Uploaded by:

Ebooks Chemical Engineering

https://www.facebook.com/pages/Ebooks-Chemical-Engineering/238197077030

For More Books, softwares & tutorials Related to Chemical Engineering

Join Us

@facebook: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Ebooks-Chemical-
Engineering/238197077030
@facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllAboutChemcalEngineering
@facebook: https://www.facebook.com/groups/10436265147/

ADMIN:

I.W

<< If you like this Book, than support the author and BuY it >>
Acknowledgement

Author wants to thank following persons, companies, publishers, or organizations for their permission to use
their documents in this book. Number of documents [figures, tables] used in this book from the named
organization or person is shown in parenthesis.

Gas Processors Suppliers Association (GPSA) [18, 5]

Chemical Engineering [14, 0]
Openticle.com [9, 0]
Fisher Controls International LLC, Emerson [8, 0]
Tyco Valves & Controls LP [7, 0]
ITT Goulds Pumps [6, 0]
AMISTCO Separation Products, Inc. [6, 0]
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AiCHE) [3,1]
Elsevier Limited [3, 1]
Elliott Group [3, 0]
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) [2, OJ
Rupture Pin Technology, Inc. [2,0]
Pumpfundamentals.com [2, 0]
Crane Co. [1,0]
Hydraulic Institute [1,0]
Milton Roy Company [1, 0]
Atlas Copco Compressors LLC [1, 0]
Wright Flow Technologies, A unit ofIDEX [1, 0]
lOP Publishing, Inc. [1,0]
Chemical Processing [1, 0]
Professor Ron Darby [0, 1]

Author wants to thank (1) Elliott Group for providing an updated multistage compressor drawing and an one-
stage compressor drawing to this book, (2) Professor Darby for providing an updated 3-K table to this book, and
(3) Fort Bend County Library (at Missouri City, Texas) to let author borrow technical books through their
Interlibrary Loan (ILL) program.

At last, author wants to thank God for letting this book be written, and his family for their support.

Frank Chi-Liang Yu, process engineer

Yu-WBPLLC
June 15,2012

Edition history:
Edition 1: July, 2012
Edition 2: January, 2013

2
Table of content

Preface
Disclaimer
Notes
Acknowledge
Chapter 1 Process Design page number
1. Introduction 9
ll. Main Process Design Tasks 9
11.1 Feasibility study 9
1l.2 Front-end engineering design (FEED) 10
II.2.1 Process flow diagrams (PFD) 10
1I.2.2 Material balance '" 11
11.2.3 Material selection diagrams " 12
II.2.4 Equipment data sheets 12
Ill. Detailed Engineering Design , ., 12
Ill.l Piping and instrument diagrams (P&ID) 12
III.2 Equipment data sheets 13
111.3 Instrument data sheets 13
111.4 Process relief device study and data sheets '" 14
111.5 Hazardous analysis 14
IIl.6 Line list. 14
111.7 Economic study 14
I11.8 Other work 15
Chapter 2 Pump
I. Introduction 16
11. Pump Process Specification I6
Ill. Type of Pump 16
In. 1 Centrifugal pump 17
IIl.1.1 Classification I7
111.1.2 Mechanical details 17
1ll.1.3 Pump curve , '" 21
llI.l.4 Operating point. 22
I1tI.5 NPSHA, NPSHR and cavitation , .. " "" " , , 23
lIl.1.6 Pump efficiency 24
m.1.7 Pump speed 24
III. 1.8 Recirculation and minimum pumping rate 25
1ll.1.9 Driver and motor horsepower 25
lILt.10 ANSI and API pumps 25
lIl.1.11 Sealless pumps 26
IU.l.I2 Viscosity limitation " 26
3
 Ill.1.13 Sparing 26
UI.2 Positive displacement pump 26
D1.2.1 Reciprocating pump 27
nl2.1.1 Classification 27
ill.2.1.2 Characteristics 28
ill.2.t.3 Mechanical details 29
llI.2.2 Rotary pump 29
III.2.2.1 Classification 29
lll2.2.2 Characteristic 32
D1.2.3 Operating point 33
llI.2.4 Capabilities and limitations 33
IV. Pump Calculation , 34
IV.I Required pump head , '" .34
IV.2 Driver horsepower 34
IV.3 NPS.HA and NPSHR 34
IV.4 Temperature rise across the pump .35
IV.5 Pump and motor speed 35
IV.6 Calculation for centrifugal pumps 35
IV.6.1 Head developed at pump 35
IV.6.2 Specific speed , 36
IV.6.3 Suction specific speed 36
IV.6.4 Pump affinity law 36
IV.6.5 Pump performance correction for viscous fluid 37
IV.7 Calculation for reciprocating pumps 37
IV.7.1 Capacity 37
IV.7.2 Acceleration head and NPS.HA 38
V. Pump Selection 38
Chapter 3 Compressor
I. Introduction 41
II. Compressor Process Specification .41
III. Type ofCompressor 42
m.l a Based on the principle of gas compression ..42
Ill.l b Based on application 42
III.2 Centrifugal compressor 44
lII.2.1 Mechanical details 44
1112.2 Lubrication oil system and seal oil system 48
llI.2.3 Performance curve 48
m.2.4 Operating speed 49
ID.2.5 Head and power requirement, '" 50
llI.2.6 Number of stages 50
111.2.7Discharge temperature and interstage cooling 51

4
 II1.2.8 Driver and control, , , '" 51
lII.3 Axial compressor. " .52
111.4Reciprocating compressor 54
1I1.4.1Mechanical details 54
111.4.2Volumetric efficiency .55
111.4.3Discharge temperature 55
UI.4.4 Rod loading 55
111.4.5Compression ratio 56
111.4.6Cooling 56
1I1.4.7 Speed 56
1II.4.8 Control. .56
111.4.9Spare ' '" 57
111.4.10Pulsation 57
IlIA. 11 Performance curve 57
111.4.12Head and power requirement.. 57
111.5Rotary compressor 57
IV. Compressor selection 60
V. Compressor calculation '" .61
V.1 Affinity laws of centrifugal compressor 61
V.2 Brake horsepower calculation 61
V.3 Number of stages 64
V.4 Volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor 64
Chapter 4 Heat Exchanger
I. Introduction 67
n. Heat Exchanger Process Specification 67
III. The Basic Features of Heat Exchangers and Their Types 68
III.l The basic features of heat exchanger design 68
Ill.Ll Heating or cooling curves 68
I11.1.2Flow pattern 69
lIl1.3 Heat transfer medium 69
111.1.4Overall heat transfer coefficient. 70
II1.1.5 Logarithmic mean temperature difference and correction factor 71
111.1.6Codes 71
111.1.7 Fouling 72
m.1.8 Guideline for selecting tube or shell side fluid 73
111.1.9Corrosion allowance 73
IU.2 Type of heat exchangers , 73
IlI.2.l Double-pipe or multi-tube hairpin heat exchanger 74
III.2.2 Shell and tube heat exchanger 74
111.2.2.1Type of front end stationary head 76
III.2.2.2 Type of shells 76
III.2.2.3 Type of rear end head 77
5
 111.2.2.4Other components 78
111.2.2.5The inefficiency 83
I11.2.2.6 Selection 83
1lI.2.2.7 Shell and tube heat exchanger design or rating 83
111.2.3Air cooler 84
II1.2.3.1 Components of air cooler 85
I11.2.3.2 Piping to air cooler 89
111.2.3.3Environment. 89
1Il.2.3.4 Air cooler design or rating 89
Chapter 5 Vessel
I. Introduction 92
II. Vessel Process Specification 92
Ill. The Basic Features of Vessel. 92
In.1 Vessel code 92
IIl.2 Vessel nozzles 93
IU.3 Vessel internals 93
111.4Vessel support 93
Ill.5 Vessel corrosion allowance 93
Ill.6 Vessel design pressure and temperature 93
111.7Vessel wall thickness 94
111.8Vessel weight 94
IV. Vessel Sizing 94
IV'} Sizing liquid surge drum 94
IV.2 Sizing vaporlliquid separator 95
IV.2.1 Sizing vaporlliquid separator by gravity settling method 96
IV .2.1a Sizing vertical gravity settling vaporlliquid separator 96
IV .2.1b Sizing horizontal gravity settling vaporlliquid separator 97
IV.2.2 Sizing vapor/liquid separator with mist eliminator 98
IV.2.2a Sizing vertical mist eliminator vaporlliquid separator 102
IV.2.2b Sizing horizontal mist eliminator vaporlliquid separator 102
IV.2.3 lnlet diverter for vertical vapor/liquid separator with mist eliminator 103
IV.3 Sizing liquidlliquid separator .103
IV.3.1 Sizing liquid/liquid separator by surge volume method 103
IV .3.2 Sizing liquidlliquid separator with coalescer pad l 04
IV.4 Comments of vessel sizing 105
V. Common practice 105

Chapter 6 Line Sizing

I. Introduction 108
n. Factors of line sizing 108

6
III. Line sizing , .108
In.1 Single phase line 108
In.!.1 Preliminary single phase line sizing 108
m.l.2 Single phase line pressure drop calculation , 110
111.2Two phase line III
TIL2.1 Preliminary two phase line sizing , Ill
111.2.2Two phase line pressure drop calculation Ill
TII.2.2.1 Two phase flow regions estimation 112
Ill.2.2.2 Two phase flow line pressure drop calculation '" 113
111.3Gravity flow line 116
111.4Slurry line 116
111.4.1Slurry line limi t deposit velocity 117
m.4.2 Slurry line pressure drop calculation 119
III.5 Pressure drop of pipe fittings 120
m.6 Final line sizing 120
II17 Tool for line sizing , .121
IV. Optimum single phase line size 121
IV.I Optimum liquid line size '" , 123
IV.2 Optimum vapor line size 124
IV.3 Comments about optimum line sizing '" 124
V. Line list. 125
Chapter 7 Control valve
1. Introduction 129
II. Control Valve Type 129
III. Control Valve Parts 130
IlI.I Globe control valve 130
III.2 Rotary control valve 132
IV. Control Valve Performance 132
V. Control Valve Sizing .134
V.1 Liquid control valve sizing 134
V.2 Vapor control valve sizing 138
V.3 Control valve pressure drop at other flow conditions 138
V.4 Reduce the damages caused by flashing or cavitation 139
VI. Other Control Valve Information 139
VI.l Size selection 139
V1.2. Material selection 139
VI.3 Fail position 140
VI.4 Seat leakage 140
VI.5 Noise 140
VI.6 Process specifications 140
VI. 7 Application and cost .140

7
Chapter 8 Pressure Relief Device

I. Introduction 142
II. Type of Pressure ReliefDevice 142
If.1 Pressure reliefvalve 142
11.1.1Spring-loaded pressure relief valve 143
11.1.1.1Conventional pressure relief valve 143
1I.1.1.2Balanced-bellows pressure relief valve 144
II.2 Pilot-operated pressure relief valve '" 144
II.3 Rupture disk 145
rIA Pin-actuated pressure relief device ,.. , 146
III. Characteristics of Pressure Relief Devices 147
Ill.l Characteristics of pressure relief valves 147
Ill.1.1 Characteristics of spring-loaded pressure relief valves 147
111.1.2Characteristics of pilot-operated pressure relief valves 148
III.2 Characteristics of rupture disk and pin-actuated pressure relief device 149
IV. PRO's Set Pressure and Overpressure per ASME COde 149
V. Maximum Operating Pressure 150
VI. Contingency Analysis lSI
Vl.I Fire relief 152
VI.2 Liquid full vessel exposed to fire .152
VI.3 Thermal expansion 153
V1.3.1 Liquid relief 153
V1.3.2Vapor relief 154
VII. Pressure Relief Device Sizing 154
VIl.I Vapor pressure relief device sizing 154
VII.I.I Vapor pressure relief device sizing at sonic flow ISS
VII.l.2 Vapor pressure relief device sizing at subsonic flow ISS
VII.2 Liquid pressure relief device sizing 155
VII.2.1 Certified liquid pressure relief device sizing 155
VII.2.2 Non-certified pressure liquid relief device sizing 156
VII.3 Two phase pressure relief valve sizing 156
VIlA Actual PRY size selection 158
VIII. Pressure Relief Valve Inlet and Outlet Piping Sizing .158
Vlll.l Rated relief rate 158
VIII.2 PRY inlet piping sizing criteria 159
VlII.3 PRY outlet piping sizing criteria " 159
IX. Pressure Relief Device Selection 160
X. Pressure Relief Device Process Specification 160
Subject Index 163

8
Chapter 1 Process Design

t, Inuoduction

MoS! openuing company's engineering project is to build a new plam or to revamp an existing plant to increase
production or to improve operation. Process design is the from end work of this kind project, and it is process
engineer's responsibility.

Process design in an engineering project is usually involving feasibility study, front-end engineering, and
detailed engineering design. During feasibility study, also called phase I design work, process design work is to
select tbe best process scheme among several choices. During front-end engineering design (FEED), also caJ1ed
phase 2 design work, process design work is to develop process Oow diagrams (pFO), material balance,
material selection (or metallurgy) diagram, equipment data sheets, and preliminary line sizes of the selected
process scheme. During detailed engineering design, also caJ1edphase 3 design work, process design work is to
develop piping and instrument diagrams or drawings (P&lO), hydraulic study (confirm line size), 6na1ize
equipment data sheets, provide instrument data sheets, pressure relief valve study and data sheets, line list,
hazardous analysis, review vendor bid package, check vendor drawings, check piping isometric drawings,
writing operation manual, and misceUaneous process studies. These are the main tasks for a process engineer in
an engineering project. Depending on company or project, some task: may shift between phases.

Other works (Phases) in an engineering project are: construction (phase 4), commissioning (phase S), operation
and maintenance (phase 6). These works will all carry out at plam site. [I]

Most times, phase I to 4 works are given to an engineering company to carry out. The works usually involve
process engineers, vessel engineers, rotating equipment engineers, healexchanger engineers, fire heater
engineers, instrument engineers, piping engineers, civil engineers, cost engineers, project engineers, and
schedule engineers. Depend on the project and available personnel, sometimes a process engineer may have to
handle some other discipline's duty.

