tom: Change from I=1,6 to I=1,50 to accommodate new X columns
* Set the initial values
CALL UINIT(U,NPTS)
ILOOPS = 87
* Tom: Changed above line from 5 to 83 to get values of TOUT 0 to
* 0.83(=75mm/90mm at constant rate)
DO 40 IT = 1, ILOOPS
IFAIL = -1
TOUT = 0.01D0+TOUT
* Tom: Introduce a linear timestep
*
* Call the solver
CALL
D03PCF(NPDE,M,TS,TOUT,PDEDEF,BNDARY,U,NPTS,X,ACC,W,NW,IW
,
+ NIW,ITASK,ITRACE,IND,IFAIL)
*
* Interpolate solution at required spatial points
CALL
D03PZF(NPDE,M,U,NPTS,X,XOUT,INTPTS,ITYPE,UOUT,IFAIL)
WRITE (NOUT+1,99996) TOUT, (UOUT(1,I,1),I=1,INTPTS)

WRITE (NOUT,99995) TOUT,
((MPHI*(UOUT(1,I,1))**NPHI),I=1,INTPTS)
* Tom: to alternate between PS output and PHI output make active the
correct
* line here and also make active the appropriate FORMAT line (i.e.
* either 99996 or 99995).
40 CONTINUE
*
* Print integration statistics
*
WRITE (NOUT,99997) IW(1), IW(2), IW(3), IW(5)
STOP
*
99999 FORMAT (//' Accuracy requirement = ',D12.5,/
+ ' PHIINIT = ',D12.5,/
193
+ ' MPHI = ',D12.5,/

+ ' NPHI = ',D12.5,/)
99998 FORMAT (' T/ X ',50F8.4,/)
99997 FORMAT (' Number of integration steps in time ',
+ I4,/' Number of residual evaluations of resulting ODE '
+ 'sys',
+ 'tem',I4,/' Number of Jacobian evaluations ',
+ ' ',I4,/' Number of iterations of nonlinear solve',
+ 'r ',I4,/)
99996 FORMAT (1X,F8.4,' PHI',50F8.4)
* Tom: Change above format from 6F8.4 to 50F8.4 to display new columns
* Tom: for X in output as governed by INTPTS
99995 FORMAT (1X,F8.4,' PS',50F8.3)
* Switch between 99996 and 99995
END
****************************************************************
************
SUBROUTINE UINIT(U,NPTS)
* Routine for PDE initial conditon
* .. declarations ..
INTEGER I, NPTS
DOUBLE PRECISION PHIINIT, MPHI, NPHI
DOUBLE PRECISION U(1,NPTS)
* .. common blocks..
DO 20 I = 1, NPTS
U(1,I) = PHIINIT
20 CONTINUE
RETURN
END
****************************************************************
************
SUBROUTINE PDEDEF(NPDE,T,X,U,DUDX,P,Q,R,IRES)
* .. Scalar Arguments ..
DOUBLE PRECISION T, X
INTEGER IRES, NPDE
* .. Array Arguments ..
DOUBLE PRECISION DUDX(NPDE), P(NPDE,NPDE), Q(NPDE),
R(NPDE),
+ U(NPDE)
* .. Scalars in Common ..
DOUBLE PRECISION DPHI
DOUBLE PRECISION PHIINIT,MPHI, NPHI
DOUBLE PRECISION MU, KOZ, SV, DHDT, HINITIAL
* .. Common blocks ..
194
* NPHI (-) and MPHI (Pa) are the exponent and pre-exponent for the
* compression correlation
* mu is the viscosity (Pa.s)
* koz is the variable kozeny factor (or set to 5.55)
* Sv is the specific surface area (m^-1)
* DHDT is the rate of the piston (m/s)
* HINITIAL is the initial height (m)
* Average Milled bagasse pulp MPHI
* Average Milled bagasse pulp NPHI
MU = 0.001D0
* Viscosity of water in Pa.s
KOZ = 3.5*((1-3.5*U(1))**3)*(1+(57*((3.5*U(1))**3)))/
+ ((3.5*U(1))**0.5)
* Koz can be set as constant k=5.55 if desired
SV = 191700D0
* SV as m-1; this value is for optimum for variable koz factor
DHDT = 4.1667D-4
* in m/s - 75 mm displacement over 3 MINS
HINITIAL = 0.073D0
* Initial height of the platen is 90mm, height in metres
DPHI = MPHI*NPHI*((1-U(1))**4)*((U(1))**(NPHI-2))
+ /(MU*KOZ*SV*SV*DHDT*HINITIAL)
Q(1) = -(1-X)*(1-T)*DUDX(1)
R(1) = DPHI*DUDX(1)
P(1,1) = (1-T)*(1-T)
RETURN
END
****************************************************************
************
SUBROUTINE BNDARY(NPDE,T,U,UX,IBND,BETA,GAMMA,IRES)
* .. Scalar Arguments ..
DOUBLE PRECISION T
INTEGER IBND, IRES, NPDE
* .. Array Arguments ..
DOUBLE PRECISION BETA(NPDE), GAMMA(NPDE), U(NPDE),
UX(NPDE)
IF (IBND.EQ.0) THEN
BETA(1) = 1.0D+0
GAMMA(1) = -U(1)*(1-T)
195
ELSE
BETA(1) = 1.0D+0
GAMMA(1) = 0.0D+0
END IF
RETURN
END
196
A.4 Graphs comparing predictions of dynamic filtration model with