Phase S and 6 works are usuaI1y the responsibility of the owner, the operating company. But most times,
engineering company's personnel, such as process and instrument engineers, will also be asked to participate
the commissioning work (plant startup).

This chapter provides an overview of the process design work. The rest chapters of this book wiU provide more
information of the frequently used equipment/instrument in the process design work, such as pumps,
compressors, heat exchangers, vessels, control valves, and pressure relief devices, or the task, such as line
sizing.

U. Main Process Design Tasks

III Feasibility study

Main purpose of feasibility study is to check all the major process schemes, and to select one which is best for
the project. Usually the criteria to considered are: I) cost - installation (or capital) cost and operation COSI, 2)
9
operation consideration - such as easy to operate, less maintenance, 3) environmental consideration - such as
less waste, less emission, 4) others - such as preference. Most times, cost is the most important consideration.

I1.2 Front-end engineering design (FEED)

After selecting a process scheme, the next step is to do a front-end engineering design (FEED) to find out more
details of this selected design. At this stage, process flow diagrams (PFD), material balance, equipment data
sheets, and preliminary line sizes will be developed. The cost of the project within 20% will be estimated. [1]
More explanation of the major tasks of FEED is presented below.

II.2.1 Process flow diagrams (PFD)

Process flow diagrams (PFD) are drawings, which show how to process the raw material to products. On the
drawings, it shows all the equipment, major process lines, stream number, all the control loops, and normal
operating conditions (temperature and pressure). It shows how the raw material will be processed from one
equipment to another, and at what conditions. A brief description of each equipment will also be shown on
PFD, see Figure 1. For the vessel, its dimension will be shown. For heat exchanger or fire heater, its normal
heat transfer duty will be shown. For pump or compressor, it normal flow rate and differential pressure will be
shown.

l!:1
_ilteel Gas Separator
6'.()" 10.20'-0' TIT

Separatorps to
AsIoCAteelGas Well-fnje<tlon
from 81. wels Compn!SSOf. c-t

Sej)lntor liquid to
St.tlalz~r,r-i

lesends: TowIst __ er

G stream ttmfleratu .... 1n OF.

tr.. c~nt pl¥lt
OWfO.7

~ 51........ pn!>S4Irt. In psi,.

<;> 51r.am 1IIImI»r.

~
1.A~ gas pnosS<ft will be ftuctulted t5 psi.
2. For m~NI baQnce, _ ~ 05-PfO·1SRev. O.
OWG No: QS.9FD·6 Rev. 0

Figure 1 A typical process flow diagram.

10
Some process has different operating conditions at beginning of operation (stan of run (SOR» and at end of
operation (end of run (EOR». Options are to show both operating conditions on one set drawing. but mark each
operating condition as SOR or EOR, or to develop two sets PFO, one for SOR and the other for EOR.
U.2.2 Material balance

A typical material balance is shown in Table I. The purpose of material balance is to show the following
information of a process stream: (I) its total and component flow rates, (2) its operating conditions (temperature
and pressure), (3) its physical properties (density nod viscosity of vapor orland liquid, and liquid surface tension
(for two-phase flow only», and (4) its name or description.

Material balance is a useful tool to make sure the unit is mass balanced. It shows what chemicals are in each
process stream, and it also provides major information of each process stream. Actual presentation in the table
varies with project.

Material balance is usually developed using a process simulation computer program to avoid tedious hand
calculation. These computer programs are available commercially. Most times, it is a necessity for process
engineer to do hislher work.
.....,.,_:
.........
.....
I 1 )
• I~: -.--..
- -- - -
I __
...,.,
fII",.o.
prl"" ~Io"
,.,... IQ\IId
liNG',:"", I'n4I,ttIfIlNCItQ Is puN lot
..
w 1M MIS*.tlon of
16.00] , ... IIqoM
........ ~J ~J OJl

- :hno.,
:10.010 100 'J 1.0 .1 by ..... <...... ,.,.,_...
ow_". . 44.Ot1 20.0 lSJl ~ O~
UU )().o 10.0 1S.Il ~
1_....
, I.UO 4O.(l _IO~Jl )(
1-.. "n ~
a ..... 100.000 s

.-
1• .oU 2:
1
..-
1_-
"" III 167
6:
335>
~·
......
21.

·
"'" .....,
· ·
III
"" ""'"
i_'....
)~

u"-'
lJSoI.
· ·
.. tt-_
tllo. m/ht
129ClO. · 129ClO.'
.. ·
,.. _
10.' · 21~_
.."" ~.' "'A
.... ,'f 100
l!1O
IOC
10(
10(
ICIOI
100
_5CI

1_ J,J ·
liIon ..... IblftJ ·
'. '" 0.,
·
·
·
·
-
0.61

... Iow_
I
...... .'-
lilt....,

...... ._,.
'.cp ~
·
·
..""I.
6UI
0.61
,

' zo.<
u.
· ·
1~
·
1. ,.....
Table I A typical material balance table.
11
ll.2.3 Material selection diagrams

Once the PFD and material balance is developed, process engineer should provide necessary process
information (such as process conditions, corrosive component concentration, line velocity, etc.) for each process
stream on a metallurgical selection table for metallurgist to decide what material of construction (MOC) should
be used for each process line and equipment, Usually, PFD and material balance table are also provided to
metallurgist for hislher evaluation. When metallurgist finished hislber worle, helshe can mark on the PFD at
each line and equipment to indicate what material to be used. This marked PFD is the material selection
diagram.

Some companies have their standard metallurgical selection table for process engineer and metallurgist to fill
out, Sometimes metallurgist has to modify this table for a specific project, If this table is not available, consult
the metallurgist for this project about what process information are required for himlber to evaluate MOC of
line and equipment,

Il 2.4 Equipment data sheets

It is process engineer's responsibility to size each equipment, and to prepare a data sheet for it. If the process
engineer is not able to size the equipment, he/she should fill out the process data on the equipment data sheet or
write them down on a blank data sheet to be sent to a specialist for sizing.

III. Detailed Engineering Design

After FEED, if owner decides to go ahead with the project, the next phase is detailed engineering design work.
There are many tasks for process engineer to do. Some important tasks are described below.

Ifl.I Piping and instrument diagrams (P&ID)

Piping and instrument diagrams (P&ID) are developed based on process flow diagrams, except more details are
added. For example, equipment are shown in actual physical shape; all the lines and all the instrument and
valves on line or equipment will be shown; all the flange or threaded connections on equipment or lines will be
shown; line pipe specification will be shown on each line; each equipment's design condition, material of
construction, and insulation type/thickness will be shown. See Figure 2 for an example, which is developed
based on Figure I. These are important drawings, since all engineering disciplines will use them for their work.
They are first developed by process engineers, and then transferred to project team. Its development is ongoing
by all the disciplines for a period of time until the hazardous analysis starts. After hazardous analysis, they will
be further updated to the final drawings.

12
 ~IHO
Insulation: no.

-
StrHS~:no.
Trim:A2
r-----------t;~~ Sepo,_... co
...~
IY-omel_ Bl
: .. i w... ~j«1ion
cO"'I1<""". C·)
0$-#1(). 10

~.-
ri )'(note 1)
2 ..-2)
SeporMlOf liquid 10
Sttbilltot. r-s

<lS-PIO·20
L"!:!"_"'!!!!L

1. BIocItvalw si~ on ~I bridle Is 3". on IeW'Itrlnsmlt1er Is 2"•

• ndon level PUle Is3/4". Vent and drain block valves Me 3/4".
They n not shown for clarity,"50n.
2.lntftface liquid level In boot '''' IS foIows: Hllat 3'..()". Nil at 2'..()". Plplnl .. Instrument OIalram
and Ullt 1'~' from boot ta,..nt line.

DWG No: <:lS-f'IO-ll Rev. 0

Figure 2 A typical piping and instrument diagram.

m.2 Equipment data sheets

Process engineer will update all the equipment data sheets (such as vessels, heat exchangers, fire heaters,
pumps, compressors, filters, etc.) and give them to the engineer responsible for this equipment. The equipment
engineer will add more information to the data sheets according to project equipment specification and bislber
comments, and send them to vendors for bid.

1lI.3 Instrument data sheets

Process engineers will provide process information on each instrument data sheet, and the instrument engineer
will add more information to the data sheets according to project instrument specification and bis/her
comments, and send them to vendors for bid.

13
ill.4 Pressure relief device study and data sheets

Pressure relief device (PRD). such as pressure relief valve (pRV), rupture disk and rupture pin device, arc used
10 protect equipment and lines from overpressure, II is process engineer's responsibility 10 show the requirement
of a PRD at an equipment or line on the P&ID drawings, It is also processengineer's responsibility to select the
PRD type and its set pressure, and to do a contingency analysis 10 cbcck out under what conditions the
equipment or line will be over pressured, and what the relief rate will be.

After PRD contingency analysis, process engineer is required 10 fill out process information on the PRD data
sheets, and give them to instrument engineers. The instrumerit engineer will add more information on the data
sheets according to project PRD specification and his/h¢r comments, and send them 10 vendors for bid.

ill.S Hazardous analysis

Hazardous analysis is usually carried out when P&ID drawings arc ready and PRY contingency analysis is
finished. Its purpose is to check any hazard, or faull/mistake in design. Participants of this analysis are
experience personnel from the operating company, such as operation supervisors, maintenance engineers,
process engineers, instrument engineers, and project engineers, and from the engineering company, such as
process engineers, instrument engineers, and project engineers. Most times, the facilitator of this meeting is a
third party, from an organization specialized in hazardous analysis.

During the meeting, P&ID drawings will be divided into several nodes (sections) to make discussion easier.
Facilitator will ask questions, such as what will happen, if this flow, pressure, temperature is too high or too
low, and what will cause these changes. Attendants will think and answer the questions. The purpose: is to check
CUlTCDt design will or will not able 10handle adversity cooditions. If not, any damage will happen, how serious
is the damage, and how 10prevent it, It is a great tool 10 find any possible hazard during normal operation and to
c:atch any overlooked mistakes.

ill.6 Line list

Line list is a list ofinfonnation of each line in this project_ It is initiated by piping group, and give to process
engineer 10fill out process information, such as fluid category, fluid phase, normal operating temperature and
pressure, maximum upset temperature and pressure, density, require stress relief or not, line velocity (usually
only for two phase slug flow). Then, the line list will be turned to piping group for them to add more
information.

Ill.7 Economic study

Many times, process engineer will face a design having few options. It is oot apparent which option is the best,
and an economic comparison study is required. The study criteria usually focus on cost, assuming all the otbeT
requirements, such as safety, environmental issues, and performance, are the same.

The guidelines of economic study for new design are as follows:

14
(1) Choose a preferred option as a base case. (2) Determine the intended life span of the design facility. (3)
Calculate the total installation cost (the capital cost) of the facility for each option, which includes the
equipment/accessories cost and installation cost. (4) Calculate the total operating cost over its life span for each
option, which includes all the utility cost and minus product profit difference (if there is). Some of these costs
are in the future. They can be converted to current cash value, ifan inflation rate is estimated. (5) Add total
installation cost and total operating cost for each option as the total cost over Lifespan for each option. (6)
Compare the total cost of each option. The one with the lowest total cost is the less expensive one.

The guidelines of economic study for revamping an existing design are as follows:

(I) The existing design is the base case. (2) Calculate the total instaUation cost of each revamp option as step (3)
above. (3) Calculate the total operating cost over its life span for each revamp option and the base case, as step
(4) above. (4) Compare the operating cost of each revamp option to the base case. The revamp option which has
lower operating cost than the base case is the case will save money for the plant. They should be studied further.
Discard other options, which has higher total operating cost than the base case, unless they are the preferred
option for some reason. (5) Calculate the payout time. This is done by divided the total installation cost of the
option by the saving of operating cost per year. Most times, if the payout time is 3 years or less, the revamp
option is worth to carry out This critical payout time depends on each plant's own decision.

III.8 Other work

Other works for process engineer are to review vendor bid package, check vendor drawings, check piping
isometric drawings, writing operation manual, and miscellaneous process studies. Operation manual usually
includes process description, how to operate the unit, plant startup and shutdown procedures.

Reference

1. Target Job Engineering website: http://targetjobs.co.uklcareer-sectorslengineering-design-and-

constructionlprojectslthe-six-typical-phases-of-an-edc-project

lS
Chapter 2 Pump
I. Introduction

Pump is the most widely used rotating equipment in an industrial plant. It is used to transport liquid or slurry
from one location to another to overcome system pressure drop, pressure difference, and static height

To identify and specify a pump service is usually a process engineer's responsibility. This chapter discusses
various types of pump available in the market, their basic knowledge and calculation.

Several examples of pump usage are listed below:

(I) Transportation: Transport crude oil from a storage tank to refinery via piping.
(2) Process requirement: Provide reflux for a distillation column. Circulate cooling water to various heat
exchangers. Inject chemical into a process stream.

Il. Pump Process Specification

It is usually process engineer's responsibility to specify a pump's process requirement on a pump data sheet
Providing the pump process specification is the first step to purchase a new pump or to rate an existing pump.
The common practice is to select a new pump from a pump manufacturer's catalog by matching the pump's
process requirement Very rarely, a new pump bas to be designed from scratch.

Following process information are usually provided in a pump data sheet:

(I) Pumping rate: Design (rated) and normal pumping rate in gpm. Depending on the service, normally design
rate is 110010of normal pumping rate. For reflux and pumparound service, design pumping rate is 115 to 120010
normal pumping rate.
(2) Number of pumps required, spare requirement, operating in series or parallel, continuous O£ intermittent
operation.
(3) Required pump bead in feet, or pump suction and discharge pressure in psig,
(4) Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) in ft. (See section N.3 for details.)
(5) Operating condition and physical properties, such as pressure, temperature, density, viscosity, vapor
pressure, % solid content
(6) Turndown capability.
(7) Corrosive, erosive, and any hazardous nature of the liquid.
(8) List all conditions or services the pump intended to serve.
(9) Power so= such as electricity, steam, gas engine or turbine.
(10) Other information: pump type, required pump hydraulic horsepower, material of construction, stress relief
requirement, project pump specifications, pump position (vertical, horizontal, or inline), available utility such as
cooling water, site conditions, pump location (indoor or outdoor), minimum design metal temperature (MDMn,
insulation requirement, steam out condition, etc.

Pump vendor or mechanical engineer will fill in mechanical details of the pump on the data sheet.

IlL Type of Pump

Basically, pump can be classified into two groups, centrifugal (or rotodynamic) pump and positive displacement
pump. Positive displacement pump can be further classified into reciprocating pump and rotary pump. These are
the pumps, which will be discussed in this chapter. See Figure I for the general pump classification.
16
Figure 1 Pump classification.

m.1 Centrifugal pump

Centrifugal pump uses impeller to increase the liquid's kinetic energy, and then converting the kinetic energy
back to pressure at pump outlet.

Centrifugal pump is normally selected for constant head application over a range of flow rates. Most centrifugal
pumps are single stage and for moderate head application (up to 1000 ft). For high head application, a larger
impeller, a high speed, or a multi-stage pump is required. Per Goulds pump brochure, the upper pumping
capacity of centrifugal pump is about 500,000 gpm, the upper pumping head is about 9,000 ft, and the upper
pumping liquid temperature is about 850°F. [II] For low flow (less than 25 gpm) and high head (above 1000 ft)
application, positive displacement is a better choice. Most times, centrifugal pump is used to pump clear liquid,
but it can be used to pump slurry, too. However, it is not a good candidate for pumping viscous liquid (>500
SSU (110 centistokesj),

In general, compare to positive displacement pump, centrifugal pump is not very expensive, requires less
maintenance and space.

III.I.IClassification

Several different ways to classify a centrifugal pump are listed below:

(I) Number of stages: Some centrifugal pump has only one impeller. It is a single stage centrifugal pump. Some
pump has more than one impeller. It is a multi-stage centrifugal pump.
(2) Pump standard: Pump designed according to American National Standard Institute Standards is an ANSI
pump. Pump designed according to American Petroleum Institute Standard 610 is an API pump.
(3) Pump shaft position: Most centrifugal pumps have horizontal pump shaft. These are horizontal pumps.
However, some pumps have vertical pump shaft. They are vertical pumps.
(4) Suction nozzle: Most pumps have one suction nozzle. They are single suction pumps. Other pumps, usually
with large flow rate, using two suction nozzles, they are double suction pumps.
(5) Many centrifugal pumps are built for specific service and are classified by their intended service, such as
general-purpose pump, boiler-feed water pump, slurry pump, sump pump, hot oil pump, etc.

m.I.2 Mechanical details: A typical centrifugal pump is shown is shown in Figure 2. It consists a casing with
inlet/outlet nozzle to house the pump impeller and its shaft, a seal assembly to prevent liquid leak out from the
pump, and a bearing assembly. Function of each part is described below.

17
 STi.

~--,,.
00 00
Figure 2 Two typical centrifugal pumps (a) 100- casing with inlet/outlet nozzle; 101- impeller; 184- stuffing box
cover or mechanical seal chamber; 126- shaft sleeve; 319- oil sight glass; 112A- thrust bearing; 122- shaft; 228-
bearing frame; 168A- radial bearing; 250- gland [Courtesy of lIT Goulds Pumps, Seneca Falls, NY}, and (b)
[16].

(I) Impeller and shaft: Pump impeller is designed so that kinetic energy is imparted into liquid in radial, axial,
or mixed direction. It is the heart of a centrifugal pump. Pump designers use specific speed (Ns) (Eq. (9» to
classify impeller type. Figure 3 shows the typical impeller vane shape for a centrifugal pump over a range of
specific speed. At low end of the range (Ns<2000), impeller develops pump bead by moving liquid radially from
the pump shaft using centrifugal force. This is radial flow pump with the characteristics of low flow and high
head. At the other end of the range (Ns>8000), impeller develops pump bead through axial forces and this is
axial flow or propeller pump with the characteristics of high flow and low head. Pump with Ns in between is
called mixed flow pump. From Figure 3, it is observed that the ratio of impeller outlet diameter to inlet diameter
decreases as specific speed increases. For a totally axial flow impeller, this ratio is 1.0.

I I I i
-or

~>,
D.
o.
0; _'_'~l

Figure 3 Impeller profiles versus pump specific speed (Ns). [Courtesy of Hydraulic Institute, Parsippany, NJ,
www.Pwnps.orgj

There are three basic impeller styles, full open, semi-open, and full closed, see Figure 4. The full open impeller
has its vanes extended from its hub without front cover plate and back shroud. The semi-open impeller has its
vanes on the back shroud, but without front cover plate. The full closed impeller has its vanes enclosed and
supported by both the front cover plate and back shroud. Most vanes on the impeller are curved backward to the
direction of rotation.

18
(Sa) (5b) (5c)
Figure 4 Centrifugal pump impeller styles: (a) fully open, (b) semi-open, (c) fully closed. {16]
Some impeller is attached at the end of pump shaft. This is overhung impeller. Overhung impeller pump is also
classified as close coupled, where the impeller is mounted directly to the driver shaft, or separately coupled,
where the impeller is mounted on a pump shaft.

For some pump, pump shaft is supported at both ends by bearings with the impeUer in tbe middle. This impeUer
is between bearing impeller. Most multi-stage pumps use between bearing impellers.

(2) Casing: Centrifugal pump casing is used to house the impeller and pump shaft. It also provides inlet and
outlet nozzles to direct liquid intout of the pump. There are three types of casing; single volute, double volute,
and diffuser, see Figure 5. The single volute casing is a spiral form design and it bas one cutwater or volute
tongue (the point bas minimum liquid passing cross-sectional area). The double volute casing bas two cutwaters,
and the diffuser casing bas multiple patbs at impeller outlet. The purpose of double volute casing and diffuser
casing are to reduce the radial force on the pump shaft. Due to the cost, double volute casing is usually used for
larger pump (1500 gpm or higher) and diffuser casing is usually used for multi-stage, high pressure pump. [I]

The casing assembly is usually split horizontally (wally split) or vertically (radially split).

I
!

(Sa) (5b) (5c)

Figure 5 Three types of pump casings: (a) single volute, (b) double volute, and (c) diffuser. [16]
(3) Mechanical seal or packing: To prevent liquid leaking out of pump through gaps between pump shaft and
casing, either packed stuffing box assembly (Figure 6a) or mechanical seal (Figure 6b) is used.
...- ---
........
-......

Figure 6a Pump packed stuffing box assembly. Figure 6b Basic single mechanical seal for pump.
(Courtesy of ITT Goulds pumps, Seneca Falls, NY] [Courtesy of ITT Goulds pumps, Seneca Falls, NY]

19
Packed SlUffing box assembly is an old sealing device, but il is still used It consists a SlUffing box with po<:king
rings in it, SlUffing box bushing is usually provided on the pump side of the assembly, and padti.og gland is
provided on the atmosphere side of the assembly 10 tighlen the packing rings. Lamem ring is inserted in the
packing ring 10 provide sealing liquid 10lubrica1e and cool the packing rings ard pump shaft. The sealing liquid
is either pumping liquid from pump discharge or 0Iber sui1able liquid. Depending On the stuffing box pressure,
the sealing liquid may leak 10 the ambient or into the pump. The purpose of packing is to control the leabge of
sealing liquid through iJ, oot '0 eliminate the leakage. The oommon rule of thumb is that packing assembly
should be allowed 10 leak aboul 40 to 60 drops per minute. Otherwise, the assembly will NO dry ard d~
quicldy [I, II).

Mechanical seal is anocber sealing device for pump. A basic single mechanical seal is sbown in (F.gure 6b).
Each mechanical seal is made of a rDIlltingseal ring(or seal bead) anaclJed 10 the pump shaft or its sleeve and a
stationary insert (or mating ring) anaclJed 10seal housing. The coOlaClfaceof seal ring and insert provides the
primary seal. Other secondary seals an: til shaft packing gland gasket. and insert mOlIDting.

There an: throe types of mechanical seals: single, double, and tandem. The double mechanical seal bas 'WI)
mechanical seals mcented back 10back The tandem mechanical seal coosisIS 'WI) mechanical seals mcenred in
series. Double and tandem mechanical seals an: more dl'cctnt !ban the single medJanical seal.

Like packing seal, mechanical seal also oeed sealing liquid 10lubricate and cool the seal assembly and pump
sbafI. This sealing liquid is either pumping liquid or other suitable liquid. However, the amount of sealing liquid
consumed is much less !ban the packing seal due 10 the tight c:onIacl of the seal faces. for double mechanical
seal. sealing liquid pressure is higher !ban pump dischat&e pressure. for tandem mechanical seal, sealing liquid
is added '0 the secood mechanical seal ., pressure lower than pump discharge pressure.

The advanmges of mechanical seal 0'''' packing seal an: (I) less mechanical 10..,(2) less seeve or pump shaft
w'eOring, (3) much less or zero Jeakage, and (4) COD be used 10 seal bigher discharge pressure and for higher
speed pump. However, it is more sensitive 10pump vibration than the packing seal. Recendy. there is new seal
Iedmology developed using gas as sealing fluid. This will further reduce the mechanical 10ss and sleeve Or
pump shaft v.'eOringproblems. The required barri", gas (tritrog"" or air) usually is verYlittle.

More mecbanical seal information is awilable 81m Goulds Pumps webshe:

bttp:llwww.gouldspumps.com/pag_OOI2..html.

(4) Bearings: Liquid from impeller dischat&e will exert radial fceee on the pump case and cause radial force
imbalance inside the pump. The difference of pump discharge and suaion pressures will cause a"<iaJfon::e
imbalance on the impeUer. Therefore. radial ard axial bearing assemblies are required 10 balance these forces.
The radial bearing assembly is also used 10 support the weight of pump shaft and impeUer,

Pumps using double volute or diffuser casing will bave lower radial force imbalaoce inside the pump. Usually.
pump radial imbalance force is 81minimum. if pump is operating 81 its best efficiency poim (BEP).

Single stage pump using closed impeUer, double suaions "'ill ba"IIe 10"", axial bydraulic imbalaoce forces,
Multi·stage pump ",th opposed impeller auangemenl "ill also minim;.., its axial imbalance forces. Pump axial
imbalance forces are also 81minimum, if pump is operating at BEP.

(5) Wearing ring: To prevent cosdy wearing of casing and impeller at the nmniogjoim, removable "uring
rings are installed on either casing or impeUer or both of 6Jem, see figure 2b.

20
ID.I.3 Pump curve

The performance of a centrifugal pump is shown on its pump curve at a certain rotation speed; see Figure 7 [II].
Pump curve is also called pump performance curve, or head-capacity curve (H-Q curve). InFigure 7, pump head
or differential pressure in feet is plotted against pumping rate in gpm. Usually, there are several parallel pump
curves shown on the figure, one for each different impeller size. Pump efficiency, NPSHR (required Net
Positive Suction Head (See section 1V.3 for details)), and required power are also plotted in the figure against
pumping rate. The operating point on the pump curve, which has the best pwnp efficiency, is the best efficiency
point (BEP) of the pump. BEP varies at different impeller size.

Most pump curves are generated based on test using water. From Eq. (8), it shows that pump head is a function
of pump speed and its impeller diameter only. Therefore, a pump head curve is applicable to any liquid,
regardless of their difference in density. The required power read from the figure is also based on water. If
pumping liquid is different from water, it should be corrected by multiplying its specific gravity (per Eq. (2) and
Eq. (Ib)).

Pump curve may be flat, steep, or drooping (pump head goes up, then down, as flow rate reduced) depending on
the impeller type and design. Figure 8 shows the general shape of pump curve for radial, mixed, and axial flow
pumps relative to its design or BEP. Radial flow pumps (low specific speed) have the flattest pump curve with
shutoff head (at zero flow) no more than 120% of the head at BEP. Axial flow pumps (high specific speed) have
the steepest pump curve with shutoffhead up to 300% of the head at BEP [I]. Mixed flow pump curve is in
between. Low specific speed pumps sometimes exhibit a drooping characteristic at shutoff. This may lead to
unstable operation in some system.

The general shape of pump horsepower (BHP) and efficiency curve relative to design or BEP for radial, mixed,
and axial flow pumps are also shown in Figure 8. For radia1 flow pwnp, the power consumption increases with
flow rate. For mixed flow pump, its power consumption is about the same over a wide range of flow rate. For
axial flow pump, its power consumption is largest 31 shutoff point, and gradually reduced with increasing flow
rate. The pump efficiency curves for all three pumps are of the same shape, with the highest efficiency at design
or BEP.

21
 I L

·
•
.1•. ! I 1
~,
,
·.V ~
•
I
f--I ::::1:
, . -
1 I . I,

(a) radial flow pump. (b) mixed flow pump. (c) axial flow pump.
Figure 8 General pump curve shape. [II]
Other factors will affect the shape of pump curve are: width of impeller, pitch of vane on impeller, and number
of vanes on impeller, Pwnp curve wiU be flatter, if the impeller is wider, or its vane is more swept-back, or it
has more vanes on it
Sometimes, pumps are installed in series to boost suction pressure or to increase pump discharge pressure. For
this case, the composite pump curve can be consuucted by adding the pump head at a fixed pumping rate. In
other cases, pumps are installed in parallel to increase pumping rate. For this case, the composite pump curve
can be constructed by adding the pumping rate at a fixed pump head.

ill. 1.4 Operating point

To analyze a pumping system, it is better to provide a sketch of the system from its pumping source to its
destination. See Figure 9 for an example. On the pump suction or discharge line, show (I) all the equipment,
valves, and instruments, which wiU cause pressure drop, and (2) static head of pump suction source and
discharge destination. Usually operating conditions (pressureltemperature) at source and destination are known,
For each pipe section, identity its line size. Estimate or measure the line length for each pipe section. Calculate
line pressure drop and equipmentfmstrument pressure drop at various pumping rates, Then, a system pressure
versus flow rate curve can be drawn as the system curve, see Figure IO.lfthere is DO control valve at pump
discharge line, the intersection point of pump curve and system curve is the pump operating point (point B). For
pumping system has control valve, the pump operating point is at the fixed pumping rate (point A). The pressure
SIlPbetween pump curve and system curve is the control valve pressure drop.