experimental data
Commencing next page
197
198
198
Appendix A - Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
199
199
200
200
Appendix A - Supplementary material for dynamic filtration modeling
201
201
202
202
Appendix B
Summary of pulp samples
203
204

Table B.1 Summary of bagasse pulping conditions for all pulp samples presented in this thesis.
Cooking Screened Screened kappa

Sample name Cook date Origin Fraction Reactor type Cooking conditions time yield number % rejects
Bagasse pulps (min) (-) (-) (%)
Sample 8 14/11/2006 Diffuser Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 40 0.5086 5.58%
Sample 9 14/11/2006 Diffuser Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 55
Sample 10 14/11/2006 Diffuser Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 70 0.4965 19.4 4.40%
Kinetics study
Sample 11 14/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ 40 0.4436 21.9 4.68%
Sample 20 17/11/2006 Diffuser Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5678 26.7 2.98%
Sample 21 17/11/2006 Diffuser Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5615 26 3.62%
Sample 23 17/11/2006 Diffuser Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5201 22.7 5.93%
Sample 24 17/11/2006 Diffuser Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5419 24.6 5.38%
Sample 26 20/11/2006 Mill Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5467 26.2 3.70%
Sample 27 20/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5098 24.3 6.07%
Sample 29 20/11/2006 Mill Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5354 26 5.57%
Sample 32 21/11/2006 Ledesma Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.6180* 22.5 4.47%
Sample 37 21/11/2006 Ledesma Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 *Combined with Sample 32
Sample 40 22/11/2006 Diffuser Coarse Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 Not recorded
Sample 41 22/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.4718 12.08%
Sample 42 22/11/2006 Mill Medium Flow-through digester 0.4M NaOH & 0.1%AQ, 145 deg 30 0.5082 22 3.98%
204
Screened
Cooking Screened kappa %
Sample name Cook date Origin Fraction Reactor type Cooking conditions time yield number rejects
(min) (-) (-) (%)
12.5% Na2O, 14:1 liq fibre, 170 deg, 105 minutes, no
Sample 52 17/07/2007 Mill Whole bagasse Large Parr Reactor AQ 105 0.5260 40 0.24%
15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 105 mins, 170
Sample 53 19/07/2007 Mill Whole bagasse Large Parr Reactor deg 105 9.2
Sample 55 9/04/2008 Mill Medium Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 90 mins, 170 deg 90 0.4066 9.2 1.09%
Sample 56 14/04/2008 Mill Coarse Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 60 mins, 170 deg 60 0.4924 16.2 5.09%
Sample 57 16/04/2008 Mill Coarse Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 90 mins, 170 deg 90 0.4910 10.3 2.80%
Sample 58 23/04/2008 Mill 30% depithed Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 60 mins, 170 deg 60 0.4068 14.3 8.07%
Appendix B - Summary of pulp samples

Sample 59 28/04/2008 Mill Fine Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 90 mins, 170 deg 90 0.2868 8.1 8.61%
Sample 60 21/07/2008 Mill Medium Large Parr Reactor 15% Na2O, 0.1% AQ, 12:1 liq fibre, 60 mins, 170 deg 60 0.4902 15.7 5.74%
Wood pulps
Eucalyptus Globulus Ensis Air-bath reactor 11.75% Na2O, 25% sulfidity, 165 deg 120 19
Pinus Radiata APPI Air-bath reactor 20
205
205
This page is deliberately blank.
206
Appendix C-Supplementary photographs of experimental work
Appendix C
Supplementary photographs of
experimental work
207
Figure C.1 Photograph of bagasse packed into a cage ready for insertion
into a ‘flow-through’ reactor cell.
Inlet liquor line
Top flange
Packed bagasse
Outlet liquor line
Figure C.2 Photograph of a loaded ‘flow-through’ reactor cell.
208
Appendix C-Supplementary photographs of experimental work
Serpentine
cooling coils
Figure C.3 Photograph of the inside of the unloaded 18.5 L Parr reactor.