Most centrifugal pumps use a control valve at its discharge to control its pumping rate. Sometimes, pump driver
speed is varied to achieve this goal. The advantage of variable speed pumping is to save energy and to keep
pump operating close to BEP [I].

.....
o.eo1
.....
_ .....
Figure 9 A sketch of pump system.
22
 _ ......
\.
II

--
Figure 10 Operating point of centrifugal pump: point A - with control valve at pump discharge line,
point B - without control valve at pump discharge line.

ill.I.S NPSHA, NPSHR.. and cavitation

NPSHA is an abbreviation of net positive suction bead available. It is calculated by Eq. (4). II is a measure of
the liquid pressure available at the pump suction to suppress the vaporization or cavitation inside the pump. A
hydraulic analysis of pump suction piping will determine the NPSHA. For conservative, NPSHA is usually
calculated based on minimum liquid level or maximum suction lift at maximum flow.

NPSHR is an abbreviation of net positive suction head required. It is determined by experiments at pump
manufacturer's laboratory. Per Hydraulic Institute Standard, NPSHR is the measured NPSHA when pump head
is dropped 3% below its value on the performance curve. NPSHR increases with higher pumping rate, higher
pump speed, and for some pumps with smaller impeller [I J.

Cavitation in pump occurs when pumping liquid's pressure is dropped below its vapor pressure. There are two
types of pump cavitation ..The first one is suction cavitation. It happens at pump impeller vane inlet, pump
suction area. Bubbles is formed at vane inlet and later collapsed at its outlet as pressure is increased. The second
one is discharge cavitation. It happens at pump cutwater and impeller tip area. It happens at lower pumping rate,
less than BEP. Pump has higher discharge pressure, and liquid at pump discharge is back flow to pump through
its cutwater area at high speed and causing cavitation. Pump operated under cavitation will make a growling
sound like pumping gravel. Besides noises, cavitation will cause following problems: (I) poor pump
performance: pump headdrops off or breaks away from its performance curve, (2) damage impeller: chipping
away material on impeller, and (3) vibration and lead to seal, beating, and shaft damage. Cavitation usually is a
problem for pumping saturated liquid, liquid with dissolved gases, or high pumping rate (> IS,OOOgpm). [I)

To avoid pump cavitation, it is important to select a pump so that its NPSHA is greater than NPSHR at all
pumping conditions. A safety margin should be provided between them. The margin between NPSHA and
NPSHR can be increased by increase suction liquid level or decrease liquid lift, minimiu suction friction loss,
minimize pumping rate, using double suction pump, increase suction pressure, or reduce pumping liquid
temperature. For conservative reason, many times NPSHA is calculated based on vessel bottom tangent line for
vertical vessel or vessel bottom elevation for horizontal vessel. ConsuJt a pump specialist or vendor for the
required safety margin. Sometime an inlet inducer is used 10 reduced pump NPSHR.. If cavitation cannot be
avoided, a suitable material (harder) sbould be selected for the impeller 10 avoid damaging it.

23
ill.l.6 Pump efficiency

There are four factors that cause a centrifugal pump to be less efficient They are: [I)

I. Hydraulic losses: These are liquid frictional loss at impeller, diffuser, and casing wall.
2. Volumetric losses: These are caused by leaking liquid from pump discharge to the suction side.
3. Mechanical losses: These are caused by frictional loss of the moving parts, such as bearings and shaft.
4. Disk friction losses: These are the friction loss between the impeller and the casing, which are very close to
each other.

Pump efficiency is a function of pump specific speed, and pumping rate. Figure 1I shows that (1) maximum
pumping efficiency is at pump specific speed at about 2500, (2) with fixed pump specific speed, pump
efficiency increased with higher pumping rates. [15] In general, avoid pumps with specific speed below 500,
since their efficiency is low. Pump with fixed pumping rate, lower pump speed will have higher pump
efficiency. [4 (4thedition, Figure 10, p. 225)]
N5ftt Spedfic spMd (1Mtricj

ill. I.7 Pump speed

J. L.Hallam [5J in 1982 reported that pump failure could be related 10 its suction specific speed (S) (Eq. (10».
Many pump engineers use following guidelines of suction specific speed for pump selection to avoid pump
failure (2):

1. For cold water and general service, suction specific speed of 8500 or lower is used.
2. For boiler feed water, steam condensate, or general hydrocarbon service, suction specific speed should be
8500 to 11000 orlower.

Based on above suction specific speed guidelines and Eq. (10), maximum allowable pump speed can be
calculated. In general, a pump with higher speed will be smaller (less expensive). On the other band, a lower
speed pump is more reliable. Therefore, we need to consult pump vendor to select a high speed, but also reliable
pump.
24
Ill. 1.8 Recirculation and minimum pumping rate

Pump curve covers OVera wide range of pumping rate. However, pump stable and efficient operation range is
limited around its BEP. Away from this operation nmge, liquid recirculation will occur at impeller inlet and
outlet Recirculation is an unstable flow with violent changes. Severe recirculation will lead to pump cavitation
and vibration with loud popping or banging noises. [2J

Severe recirculation will cause hydraulic loss and reduce pump efficiency. It will also cause damages at impeller
eye and vanes, impeller fracture, mechanical seal failure, and bearing failure. Therefore, severe recirculation in
pump needs to be avoided.

There are two minimum pumping rates for a pump. One is due to the limitation of temperarure rise and the other
is due to the hydraulic stable operation. The minimum pumping rate due to temperature rise (to prevent
vaporization) can be calculated using Eq. (5). For minimum pumping rate due to hydraulic stable operation, it is
better estimated by pump manufacturer or roughly estimated by using the suggested suction specific speed in
section m.I.7. Usually, minimum pumping rate due to hydraulic stable operation is larger than that by the
temperature rise.

Ingeneral, high suction specific speed pump, high energy level pump, high speed pump, double suction pump,
or multi-stage pump is more susceptible to recirculation problem. Therefore, they should be operated above its
minimum pumping rate for stable hydraulic operation and to avoid pwnp damage by recirculation.

m.l.9 Driver and motor horsepower

Most pumps using fixed speed motor as driver. Many times, steam turbine is chosen as pump driver for their
reliability and excess stearn in plant. Other possible pump drivers are engines, air Or hydraulic motors.

For radial or mixed flow pumps, required horsepower of a pumping service can be calculated using Eq. (2).
However, motor horsepower is usually selected based on the pumping rate at end of the pump curve (runout) to
make sure motor is able to handle the largest pumping rate or using Eq. (3).

For axial flow pumps, required horsepower decreases with increasing flow rate with the maximum horsepower
required at shutoff condition. Motors for axial flow pumps are not selected to handle low flows. During startup,
discharge block valve at axial pump discharge line should be opened to prevent high horsepower requirement at
low flow startup condition.

m.l.Io ANSI and API pumps

ANSI pump is designed per ANSI standard B73.1 and B73.2 for chemical process or light duty users. The
standard configuration of an ANSI pump is end suction, frame mounted, with discharge in line with the
centerline of pump casing. For each pump size, key envelope dimensions are the same. Most ANSI pumps use
open impeller. They are often used in corrosive service, and many different material of construction are
available.

API pump is designed per API standard 610 for refinery and petroChemical applications or heavy duty users. Not
like ANSI standard, API pump standards are written for many different pump configurations. Most API pumps
use closed impeller. Since most hydrocarbon service is not corrosive, the material selection of API pumps is
much less comparing to that of the ANSI pumps. [IJ

Ingeneral, API pumps cost more than ANSI pumps.

25
m.1.I1 Sealless pumps

Due to the stringent envirorunentallaws, sometimes it is required that zero leakage at pump. In the late 1980's,
advanced sealless pumps are developed to achieve this goal. Another ioeentive to develop sealless pump is to
eliminate the maintenance cost from using the mechanical seals.

Two types of sealless pumps are common in the market, They are magnetic-drive pump and canned-motor
pump. Magnetic-drive pump bas two magnetic cylinders. Its inside magnetic cylinder is secured 10 the impeller
shaft and it works as a rotor, The outside magnetic cylinder is driven by a motor. T1M> cylinders are separated by
a containment shell. For the canned-motor pump, rotor of motor is secured to the impeller shaft and motor stator
is separated from the rotor by a thin metallic "can". Ineither pump, pump shaft does not penetrate through the
pressurized pump case, and is totally separated ftom the motor assembly. These designs achieve the zero
leakage.

The disadvantage of sealless pumps are (I) less efficient bearings bave to be used for the impeller shaft, (2)
more heat is generated in the metal containment shell, (3) pumping efficiency is lower, and (4) limited by
allowable pumping liquid temperature and viscosity.

ID.1.I2 Viscosity limitation

In general, when pumping liquid is viscous (150 SSU (32 centistokes) or larger), pump bead, capacity, and
efficiency will be reduced. Usually the upper viscosity limit for centrifugal pump application is 500 SSU (110
centistokes). When pump bandies viscous fluid, the old method is to use nomographs to provide the pump
performance corrections. A new method using empirical equations are presented in ANSIIlll Pump Staodards
9.6.7-2010 [8I3IJ to estimate the pump performance corrections for pumping viscous fluid. See section N.6.S
for pump performance correction for viscous fluid.

For viscosity less than 2000 SSU (440 eentistokes), it is safe to use the NPSHR from the pump curve based on
water. [I J In general, high liquid viscosity will increase pump NPSHR. ANSlIHI standard 9.6.7-2010 bas more
discussion in this area and bas an equation to calculate the NPSHR correction due to high viscosity. [18J
Interested reader sbould read Ibis standard or consult a pump vendor/specialist for advice.

m.1.13Sparing

For critical service and service required frequent maintenance, a spare pump is provided, sometimes with a
different power source. Examples are reflux pump, high temperature service pump, and slurry pump. For batcb
or intermittent operation, usually no spare pump is provided.

ID.2 Positive displacement pump

Positive displacement pump compresses liquid to higher pressure by either reciprocating or rowing motion of
its pumping element such as piston, plunger, diaphragm, gear, lobe, vane, or screw. It is normally selected for
following reasons: high bead, low flow, constant volume flow (metering), variable discharge pressure, high
viscosity, high efficiency, high solid content, low sbear, or self-priming. Reciprocating pump and rotary pump
are two types of commonly used positive displacement pump, and they are discussed in this section.

The upper pumping capacity limit is about 5,000 gpm for reciprocating pump and is about 9,000 gpm for rotaty
pump. The upper pump head is about 100,000 psi for reciprocating pump and is about 3,000 psi for rotaty
pump. These limits will vary among manufactures.

26
Positive displacement pumps can be used to pump clear liquid, sludge, slurry, and high viscous liquid (>500
SSU (110 cemistokesj), In general, compare to centrifugal pump, positive displacement pump is more
expensive, requires more maintenance and more space.

1ll.2.1 Reciprocating pump: Use reciprocating motion of piston, plunger, or diaphragm to pump liquid.

1ll.2.1.1 Classification

Basically, there are three types of reciprocating pump. They are power pump (Figure 12a), direct-acting pump
(Figure 12b) and diaphragm pump (Figure 12c).

-
(114) ._ ...... (12b)
..._ .' .' ...... ~

(12c)
--
Figure 12 Three types of reciprocating pump: (a) power pump, (b) direct-acting pump, (8) (c) diaphragm pump
[Courtesy of Milton Roy Co.] .

m.2.1.1.1 Power pump has a liquid or pumping end and a power end. At the power end, rotaling motion from a
motor, engine, or turbine shaft is converted to reciprocating motion of piston or plunger at liquid end by a
crankshaft, crosshead, and connecting rod. The liquid end consists of pis too/plunger, cylinder, check valves, and
packing. The power pump can be either single-acting or double-acting. For the single-acting design, there is
only one suction stroke and one discharge stroke per every crankshaft revolution. For the double-acting design,
there are two suction strokes and two discharge strokes per every crankshaft revolution.

1ll.2.1.1.2 Direct-acting pump, also called stearn pump, is an old, simple pump. The reciprocating motion at the
power end is directly transmitted to the liquid end using a connecting rod. Most time stearn or air is used as
motive fluid. It is a good tool to recover some energy from a vapor, if it is to be let down to a lower pressure.
Most time, the liquid end of this pump is a double-acting design.

m.2.1.1.3 Diaphragm pump uses a flexible diaphragm to pump liquid. Each diaphragm is enclosed in a pressure
casing called a head. The diaphragm is driven either by mechanical device or hydraulic fluid. It is usually used
27
for metering service with pump~ capacity ranged from 0.1 gph to 300 gpm. For high flow service, pump
usually uses hydraulic fluid as motive fluid, For high pressure service, pump usually uses metal diaphragm and
hydraulic fluid,
Reciprocating pump is also classified according to the number of liquid cylinders per power em The simplex
unit has one liquid cylinder per power end; duplex bas two; triplex has three, etc.

111.2.12Characteristics
Due to the reciprocating motion of piston, plunger, or diaphragm, the discharge flow from a reciprocating pump
pulsates. For a simplex direct-acting pump, the discharge curve (outlet flow rate versus time) is like a series
trapezoidal waves. Flow is steady until the end of the stroke, where the piston stops and reverses and liquid flow
also stops during this period, This fonns a valley between each stroke on the discharge curve. For a duplex
direct-acting pump, its discharge curve is made of two simplex discharge curves. The finaI discharge curve is
more flat but bas twice as many smaller valleys. See Figure J 3a
For power pump, its pumping rate looks like a series of arc waves. The pumping rates for a duplex single-acting,
triplex single-acting, and quintuplex single-acting power pump are shown in Figure 13b. It is apparent that flow
from quintuplex pump is more flat than the flow from triplex or duplex pumps.
Reciprocating pump pumps constant volume of liquid against any discharge pressures. For direct-acting pump,
if its discharge piping is blocked, pumping will SlOp,and pump pressure ",ill be the same as hydraulic fluid
pressure. However, if motor is used 81power end, the stalling pressure is several times of the normal discharge
pressure, and the pump Or the discharge piping will be burst Therefore, to prevent damaging pump or the
discharge piping, a pressure relief valve is usually installed at pump discharge piping. For some pumps, an
internal pressure relief device is provided, In this case, an external pressure relief valve will be an optional item.
Due to the pulsation flow in the suction piping, additional head is required 81reciprocating pump suction to
prevent cavitation inside the pump. This extra head is called acceleration bead (Ha). It is the bead required to
accelerate the pump suction side liquid on each suction stroke so that it will. 81a minimum. Calch up with the
receding face of the piston during its filling stroke. It is calculated using Eq. (J 5), and it is a function of suction
piping length, velocity. pump configuration. pump speed, and liquid compressibility.
A pulsation damper is required at pump discharge to damp the pulsation flow from the reciprocating pump. A
pulsation damper Or Stabilizer is sometimes used at pump suction to increase its NPSHA.

IFif
-
J
.- .-

,J -._

._
(13a) (l3b)

Figure J 3 Flow velocity in discharge line: (a) for simplex andduplex double-acting direct-acting reciprocating
pump, (b) for power pump with different cylinders. [9]
28
The guideline for using pisIon or plunger is as folio ws. Bod> pisIon and plunger can be used for bigh pres=
application. Hov.e\..... plunger is beuer for bigher I'J'CSS'= application thin piston. PisIon pump is usually
opcraICd 11low speed (100 IJlUI or less) and plunger pump is usually opcr8Ied 11 bigher ~ and .;,.Je I<ling
deoillD- As rqard 10 abn!s:n-e liquid handlin& pisIoo pump is beuer tbIn plunger pump. [I)

MOSIreciprocating pump are capable of ell)' seIf·priming whic:b means thai suction linedoesn'l bave 10be fi11cd
up with liquid during pump Slaltup. However, except diaphragm pump, they will be damaged, if tbey are
running dry for extended time.

m.2.1.) Mechanical details

Cylinder d used for din:cI.acting or power pump 10bouse !he pisIoo or plunger. Some cylinder bas liner 10
red""" !he wearing of !he cytinder wall. Packing is usuaIIy provided for plunger and pisun

For diaphragm pump, a bead IISSC:mbly is used 10 house !he diaphragm and inktIoc.ckt oazz1es. Since its
me<:banicaJ device or hydraulic fluid doesn'l pondraLe tJuough !he diapIngm. 110seal is required. It d a good
for pumping toxic, COIIOSive, or hazardous liquid.

Check valve is used al pump suction Or discharge 10 admit or cliscbazge liquid. There are many typeS of valves,
such as plate. wing, ball, plug, and slurry valves, etc, Their usage depends 00 !he application.

m.2.2 Rotary pump [I]

Rotary pump uses !he rowing motion of gear, lobe, """'" or serey,'10 compress liquid 10a higher pressure.

m.2.2.1 Classification

MOSI rotary pump manufaaures classilY their product according 10their type. not their appIicuion. SevcraI
rotary pumps an: sbov.n in Figure 14. They areextemal-gear pump (Figure 148). intemal-gear pump (Fiaure
14b), lobe pump (Figure 140), ein:umfaential piston pump (Figure 14d), sliding vane pump (Figure 140),
flexible impeller pump (Figure 141),peristaltic pump (Figure 14g). and screw pumps (Figure 14h). All eiled
pump capabilities are based 00 available references. Consult pump manufacture for their pump's capabilities.

111.2.2.1.1Rotary gear pump

Gear pump in Figure 14&is eaUod extt:rna.I gear pump. becanse!he center of each gear is extt:rna.IlO eacb other.
Liquid d auriod ben\""" !be gear teeth and -mg, and is compressed (noc ben\...., gears). Most external gear
pump uses one gear 10drive tbe other gear. Sometimes timing gears (extt:rna.l1O pump easing) are used 10drh re
bod! gears and allow bod! gears to mesh v.itbout contacting. This design is common on other rotary pump ....ilb
rwo roIOrs for handling abrasive liquid. Advantages of extcrnal gear pump are its high speed oper.uion, high
ddcbarge pres= capability, and !here is 110overhung bearing load. Disadvantages are it cannol handle liquid
with solids or abrasives unless timing gears are used and its four bushings are in conlllel with pumping liquid.
lIS maximum pumping rate is 800 gpm, and maximum press:we10 2,500 psi. [10, 13)

Gear pump in Figure 14b is eaUod in1cmal gear pump, becanse of one geat is inside!heolher gear. The oWide
geat ("ith extcrnaI cui teeth) is dri",," by. roIOr. The iruemaI idle geat d moved along \\iIb it. The at:SCen1 part
di\'ides !he liquid and ..... res as a scaJ ben\un !he SUdion and !he discharge port<. Liquid is cmied by !he
meshing and .mmesbing of !he gel1'$. Advantages of imernaI gear pump are it bas only two moving parts
(reliable. easy 10 openue, and maintain) and low cost. h bas only one scaJ and can opeiating in reverse cIireeIioD.
~ are thai il cannol bandJe liquid with solids or abrasives. il bas moderate speed and pressure
29
limitation. it has one bearing in the pumping liquid area, and it has overhung load on shoft bearing. Maximum
pumping rate is 1600 gpm, and maximum pressure to 250 psi. [10, 13]

-
-
Figure 148External gear pump. (8) Figure 14b ln~mal gear pump. (8)

1ll.2.2.1.2 Rotary lobe pump

Depend on the number of lobe on its rotor, lobe pump can be classified as a single or multiple lobe pump (twin
or three lobes), see Figure 14c. Lobe pump is similar to external gear pump. It relies on lobes to carry and
compress the liquid just like gears for the gear pump. However, one lobe cannot drive the other. Therefore,
timing gears are required to drive the lobes. The wide spaces between lobes and low speed operation make lobe
pump ideal to handle medium size solids, such as food. It can also be used to pump slurry, paste, or other fluid.
However, its discharge flow pulsates and slippage is high when pumping low viscosity liquid. Lobe can be
either elastomeric or metal. Maximum pumping rate is 4,000 gpm, and maximum pressure to 450 psi.

~-..
A-
-w -w-
,...

,- Figure 14c Lobe pump with single-, twin-, and tri-rotor. [8]

Circumferential piston pump (figure 14d) is very similar to the lobe pump. Instead of lobe, its rotor has arc
shaped pistons or rotor wings. As lobe pump, it requires timing gears to operate and its major application is in
food processing, but unlike lobe pump, its slippage is less. Maximum pumping rate is 600 gpm, and maximum
pressure to 500 psi.

1TI.2.2.1.3Rotary vane pump

Sliding vane pump in Figure 14e using vanes to draw and compress liquid. The vanes are fitted in slots in the
rotor. When the rotor turns, the vanes are forced outward by centrifugal force and contacting the eccentricalJy
shaped casing, which acts like a cam. The vanes are self-compensating for wearing. This pump is good for low
viscosity/nonlubricating liquid, but not for high viscosity liquid or liquid with fragile solids. Its housing is
complex and has too many parts. Maximum pumping rate is 2,500 gpm (<600 rpm), and maximum pressure to
290 psi. Pumping liquid should be clean, since it is not able to handle liquid with fragile or abrasive solids.
Prefer to have filter upstream of the pump.

30
Figure 14d Circumferential Piston Pwnp. Figure 14e Sliding vane pump. [8]
[Image provided by Wright Flow Technologies, Inc., A Unit ofIDEX]

Flexible impeller pump (Figure 141) uses elastomeric material such as robber as rotor. Its impellers or vanes
continuously deflect or straighten as they pass a cam between the inlet and outlet ports. Liquid is carried and
compressed by the flexible impellers from pump inlet to outlet, Its advantages are it is an inexpensive pump. It
can handle liquid with solids, abrasives, or entrained gases. It is dry self-priming. Its disadvantages are its low
flow and pressure limits, about 150 gpm and 60 psi. It cannot run dry and its operating temperature is limited to
about 300F.

ID.2.2.1.4 Peristaltic pump

There are three types: tube, hose, and eccentric pump. Tube pump is for low pressure application. Hose pump is
for high pressure application. Pump shown in Figure 14g is peristaltic tube pump. A flexible tube made of
rubber or other material is located in a circular housing. Rollers or carns attached to the rotor squeeze the tube as
they pass across it, pushing liquid through the pump. Its advantages are it is an inexpensive pump. It is sealless
(no packing or mechanical seal required) and it can handle corrosive liquid with suitable tubing material. It is
dry self-priming and it can run dry. Its disadvantages are low flow and pressure limits, about 400 gpm and 240
psi (for hose pump). Its discharge flow pulsates and its tubing needs to be replaced after few thousands bours
operation (depending on tube material, pump speed, pumping differential pressure, and pump fluid). Eccentric
peristaltic pump uses one roller, and bas longer bose life.

Figure 14fFlexible impeller pump. [17] Figure l4g Peristaltic tube pump. [7]

ID.2.2.1.5 Rotary screw pump

A rotary screw pump can be classified into a single screw or multiple screw pump. Figure 14h is a single screw
pump, also called progressing cavity pump. It has one threaded screw as rotor turning inside a double threaded
stator. The stator is made of elastomeric material. As rotor turns, cavities progress axially from pump suction to
discharge, moving liquid through the pump. Its advantages are it can handle very viscous liquid, shear sensitive
liquid, or liquid bas fragile solids and abrasives. Its disadvantages are a universal joint or torsion bar is required
to transmit power from driver to rotor, a larger motor is needed for startup, and a larger space is required. The
option to avoid using a larger space is to install the unit vertically. Its upper operating temperature limit is about
300 F. Its maximum pumping rate is 3,750 gpm, and maximum pressure to 2,940 psi. [I, 12]

31
Two-screw pump uses 1\\'0 SCrews for pumping. II usually bas timing gears, SO thal both SCTe\\-"S are not
contacring with each other. It is suitable to handle abrasive liquid. Three-screw pump uses three SCJeWS for
pumping. It is usually operated with the center screw driving the other IWO SCTe\\-"S, withom timing gear. It is not
suitable for abrasive liquid. Both pumps can handle high viscous liquid. II can provide highes; diseharge flow
than any other rotary pumps due 10 its high speed operation, It also produces high pressure and no pulsation
flow. Its maximum pumping rate is 15,000 gpm, and maximum pressure to 1,500psi for two-screw pump. For
three-screw pump, maximum pumping rate is 5,300 gpm, and maximum pressure to 5,000 psi. [12)

Rotary screw pump bas single end or double end design.. Single end design bas one inlet nozzle and one outlet
nozzle. Double end design also bas one inlet nozzle and one outlet nozzle, except the inlet flow is split to both
ends of the screws and the rerum flows are combined to one outlet flow. The advanIage of double end design is
to balance the axial hydmuJic force in pump.

m.2.2.2 Cbatacteristic

Pumping chamber of a rotary pump includes one or more inlet ports, one or more outlet ports, one casing, and
one rotating assembly. The main component of the rotating assembly is the rotor in the shape of gear, lobe,
vane, or screw. Casing is also called stator, since il is stationary during operation. Except peristaltic pump,
either mechanical seal Or packing is used to seal the rotor and casing.

Unlike reciprocating pump, rolaJy pump does not need cbeck: valve at pump inlet or outlet Excepl peristaltic
pump, most rotary pump discharge flow is smooth not pulsating Like reciprocating pump, a relief valve is
usually provided at discharge piping 10 prevent overpressure. For the rolaJy pump, its suction flow is not
pulsating and aooeleration bead is not required in NPSHA calculation. Io general, their NPSHR requirement is
low.

The slip or leakage of a rotary pump through clearanoes berween its casing and rotating element increases as the
discharge pressure increases or viscosity decreases. Their metering ability is not as good as reciprocating pump.

Liquid in most rotary pump, except screw pump, follows the motion of the rotating element, For screw pump,
liquid is moving axially. Most rotary pump is self prime (provided il is wened), and can run dry for a shott
period of time.

When pumping high viscous liquid, lower pump speed will he used, trying to reduce inlet line loss and pump
mechanical loss.

Iogeoeral, pump capacity and horsepo wer are a function of speed, liquid viscosity, and pump differential
pressure.For fixed pump differential pressure, pump capacity is proportional to pump speed, and will he
reduced at lower viscosity due to slippage. For fixed pump speed, pump capacity is constant agaiost pump
differential pressure, and will he reduced at lower viscosity due to slippage. Pump horsepower is proportional 10
speed, and win he increased at higher viscosity. For fixed pump speed, pump horsepower is proportional to
pump differential pressure, and will he increased aI higher viscosity.
32
Among rotary pumps, screw pump cost is the highest, and vane pump cost is the lowest.

llI.2.3 Operating point

The pump curve of a positive displacement pump is a slanted straight line, see Figure 15. Due to pump slippage,
pumping rate is reduced at higher discharge pressure. System curve is also shown in Figure 15. It can be
generated the same way as outlined in section llI.IA. Since most positive displacement pump doesn't have
cootrol valve at its discharge line, the intersection of pump curve and system curve is the operating point of the
system.
,
/II~
-,,
,,
,,,

Flow Rate
Figure 15 Pump curve and operating point of a positive displacement pump.

llI.2.4 Capabilities and limitations

Table 1 lists capabilities and limitations of various positive displacement pumps. They are listed for reference
only.

1_, c, .' ..
_- .r:-t, 1=
_",_pDIIIIwelli·

-..... -
__ .....
.....,.(It ,.... )

-.-.
",-T,..
(1111,.......
!.9UII
~

".
Of

,.- -
,YIN)
TIT
I':"I~I-- I,,:"
!yIN) i!Y1Mi !YIN)

" T
--
!YJIIl
_II
!yIN)

~
;;~
li~
IY"'l

I_-
.

~ -~ r!!!! _IjI'I II _T .!" .s.

I, YII If
~~
....... I. ~ .....
M _II
_II

15;
• ~
rfl
Yfl T
~
.,.".
__l!, "" _T

3,
~c.-
FIB
-
ll!.
S.