Figure C.4 Photograph of the 18.5 L Parr reactor vessel head.
209

Figure C.5 Barrel of compressibility cell immediately prior to loading

with pulp slurry.

Figure C.6 Compressibility cell mid-way through a compressibility

experiment.
Figure C.7 Relaxed pulp pad after compression experiment showing

layering of pulp.
210
Appendix D
Table of Students t distribution
211
The point tabulated is t, where P(tv>t)=p and tv has Student’s t-distribution with
v degrees of freedom.
Table D.1 Table of Student’s t statistic

p 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.0025 0.001 0.0005
v
1 1.000 3.078 6.314 12.71 31.82 63.66 127.3 318.3 636.6
2 0.816 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925 14.09 22.33 31.60
3 0.765 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 7.453 10.21 12.92
4 0.741 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 5.598 7.173 8.610
5 0.727 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 4.773 5.893 6.869
6 0.718 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 4.317 5.208 5.959
7 0.711 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499 4.029 4.785 5.408
8 0.706 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 3.833 4.501 5.041
9 0.703 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250 3.690 4.297 4.781
10 0.700 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 3.581 4.144 4.587
11 0.697 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 3.497 4.025 4.437
12 0.695 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 3.428 3.930 4.318
13 0.694 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 3.372 3.852 4.221
14 0.692 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977 3.326 3.787 4.140
15 0.691 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 3.286 3.733 4.073
16 0.690 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921 3.252 3.686 4.015
17 0.689 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 3.222 3.646 3.965
18 0.688 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 3.197 3.610 3.922
19 0.688 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 3.174 3.579 3.883
20 0.687 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 3.153 3.552 3.850
21 0.686 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 3.135 3.527 3.819
22 0.686 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 3.119 3.505 3.792
23 0.685 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 3.104 3.485 3.767
24 0.685 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 3.091 3.467 3.745
25 0.684 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 3.078 3.450 3.725
30 0.683 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750 3.030 3.385 3.646
40 0.681 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 2.971 3.307 3.551
50 0.679 1.299 1.676 2.009 2.403 2.678 2.937 3.261 3.496
60 0.679 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660 2.915 3.232 3.460
120 0.677 1.289 1.658 1.980 2.358 2.617 2.860 3.160 3.373
0.674 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 2.807 3.090 3.291
212
Appendix E
Fibre length data of pulp sample
213
214

Table E.1 Results of fibre length distribution analysis for all pulp samples measured in this thesis.
Instumentation Diffuser First First Second Third Ninth

Sample Coarse or Number decile quartile quartile quartile decile % fines
and or Average
name Medium of fibres (<0.2mm)
location Milled 10% 25% 50% 75% 90%
18 Milled Medium 4999 0.29 0.51 0.87 1.37 1.89 1.01
20 Diffuser Coarse 3013 0.29 0.51 0.91 1.39 1.93 1.03
21 Diffuser Coarse 5016 0.4 0.72 1.2 1.7 2.23 1.27
Kajaani FS100 at Amcor, Petrie Mill
26 Milled Coarse 5035 0.32 0.55 0.99 1.51 2.08 1.11

27 Milled Medium 5016 0.3 0.53 0.9 1.41 2.02 1.04
30 Milled Medium 5048 0.24 0.44 0.78 1.24 1.71 0.9
32 N/A N/A 5034 0.23 0.42 0.75 1.28 1.94 0.96
34 Milled Coarse 5027 0.28 0.51 0.94 1.45 2.12 1.09
35 Diffuser Medium 5023 0.26 0.49 0.87 1.31 1.79 0.98
38 Milled Coarse 5024 0.31 0.54 0.91 1.47 2.08 1.07
39 Diffuser Medium 5031 0.27 0.47 0.8 1.23 1.76 0.92
42 Milled Medium 5004 0.24 0.42 0.72 1.14 1.6 0.84
43 Milled Coarse 5020 0.26 0.45 0.82 1.37 2 0.99
51 Milled Fine 5066 0.11 0.21 0.39 0.67 1.09 0.52
53 Milled Unfrac. 4980 0.21 0.38 0.66 1.07 1.56 0.8
Eucalypt 5036 0.39 0.57 0.77 0.98 1.15 0.77
56 Milled Coarse 8097 1.148 10.1
FQA at
UBC
30%
58 Milled depithed 5857 0.965 17.45
60 Milled Medium 4573 1.149 11.1
214
Appendix F
Engineering drawings of compression
cell
215
Thomas J. Rainey - A study of bagasse pulp filtration
216
216
Appendix F - Engineering drawings of compression cell
217
First angle
projection
217
Third angle
projection
218
218
219
219
Third angle
projection
220
220
221
Third angle
projection
221