1 ,.....
2_ - .. -._001
n.,..., _
,... "_* ___
,. 1000.

33
N. Pump Calculation

N.I Required pump head

Pump suction or discharge pressure can be calculated by performing a hydraulic calculation on the pump suction
and discharge line respectively. After pump suction and discharge pressures are known. required pump head can
be calculated as follows.

DP= Pd - Ps (la)
H = Dp· 2.31 / s.g, (lb)

DP is the differential pressure across the pump, in psi; Ps is pump suction pressure, in psig; Pd is pump
discharge pressure, in psig; H is the pump head, in ft; and s.g. is the specific gravity of the pumping liquid

N.2 Driver horsepower

Once the pump differential pressure is calculated, the required brake horsepower of the pump can be calculated
by following equation:

BHP = Q. DP / (1714· E) (2)

BHP is the required pump horsepower, in hp; Q is the pumping rate, in gpm; and E is the pump efficiency, in
fraction.

After the required pump horsepower is calculated, driver horsepower can be estimated based on pump runout
flow (maximum expected flow) or using following equation per API 610:

Driver HP = c • BHP (3)

For BHP is 25 hp or less, c equals 1.25; for BHP between 25 hp and 75 hp, c equals 1.15; for BHP is 75 hp or
more, c equal 1.10. [6]

N.3 Net positive suction head available (NPSHA) and required (NPSHR)

To prevent pump cavitation, suction pressure and/or static height should be high enough to suppress any
vaporization inside the pump. NPSHA is usually calculated to indicate how much suction head is available to
prevent vaporization inside the pump. NPSHA is calculated as follows:

NPSHA = (pI - Pv - DPs) • 2.311 s.g. + HI (4)

PI is the pump suction side source pressure, in psia; Pv is the vapor pressure of the pumping liquid, in psia; and
DPs is the pump suction line pressure loss, inpsi; and HI is the pump suction side source liquid level above
pump suction, in ft.

NPSHR is usually provided by pump manufacture.

34
IV.4 Temperature rise across the pump

Due to the inefficiency of pump, part of the energy put into the liquid is converted to heat. It is absorbed by the
liquid and causes its temperature rise. The temperature rise of the pumping liquid (DT, in OF) can be calculated
as follows:

DT = H * (I - E) / (778* Cp· E) (5)

H is pump head, in ft; Cp is the pumping Liquid heat capacity in btu/lb- OF.

During normal operation, if pump is continuous pumping, this temperature rise in pumping fluid will not affect
the pumping system. But if a pump outlet is temporarily blocked and the pump is still pumping. This may cause
the pumping fluid temperature rises above its bubble point and pump cavitation. To avoid this problem, a pump
minimum flow line should be added at pump discharge line upstream the block valve to allow pumping fluid to
circulate back to its source to reduce pumping fluid temperature rising rate. Pump minimum flow line should be
size based on the pump minimum pumping rate, which the pump will be in stable operation.

IV.5 Pump and motor speed

The available motor speeds (RPM, revolution per minute) for a standard alternating current (A. C.) electric
motor are based on following equation for 60-cycle current:

RPM = 7200 / Nm (6)

Nm is the number of pole in motor and it equals to 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12. The available corresponding motor
speed is 3600, 1800, 1200.900.720, and 600 rpm. The actual motor speed is slightly less than the rpm
calculated by Eq. (6) due to electrical slippage between motor rotor and stator. For example, the speed of a two-
pole motor is 3450 to 3550 rpm, not 3600 rpm.

Pump speed will be the same as the motor speed, if pump is directly connected to the motor shaft.

IV.6 Calculation for centrifugal pumps

IV.6.1 Head developed at pump

Pressure head developed at pump can be approximated by the velocity head developed at pump impeller as
follows:

H = V"2 / (2 g) (7a)

V is liquid velocity at pump impeller tip, in ftlsec; g is gravitational constant 32.174, in ftlsec2.

Liquid velocity at pump impeller tip (V) is calculated by following equation:

V = N • D / 229. 18 (7b)

N is pump speed, in rpm; D is pump impeller diameter, in inch.

Using Eq. (7b), Eq. (7a) can be rewritten as follows:

3S
H - (N * 0)"2 I (3.38*10"6) (8)

Eq, (8) shows that pump head is a function of pump speed and impeller diameter, and it is independent of liquid
density. Therefore, pump head developed by water or other fluid will be the same, if the same pump is used.

TV.6.2 Specific speed

Specific speed (N s) is used to describe pump impeller shape and type, see Figure 3. It is defined as pump speed
in rpm that will pump 1.0 gpm liquid against 1.0 ft of liquid head. It is calculated by following equation.

Ns = N * Q"O.5 I H"O.75 (9)

N is pump speed, in rpm; Q equals total pumping rate, in gpm. (for double suction pump, in USA, total flow is
used for specific speed calculation, while in Europe, half flow is used.) [I]; and H is head per stage, in ft. These
values should always take at maximum pump impeller diameter and at Best Efficiency Point (BEP).

TV.6.3 Suction specific speed (S)

Suction specific speed deals with pump inlet condition and it is calculated by following equation.

S =N· Q"0.5 I NPSHR"O.75 (10)

NPSHR is the required NPSH at pump suction. For double suction pump, Q equals half of the total pumping
rate.

TV.6.4 Pump affinity law

Pump affinity law is used to estimate pump performance, when its speed or impeller diameter is changed. It is
derived based on pump specific speed doesn't change. The first set of pump affinity law is based on fixed
impeller diameter and varied pump speed. It is used to estimate pump performance at different pump speed. The
new pumping rate (Q2), pump head (H2), and required power (BHP2) are estimated from the known pumping
rate (QI), pump head (HI), and power (BHPI) by the following equations:

Q2 = (N21N1) • QI (1Ia)
H2 = (N2INI)"2 * HI (llb)
BHP2 = (N21N 1)"3· BHP I (1Ic)

The second set of pump affinity law is based on fixed pump speed and varied impeller diameter. It is used to
estimate pump performance at different pump impeller size (usually at trimmed impeller size). The new
pumping rate (Q2). pump head (H2). and required power (BHP2) are estimated from the known pumping rate
(Q I), pump head (H I). and power (BHP I) by the following equations:

Q2 = (02101)· QI (lid)
H2 = (02101),,2 • HI (lie)
BHP2 = (02/01)"3 • BHPI (IIi)

In general, the first set of pump affinity law is more accurate than the second set The second set of pump
affinity law is less accurate, if pump diameter is reduced too much or pump has higher specific speed.

36
1V.6.5 Pwnp performance correction for viscous fluid
From ANSI/H] standard 9.6.7-2010, Effects of Liquid Viscosity on Rotodynamic (Centrifugal and Vertical)
Pump Performance, following equations are presented with Hydraulic Institute's permission [18].
These equations are used to estimate the reduced pump head, flow rate, and efficiency, and increased pumping
power, when pumping fluid's viscosity is high (>32 centistokes (CIS». These equations are derived based on
limited data for single-stage and multistage centrifugal pumps with closed or semi-open impellers and for
following range of parameters: kinematic viscosity I to 3000 est, BEP water pumping rate 13 to 18000 gpm,
BEP water bead per stage 20 to 430 ft_ Testing fluids are Newtonian liquids, gels, slurries, paper stock, and
other non-Newtonian liquids. They are empirical equations, but they give better estimation than the old III
method. The standard deviation for pump head correction factor (Ct.) is 0.1, and for pump power requirement is
0.15 hp. Apply these equations to pump with specific speed (Ns) 5 3000, and assume a pump performance
curves based on water are available.
Step I. Calculate parameter B (pump perfonnance Reynolds number adjusted for specific speed) as follow: For
multistage pump, use head per Stage for Hw.BEP(pump head at best efficiency point for water).
B =26.6 (IIIs.g.)"O.5 (Hw.BEP)"O.0625I [(Qw.BEP)"O.375(N)"O.25] (12a)
11 is pumping fluid viscosity, in cp; s.g. is pumpin fluid specific gravity; N is pump speed in rpm.
If 8Z:40, the correction equations presented below are Dot applicable. A detailed loss analysis may be required.
Interested reader should read ANSI/H] standard 9.6.7-2010 for this method.IfB51.0, set H=Hw, Q=Qw, and
E=Ew and go to step 5. [subscript 'w' is for water.] Otherwise, do following calculations.
Step 2 Calculate pumping rate correction factor (CQ) and viscous fluid pumping rate (0. gpm) as follows:
CQ = Q/Qw = (2.71}"[-0.165(1ogJO B}"3.15] (12b)
Q=~.~ (I~
These two equations are valid for all water pumping rates (~) on the pump curves.
Analyzing test data, it is found CQ equals CH for viscous fluid at BEP. Therefore, following equations are valid.
Ct.-BEP= CQ (12d)
HoEP= CH-aEP• Hw-oEP (12e)
Step 3. Calculate pump head correction factor (CH) using Eq. (121) and the corresponding viscous fluid head at
water pumping rate (~) greater or less than the BEP using Eq. (l2g).
Ct.= 1-(I-CH.BEPHQw/Qw.B£P)"O.75 (12f)
H=CH' Hw (12g)
Step 4. Calculate pump efficiency correction factor (CEl using Eq, (12h) and the corresponding viscous fluid
pump efficiency (E) using Eq. (12i).
Ce = B"(-O.0547 B"O.69) (12h)
E=CE' Ew (12i)
Step 5 Calculate pump shaft input power (BHP) per Eq. (12j). This equation is valid for all pumping rates.
BHP = Q. H • s.g./(3960 E) (12j)
For multistage pump, H should be the total pump head from each stages,
These estimations should be considered as approximations. For more accurate estimation, consult a pump
specialist or vendor. Interested reader should read ANSI/H] 9.6.7-2010 for more information.
1V.7 Calculation for reciprocating pumps
1V.7.1 Capacity

For reciprocating pump with piston or plunger, its displacement (Ds) in gpm is calculated by following
equations.
37
Ds = A 0 m Ls " N /231
0 (13a)
Ds - (2A -a) 0 m 0 Ls 0 N /231 (l3b)
A is piston or plunger area, in square inch; 8 is piston rod cross-sectional area, in square inch; m is number of
pistons or plungers; Ls is stroke length, in inch. Equation (138) is for single-acting pump and Equation (13b) is
for double-ecting pump.
Reciprocating pump capacity is calculated by following equation.
Q=OsoEv (14)
Ev is reciprocating pump volumetric efficiency, in fraction.
IV.7.2 Acceleration head and NPSHA
As discussed in Section ill.2.1.2, for reciprocating pump, an additional head, acceleration head (Ha, in feet), is
required for NPSHA calculation. Ha is calculated by following equation.
HaeLo v· N 0 C/(32.2 Ok) (IS)
L is length of suction line, in ft; v is average liquid velocity in pump suction line, in ftlsec; C is a constant for
different pump configurations; and k is a factor related to liquid compressibility. Values ofC and k are listed in
Table 2. For suction line with different line size. using Eq. (15) to each section separately. Add the acceleration
head for each section to obtain the total acceleration bead.
L equals IS ft. if a pulsation damper is installed at suction piping. (3)
Table 2 Reciprocating pump acceleration head factors. (3)
C - 0.200 for .implox double.actinG k _ a (a<1<>r related to ,he fluid <omp",.. ibilit~·
- 0.200 for duplex lingl.,.actin!; hot oil 2.5
- 0.116 (or duplex double-acttng moa, hydrocarbon. 2.0
- 0.066 (or 'rlpl ... Ingle or double-acting amine. gly",L water 1.5
- 0.0.&0(or quintuplex stngle or double·actlng d••• rated water 1.4
- 0.028 (or IK'ptuplex.Ingle or doubl.·a<t.illg hquid wrth """,II amounl. of en'Toinad gao 1.0
- 0.0'22 ror nonupl.. lingle or double·a<t'!I'
~: C ·.,11 vary from the lI.ted velu .. for un""ua1 robOt 0( C01IMcIlnc rod 1oD!;th to crank rad.UI over G.
After acceleration head (Ha) is calculated, NPSHA for reciprocating pump is calculated by following equation.
NPSHA - (PI· Pv· OPs) • 2.31/ s.g.• Ha + HI (16)
V. Pump Selection
Pump is usually not custom made for a specific service. It is usually selected from the available pumps from a
manufacture. Following factor should be considered for pump selection.
(I) Capacity and head
10 general, centrifugal pump is ideal for constant head and varying flow rate service while positive displacement
pump is ideal for constant volume flow and high head service.
(2) Viscosity
Centrifugal pump is used in majority of pump applications. However, it is limited to liquid viscosity is 500 SSU
(110 centisiokes) or less. For liquid viscosity between 150 SSU (32 cts) to 500 SSU (110 CIS),study is required
to see whether it is still a good candidate for the service. For high viscosity fluid (>110 CIS). consider using
rotary or reciprocating pump.
(3) Cost
Positive displacement pump is usually cost more than centrifugal pump of the same capacity. Its maintenance
cost is higher and plot area is larger. However, it is usually more efficient,

(4) Consult with various pump manufacturers, since they have more experience oftheir product,
38
Nomenclatures:

A piston or plunger area, square inch. (used in Eq.(13a1b))

a piston rod cross-sectional area, square inch. (used in Eq.(13a1b))
B a parameter calculated by Eq. (12a)
BHP required pump horsepower, hp.
C a constant for different pump configurations. (used in Eq.(15))
CE pump efficiency correction factor for pumping viscous fluid, calculated by Eq. (l2h)
CH pump head correction factor for pumping viscous fluid, calculated by Eq. (12f)
CQ pumping rate correction factor for pumping viscous fluid, calculated by Eq. (12b)
c a constant used in Eq. (3).
Cp heat capacity of pumping liquid, btu/lb-vf',
D pump impeller diameter, inch
DP pump differential pressure, psi.
DPs pump suction side line pressure loss, psi.
Ds pump displacement, gpm.
DT pumping liquid temperature rise, OF.
E pump efficiency, fraction.
Ev reciprocating pump volumetric efficiency, fraction.
g gravitational constant 32.174, ftlsec2.
H pump head, ft.
HI pump suction side source liquid level above pump suction, ft.
Ha reciprocating pump acceleration head, ft.
L length of reciprocating pump suction line, ft. (used in Eq.(lS))
Ls piston or plunger stroke length, inch. (used in Eq.(13a1b))
k a factor related to liquid compressibility. (used in Eq.(IS))
m number of pistons or plungers in pump. (used in Eq.(13a1b))
Nm the number of pole in motor.
N pump speed, rpm.
Ns pump specific speed.
PI pump suction side source pressure, psia,
Pd pump discharge pressure, psig.
Ps pump suction pressure, psig.
Pv pumping liquid vapor pressure, psia,
Q pumping rate, gpm.
S pump suction specific speed.
s.g. pumping liquid specific gravity.
V pumping liquid velocity at pump impeller tip, ft/sec.
v average liquid velocity in suction line, ftlsec. (used in Eq.(lS))

39
References:

1. Pump Characteristics and Applications, by M W. Volk, 1996, Marcel Dekker, Inc.

2. Centrifugal Pump Source Book, by J. W. Dufour, W. E. Nelson, 1993, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
3. Engineering Data Book, It" Edition, 2004, Section 12 Pumps and Hydraulic Turbines" Gas Processors
Suppliers Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
4. Pump Handbook, Edited by I. 1. Karassik, W. C. Krutzsch, W. H. Fraser, and J. P. Messina, 1976, 151 edition;
Edited by I.J. Karassik, J. P. Messina, P. Cooper, and C. C. Heald, 2001, 3rdedition; 2008, 4th edition,
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
5. J. 1. Hallam, Centrifugal Pumps: Which suction specific speeds are acceptable", Hydrocarbon Processing,
April 1982, p.l95.
6. API"()lO, Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Petrochemical and Natural Gas Industries, lOthedition, October,
2004.
7. F. A. Holland and F. S. Chapman, Postive-displacement pumps, Chemical Engineering, February 14, 1966,
pp. 129-152.
8. D. 1. Cody, C. A. Vandell, and D. Spratt, Selecting postive-displacement pumps, Chemical Engineering, July
22, 1985, pp. 38-52.
9. T. L. Henshaw, Reciprocating Pumps, Chemical Engineering, September 21, 1981, pp. 102-140.
10. Viking pump internet website: vikingpump.com.
11. Pump selection guide by lIT Goulds Pumps, and ITf Goulds pumps internet website:
www.gouldspumps.com.
12. lmo pump internet website: www.Imo-pump.com, IMO Pump is a division of Colfax Corporation.
13. Hydraulic Institute website: www.pumps.org.
14. Wright pump website: www.wrightpump.com
15. www.pumpfundamentals.com.
16. http://openticle.comlmechanical-science-handbooklcentrifugal-pumps/
17. M. G. McLean, How to select and apply flexible-impeller pumps, Chemical Engineering, September 20,
1982, pp.l01-106.
18. ANSIIHl standard 9.6.7-2010 [8131], Effects of Liquid Viscosity on Rotodynarnic (Centrifugal and
Vertical) Pump Performance, published by Hydraulic Institute, Dec. 2010.
Chapter 3 Compressor
I. Introduction

Like pump, compressor is a common rotating equipment in industrial plants. It is mainly used to raise the
pressure of gas to overcome system pressure drop or/and to meet system pressure requirement.

Usually, it is process engineer's responsibility to identify and specify this equipment This chapter discusses
various types of compressor available in the 1I1lIIket,their capabilities and limitations.

Several examples of compressor applications are listed below:

(I) Transportation: Using compressor stations to transport gas in pipeline.

(2) Process requirement: Compress nitrogen and hydrogen mixture to reactor for ammonia production. In
hydrotreater, it is used to compress recycle gas to circulate in a reactor loop. Italso used in refrigeration system
to compress refrigerant vapor, in vapor recovery system to compress recovered vapor, or at vacuum column to
pull vacuum.
(3) Compress air to make instrument or plant air.

11.Compressor Process Specification

In general, it is process engineer's responsibility to specify process requirement of a compressor on a data sheet
With the compressor process specification, a vendor is able to design or select a compressor to fit the need.
Providing the compressor process specification is the first step to purchase a new compressor or to rate an
existing compressor.

Following process information are usually provided in a compressor data sheet:

(I) Compressor capacity: Design and normal inlet gas flow rate in acfm or icfm. Usually, design gas rate is 100
to 110010of normal gas rate.
(2) Number of compressors required, spare requirement, operating in series or parallel, continuous or
intermittent operation.
(3) Gas inlet temperature and pressure.
(4) Required gas outlet pressure and discharge temperature limitation (if any).
(5) Gas molecular weight or gas composition.
(6) Other gas physical properties, such as compressibility factor, isentropic exponent (k) or specific heat at
constant pressure (Cp) and constant volume (Cv), critical pressure and critical temperature,
(7) Turndown capability.
(8) Corrosive, erosive, and any hazardous nature of the gas.
(9) List all conditions or services the compressor intended to serve.
(10) Power source such as electricity, steam, gas engine or turbine.
(II) Compressor location: indoor or outdoor.
(12) Other information: compressor type, material of construction, stress relief requirement, project compressor
specifications, site conditions, available utilities, permitted oil level in discharge gas, minimum design metal
temperature (MDMT), insulation requirement, steam out condition, etc.

Compressor vendor or mechanical engineer will fill in mechanical details of the compressor on the data sheet

41
III. Type of Compressor

III. Ia Based on the principle of gas compression

Based on the different gas compression principle, compressor can be classified into three types: dynamic,
positive displacement, and thermal type. See Figure I for the general compressor classification.

For a dynamic compressor, a continuous rotating element (rotor) is used to increase gas velocity. Then, gas
velocity is converted to static pressure at compressor outlet. Dynamic compressor is classified as: centrifugal or
axial compressor. For centrifugal compressor, the rotating element is an impeller, and gas flow is in either radial
or mixed flow direction. For axial compressor, the rotating element is a bladed rotor and gas flow is in the axial
direction.

Positive displacement compressor uses mechanical components to trap gas and then compress it to higher
pressure. Positive displacement compressor can be further classified into reciprocating compressor and rotary
compressor. Reciprocating compressor uses reciprocating motion of piston, plunger, or diaphragm in a cylinder
or head to compress gas. Rotary compressor uses continuous rotating screws, lobes, vanes, or liquid ring to
compress gas.

Thermal type compressor is ejector, which uses high velocity motive fluid (such as gas or steam) to entrain the
process gas. Then, it converts the velocity of the mixture to pressure in a diffuser.

Compressors

Dynaml,CType
,
Postive Displacement Type Thermal Type
I
Centrifugal,
Ejectors
Axial
Compresscrs Reciprocating, Rotary
Diaphragm Compressors:
Compressors Scr.....,. Lobe.
Sliding Vane.
Uqul<l-Ring

Figure 1 Compressor classification.

Ill.I b Based on application

Based on different application, compressor can be classified into air compressor and gas compressor.

The large demand of compressed air bas created a line of compressors only for air. Air compressor is normally
lightweight construction, using components only acceptable to air or nitrogen. It draws air from atmosphere
and it doesn't have to be designed free of leakage. 90% of air compressor's discharge pressure is in the 100-150
psig range. Most air compressors are built in standard size to minimize cost. Figure 2a shows different cost
effective air compressors in terms of flow capacity and discharge pressure. [1]

42
 ......... ocIII
Figure 2a Capacity of cost effective air compressors. [I J

Gas compressor is different from air compressor. Most gas is hazardous to the environment. Therefore, its
compressor has to be designed free of leakage. Most gas compressors are custom buill, because it is difficult to
build standard units to handle different gases at different flow rates and inlet/outlet conditions. All API-based
compressors, except API-liP reciprocating compressors, are custom built with delivery from 35 weeks to one
year. Figure 2b shows different cost effective gas compressors in terms of flow capacity and discharge pressure.
(1 J Gas compressors in refrigeration, fuel gas, and gas transmission industries have very large market and are
able to make standard units to reduce cost

Note: All capacity limits (pressure and flow rate) are approximate. They are varied among manufactures and
with new development.

lJIOO

$ .0 r_",lIv',-~,,"
i a
-
J a
-
F1ow~.I1('"
Figure 2b Capacity of cost-effective gas compressors. [1)

In this chapter, we will discuss centrifugal, axial, reciprocating, and rotary compressors in details, since they
represent the majority of compressor applications.

43
In.2CenUifUgalcompressor

Capacity of centrifugal compressor ranges from 200 acfm and 5,000 psig discharge pressure to 150,000 acfrn
and 1,500 psig discharge pressure (Figure 2b). [I]

The advantages of using centrifugal compressor are high capacity, high reliability, low maintenance cost, and
constant head over wide range of flow. Centrifugal compressor is so reliable that a standby spare unit is usually
not provided. For a same service, in general, centrifugal compressor costs less than reciprocating compressor,
but it may cost more than a rotary screw compressor.

The disadvantages of using centrifugal compressor are: I) It is sensitive to vibration, 2) It needs to be controlled
to avoid operating at the surge region - an unstable low flow region, and 3) Its efficiency is moderate (70 -
88%).

In.2.t Mechanical details

(1) Single stage unit:

Table l shows the approximate head generated by a single stage centrifugal compressor and axial compressor.
Compressor with open impeller can be operated at higher speed with higher head generated. Since open
impeller needs close clearance to the compressor casing, usually its usage is limited to a single stage centrifugal
compressor or first one or two stages of a multistage centrifugal compressor. [2] Figure 3 shows a single stage
centrifugal compressor with a closed (or covered) impeller.

The impeller of most single stage compressor is overhung design. Gas enters the compressor through inlet
nozzle and flows through the impeller. It mayor may not have an inlet guide vane to vary the gas rate and
distribute the gas to the impeller. At the impeller, it gains kinetic energy. After the impeller, gas flows to the
diffuser and volute sections to convert kinetic energy to pressure. Then, it exits the unit through discharge
nozzle.

Table 1 }\pQroximate head per stage for an centrifugal and axial compressor [2]
Air compression
head, ft ratio
Centrifugal
compressor
1) radial flow
covered wheel 8000 -12000 1.3 -1.5
30000 -
open wheel 60000 2.6-8.9
2) mixed flow
covered wheel 6000 - 8000 1.2 -1.3
20000 -
open wheel 45000 1.9 -3.8
Axial compressor 4000 - 5000 1.15 -1.20

44
Figure 3 A single-stage centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy of Elliott Group.)

(2) Multistage unit:

In general for radial flow centrifugal compressor using covered impeller (see Table I), ifhead requirement is
more than 10,000 ft, more impellers are required and the resulting compressor is a multistage centrifugal
compressor. The two main components of a multistage centrifugal compressor are the rotor assembly (the
rotating element), and the stationary parts. Figure 4 shows the major elements of a multistage centrifugal
compressor: (a) inlet nozzle, (b) inlet guide vane, (c) impeller, (d) diffuser, (e) return channel, (f) discharge
volute, (g) discharge nozzle and (h) balancing drum.

A rotor assembly of a multistage centrifugal compressor consists of the impellers, shaft sleeves (before each
impellers), a balancing drum (at discharge end of shaft) with balance line from it to suction, and a thrust disc
mounted on the suction end of the shaft.

I) Impeller: There are two types: open and close. Closed impeller has covers at both sides of the impeller vanes
(blades). From Table I, it can be seen that the bead generated by closed impeller is much less than open
impeller. Closed impeller is used in most multistage unit and it is between bearing design. Number of impellers
in a casing can be as many as twelve.

2) Sleeves: Sleeves are installed between impellers to position the impeller along the shaft. It serves as
interstage seals and also to isolate the shaft from the process gas.

3) Balancing drum: For multistage compressor having impellers arranged in one direction, a balance drum is
used to minimize the axial hydraulic imbalance. One side of the balancing drum is at discharge pressure and the
other side is connected to compressor suction using a balancing line. The resulting pressure difference is used to
reduce the impeller thrust..Typical balancing drum is design to balance about 75% of the rotor thrust

4) Thrust disc: Thrust disc fits between the thrust bearing assemblies. Thrnst disc and bearing are designed to
absorb the rest 25% of the rotor thrust

Stationary parts of a multistage centrifugal compressor include inlet guide vane, diaphragms, and casing. They
form the various gas passages in a compressor: inlet channel. diffusers, return bends, return channels, and
discharge volute.

45
5) Inlet guide vane: Gas enters the unit through the radial inlet channeL Inlet guide vane is used to properly
distribute the gas evenly to the first stage impeller. It may be fixed or adjustable.

6) Diaphragm: Diaphragm is a prefabricated compressor part to facilitate compressor assembly. Inlet wall is a
special diaphragm. Its front face is part of the compressor inlet channel and its back face is part of the first
diffuser. A regular diaphragm forms part of the upstream return channel, part of the return bend, the diffuser,
and part of the downstream return channel Each impeller in the multistage compressor requires a diaphragm. At
each diffuser, gas velocity is reduced and pressure is increased. After the last diffuser, gas enters the discharge
volute and to the discharge nozzle.

7) Casing: It mainly used to house the rotor assembly. It also includes inlet nozzle, inlet channel, discharge
volute, and discharge nozzle. Tbere are two types of casing available: horizontal split casing and vertical split or
barrel casing. The horizontal split casing is split along the rotor shaft and bolted at the split line. It used for low
pressure service. It is prefer to have nozzles installed at bottom halfofthe casing so that it is easy to open and
serve the compressor. At high pressure (about 500 psig), vertical split casing is required to contain the
compressor unit. Rotor assembly is slid into the barrel type casing and covered with end vertical closures.

Figure 4 A multi-stage centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy of Elliott Group.)

There are several flow arrangements for a multistage centrifugal compressor. Three of them are shown in Figure
5a-c. The basic arrangement is the straight through case, Figure 5a It is used for low pressure compression. For
high flow and low head application, arrangement of Figure 5b can be used. In this case, the compressor size is
reduced, because of the feed is spitted in half. Figure 5c shows the arrangement with a side load. Some
compressor don't have side load, but has an intercooler. Some compressor has back-to-beck arrangement. In
this arrangement, half set of impellers is facing one direction and the other halt set is facing the opposite
direction. Therefore, the thrusts from them offset each other. This arrangement is used inhigh pressure
application to minimi:re the thrust imbalance.