Tom Rainey Thesis

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Queensland University of Technology

A study into the permeability and

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF

School of Engineering Systems

Sugarcane; bagasse; pulp; paper; permeability; compressibility; filtration;

This is an experimental study into the permeability and compressibility

Bagasse contains a large quantity of short parenchyma cells called ‘pith’.

Pulp filtration can be characterised by two interacting factors;

compressibility. Only freeness testing of bagasse pulp has been published in

As part of this investigation, this study investigated three options for

Pre-treated Australian bagasse pulp samples were compared with several

The steady-state pulp pad permeability and compressibility parameters

The effectiveness of a polymeric and microparticle chemical additives for

The steady-state permeability and compressibility parameters for the

The bagasse pre-treatment options investigated in this study were not

Applying vacuum to a pulp slurry in the modified DDJ dramatically

In steady-state permeability and compressibility experiments, the addition

This study was complemented by pulp physical and chemical property

Peer-reviewed conference papers

Doherty, B. and Rainey, T. - Bagasse fractionation by the soda process, Proc.

I would like to thank all of my supervisors, without whom this thesis

I would like to thank my family, particularly Jenni for her unending

I would like to acknowledge the generous in-kind contribution of the

Formal supervisory team

Dr. Richard J. Brown, QUT, Built Environment and Engineering

The project participants wish to acknowledge receipt of project funding

This research is proudly supported by the Queensland Government’s

This thesis is dedicated to my Dad, thank you for enriching my life,

“Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I

Chapter 2 Theory and Literature Review -------------------- 19

2.4.4. Using the Dynamic Drainage Jar as a tool for

Chapter 3 Experimental procedure and modelling---------- 60

Chapter 4 Results and discussion ------------------------------- 99

4.1. Results of bagasse chemical pulping 100

4.6.5. Summary of the effect of chemical additives on pulp

Chapter 5 Conclusions ------------------------------------------ 163

Appendix B Summary of pulp samples ---------------------- 203

Abbreviations and nomenclature

T - the dimensionless time used for coding the dynamic filtration

x cm the distance from the top platen of the compressibility cell

X - the dimensionless distance from the top platen of the

Chemical additives includes microparticle and polymeric additives that

‘Coarse’ bagasse bagasse that is retained on a 12.5 mm screen.

Compressibility the compression behaviour of a pulp mat or pad (see

Dynamic varies with time. For some experiments in this study

Fibre normally refers to pulp fibre. Composed of mainly

Filtration in this study includes the combined effects of

‘Fine’ bagasse very short fibre that passes through a 4 mm screen.

Fines very short material which includes fibres.

Freeness an experimental measure of the ability of pulp to drain

Forming the process of producing a pulp mat from a pulp slurry.

Hardwood a wood species containing short fibres, such as eucalypt.

Kappa number a measure of the residual lignin content.

‘Medium’ bagasse bagasse which passes a 12.5 mm screen but is retained

Non-wood a fibre resource not derived from wood, such as

Permeability the ability of a fluid to permeate a porous material.

Pith very short parenchyma cells which exists in sugarcane

Porosity the void fraction of a porous material on a volume basis

Pre-treatment describes how the fibrous material is treated prior to

Quasi steady-state an approximation of steady-state conditions (see

Reactor equipment for carrying out a chemical reaction. In this

Solidity the solids fraction of a porous material on a volume

Steady-state invariant with time. For some experiments in this study

1.1. Background and motivation

Processing issues due to the poor filtration properties of bagasse pulp;

Bagasse pulp has inferior strength properties relative to eucalypt pulp;

High capital cost, given the enormous economies of scale achieved by

The remoteness of cane farms relative to Australian wood pulp mills