46
 Inlet
Inlet t outlet outlet
Figure 5a A straight-through centrifugal compressor. Figure 5b A split-flow centrifugal compressor.

outlet
side strum
Figure 5c A centrifugal compressor with one side load.

(3) Shaft seal:

Shaft seal is used to minimize or eliminate gas leakage from the contact between casing and shaft into
atmosphere. Following shaft seals are available: labyrinth seal, restrictive ring seal, mechanical seal, and liquid
film seal. Labyrinth seal is a dry seal. Liquid film seal is a wet seal. The other two can be either dry or wet seal.
Interested reader should read reference 4, 5, or 9 for these seals.

Labyrinth seal is an old, simply seal. It has a series of fins to restrict the gas flow. Labyrinth and restrictive ring
seal are for low pressure application (up to 200 psig) and for application where gas leakage to environment is
tolerable. For high pressure application, mechanical seal (up to 500 psig) and liquid film seal (up to 3000 psig)
should be used. [4)

Mechanical seal is similar to the liquid film seal, except the clearances in it are reduced to zero. Mechanical seal
is operated at 35-50 psi above the gas pressure. Some mechanical seal use process gas as seal fluid and seal oil
system can be eliminated. Liquid film seal has two sleeves, which run at close clearance to the shaft. Seal oil is
injected between the sleeves at 5 psi above the gas pressure. Liquid film seal requires higher seal oil circulation
than the mechanical seal. [5]

Dry gas seal is the latest developed shaft seal to provide better sealing, with less power consumption, and less
cost.

(4) Bearing:

The pressure difference at impeller inlet and outlet will cause radial and axial hydraulic imbalance on a rotor
assembly. Therefore, radial and axial bearing assemblies are required to protect the rotor shaft from bending.

Radial bearing is used to handle the radial hydraulic imbalance in the compressor. For multistage unit, journal
bearings are used at both end of rotor assembly to handle the radial imbalance and rotor weight.

47
Thrust bearing is used to handle the axial hydraulic imbalance in a compressor. For multistage unit, balancing
drum or back-to-back impeller arrangement are used to reduce the axial force imbalance.

JII.2.2 Lubrication oil system and seal oil system

Lubrication oil system is used to lubricate and cool the bearings at compressor, its driver, gear, and coupling.
Seal oil system is used to provide seal oil for lubrication and cooling at seals. For heavily contaminated gas
service, a separate lubrication and seal oil system is required.

A lubrication or seal oil system typically has two pumps, two coolers, two filters, and one reservoir. One of the
pump, cooler, and filter in the system is a standby spare unit to increase the reliability of the system.

Ifl.2.3 Performance curve

A typical performance curve of a centrifugal compressor in terms of head against flow is shown in Figure 6.
Typical performance curves for axial compressor and reciprocating or rotary compressor are also shown in
Figure 6.

Form Figure 6, it can be seen that centrifugal compressor can provide a constant head over a wide range of
flow. Figure 6 also shows that the flow range of a centrifugal compressor is limited by the surge line for low
flow and stonewall line (choked flow) for high flow. At surge line, the discharge flow is not able to overcome
the pressure at discharge line. Gas is back flow into the compressor. This causes pressure drop in the discharge
line and resumes the forward flow from the compressor. This oscillating in flow and pressure is detrimental to a
compressor, since it may cause gas overheat and thrust bearing damage. It is recommended to operate
compressor about 5% to 100/0away from the surge line. Surge line usually falls in 50% to 70% of design flow.
[5) At stonewall line, flow inside the compressor reaches sonic velocity and gas flow becomes unstable.
Therefore, stonewall operation should also be avoided.

",""I

.!
oJ
•!l', 1
i
!
"', I~
~
1
I
I £
R~
or ROIWy

Figure 6 Typical compressor performance curves.

A centrifugal compressor's performance curve can be shifted by varying its speed (see Figure 7a17b) or inlet
guide vane (see Figure 7c).

48
 ..
... ;,"/.::J 1....;0:- --
1 .... To
--,
J.!if1S
T
I
T
U ~
I

_. ~
1• I '" z
I
.. '\
-I-, I'~
,...... f ... ~

J ....
• 1-
~ , 1/ ~
""I) -, .....
.... j: ~
I.,,"
.... ~

.. .!~
7
...-
,

,-.. I

I
1.... I- WII vI/
• V 1/ "?
ifl
~
/I·F~ .- I-
f:
f-
a ..
I,

I..-
F,?'

Vi"
k/
;/
j " :.... I-!;r;;; lP.
j:
I

It:. -
... .r .._.~--
•
. . ..
Figure 7a Centrifugal compressor performance
- ~

at
.. .._.~-
11
•
I

.... ,.
~~ ~

" •

Figure 7b Centrifugal compressor perfonnance at

I
..
~
Qt

low compression ratio. [5] high compression ratio. (5)

....... -
,

..
-
:;iJ~
I

~
- • i'T-
....

~.--- __ uo
Figure 7c Ceotrifugal compressor perfonnance using adjustable inlel guide vanes. [5]

Typical performance curves of a centrifugal compressor allow compression ratio and various speeds are shown
in Figure 7a, plotted in terms of percent of design bead and horsepower versus pereent of design inlet flow rate.
In Figure 7a, two system curves are shown as line A and line B. Line A represents a typical system curve for a
close loop system such as refrigeration, and line B represents an open loop system curve such as pipeline
application. Same performance curves at high compression ratio are shown in Figure 7b. Figure 7b shows that
at higher compression ratio, compressor operating range is reduced, since the surge line is moved to bigher inlet
flow region. The intersection of performance curve and system curve is the operating point of the compressor.

Inletguide vane position or suction throttle valve position will also affect compressor perfoonance. Figure 7e
shows the effect of inlet guide vane position on compressor performance. 1beeffect of pinch suction throttle
valve is similar to reduce compressor's speed, It will reduce c:ompn:ssor's head generation.

Compressor performance other than design condition can be estimated using affinity laws or fan law'S, Eq. (Ia)-
Eq. (Ie). See section V.I for details.

111.2.4 Operating speed

Most centrifugal compressor is operated at speed greater than 3,000 rpm. From Figure 7a, it shows that
compressor head can be increased by increasing its operating speed. However, increase compressor operating
speed is a limited by (he maximum impeller stress, rotor critical speed, and surge line. (5)

49
Operating speed of a centrifugal compressor can be estimated using Eq. (12). Compressor is usually operating
between the first and second critical speed of its rotor assembly. Critical speed corresponds to a natural
frequency of a rotor assembly. Operating at critical speed will cause violent vibration and should be avoided.
Critical speed depends on the length of the rotor shaft and it limits the number stages to be installed in a
compressor. Other parameters will affect critical speed are impeller size, impeller weight, shaft diameter, and
bearing size. [4]

IIL2.5 Head and power requirement

Required compressor head can be calculated using Eq. (2) or Eq. (6). From these equations, it can be seen that
required bead is proportional to inlet temperature, compression ratio, and average compressibility factor, and
inverse proportional to gas molecular weight Required compressor horsepower can be calculated using Eq. (3)
or Eq. (7), Eq. (10), and Eq. (11). It is depended on gas flow (weight), required head, compressor efficiency,
and mechanical loss. Same equations can be used for reciprocating or rotary compressor 10 calculate compressor
bead and horsepower requirement

The values of compressibility factor and isentropic exponent (k. or heat capacity ratio) are usuaIJy decreased as
gas is compressed. It is usually use average compressibility factor to calculate compressor head and power.
Compressor head calculation is not sensitive to isentropic or polytropic exponent Therefore, isentropic or
polytropic exponent at compressor inlet or its average can be used for compressor head and power calculation.

Isentropic exponent of heavy gas such propane, butane, propylene is about 1.14. For air, it is about 1.4. For the
same compression ratio, power required to compress air with high isentropic exponent is about 5-10"/0 higher
than compress heavy gas with low isentropic exponent This is true for all type of compressors

For low molecular weight gas (MW less than 10) and high head requirement, centrifugal compressor may not be
a good candidate for the compression service, and reciprocating or rotary compressor may be required.

ill.2.6 Number of stages

In this chapter, number of stages means number of impellers or wheels in one compressor casing or unit Figure
8 can be used to estimate the minimum number of stages required in one compressor casing.

Number of stages in a compressor is limited by the allowable shaft length and critical speed. Usually, 8 to 12
stages are possible to be installed in one unit Side load or interstage cooler will reduce the allowable stages 10
be installed in one casing.

If number of stages required is exceeding the allowable number of stages in one unit, two units in series can be
used to achieve the required compression.

Most compressor manufactures simplify their design and fabrication by providing standardized size for
selection. Each size has its own inlet flow range, head, efficiency, and operating speed Table 2 is a typical set
of centrifugal compressor sizes available from manufacturer. Each size can generate 10,000 ft head, which is
equivalent to a compression ratio about two. For head greater than 10,000 ft or compression ratio greater than
two, a multistage compressor may be required.

50
 i 9 .---..,.-,--.---..,.--,-_"""7I'"-----:l
I 1--+-+--i--I--tT
8
i
~ 7 I--+-'_-I--ht;~'-
1;

f
z
6

~5~+-4-~~~~~4-~
~ 41--+-
~
~ 3
1;.
~ 2 '--IUI.-LL-'----L_-'-_"____'__-'--__'
10.000 50.000
Head. It • btl
Figure 8 Approximate minimum impellers required in a centrifugal compressor. [5]

Table 2 Typical centrifugal compressor flow range and speed required to develop 10,000 ft head. [5]
Nominal now Avorage AverllllC Speed to
develcp
range polytropic Isentropic
10.000 ft
unlet acfm) efficiency efficiency heacllwheel
I()()' 600 0.70 0.67 20.600
500· 'i .500 O.SO 0.78 10,500
i.600- 20.000 0.86 0.83 8,200
20.000· 33.000 0.86 0.83 6.600
33.000· ss.ooo 0.86 0.83 ~.900
55,000. SO,OOO 0.86 0.83 4.300
80.000 ·116,000 0.86 0.B3 3.600
U5.000 ·145,000 0.86 0.83 2.800
145,000 ·200,000 0.86 0.83 2.500
III.2.7 Discharge temperature and interstage cooling

The discharge temperature of a compressor can be calculated by Eq, (4) or Eq. (9). It is a function of inlet gas
temperature, compression ratio, isentropic exponent, and compressor efficiency. Compressor discharge
temperature is sensitive to the value of isentropic or polytropic exponent. This is true for all types of
compressors.

Compressor horsepower is directly proportional to gas inlet temperature. Therefore, it makes sense to cool gas
at compressor inlet or between stages. Another reason to cool gas between stages is due to the temperature
limitation for the compressor. For centrifugal compressor, this temperature limitation is about 350°F. [1] For
certain service, such as compression of oxygen, chlorine, and acetylene, the discharge temperature is limited to
200°F. For horizontal split compressor, thermal stress of boltjoint may limit the discharge temperature. [5]

Most interstage cooling is achieved using external cooler. Sometimes, cooling inside casing or cooling by liquid
injection is used.

ill.2.8 Driver and control

Steam turbine, gas turbine, or gas engine is variable speed driver. Its speed can be varied either manually or by
a controller to control compressor discharge pressure (Figure 9a) or flow rate (Figure 9b). Electric motor is a
51
constant speed driver. It usually uses suction throttle valve to control compressor discharge pressure (Figure 9c)
or using inlet guide vane position to control compressor flow rate (Figure 9d).

-~~
-
I~~
¥]l.6c- .~
.~~ .-
Figure 9a Pressure control by varying driver speed. (5) Figure 9b Volume flow control by varying dri_ speed. (5)

~ ......... -
- •
Figure 9c Pressure control by varying inlet flow. (5)
P:;_l'~
Figure 9d Volume flow control by varying inlet guide vane's position. (5)

Anti-surge control can be achieved by recycling discharge gas back to the compressor. Surge control is
achieved by measuring suction flow (Figure ge) or discharge pressure (Figure 9f). If suction flow is below
certain limit or discharge pressure is above certain limit, surge controller will open the valve at the recycle line
to allow discharge gas back to compressor. A cooler is provided at recycle line to cool down the recycle gas.

~
.... -----
--..
Figure ge Anti-surge COIIIlOIabove minimum Dow. [5] Figure 9f Anti-surge control away from limiting pressure. [S]

To protect compressor, following alarms are usually provided to alert the operator: High discharge pressure,
high discharge temperature, low suction flow, high vibration, high bearing temperature, high lube/seal oil
temperature, low lube/seal oil pressure, low lube/seal oil reservoir level. For high high vibration, compressor
will be shut down to prevent damage.

In.3 Axial compressor

Axial compressor is used for large flow and low head application. Its capacity is about 75,000 to 600,000 aclin
and 100 psig discharge pressure.

The advantages of using axial compressor are its capacity and efficiency (80-90%) are higher than centrifugal
compressor. It also requires low maintenance, and is very reliable. The performance curve of an axial
compressor is steeper than a centrifugal compressor (see Figure 6). The disadvantages of using it are: I) It is
sensitive 10 vibration, 2) narrow operating range for constant discharge pressure, and 3) II needs to be controlled
to avoid operating at the surge region.

The major components of an axial compressor are shown in Figure 10. They are: (a) inlet nozzle, (b) prewbirl
vanes, (c) rotor or rotating vanes, (d) stator or stationary vanes, (e) dewhirl vanes, (I) discharge nozzle, and (8)
casing. The vanes are also called blades. Among the above elements, the rotating vanes with the shaft is the
rotor assembly of an axial compressor and the rests are the stationary parts.

52
The inlet nozzle guides and accelerates gas into the prewhirl vanes, which align the gas to the rotating vanes.
The primary function oftbe rotating vanes is to add kinetic energy to the gas. The stationary vanes serve as
diffusers, which convert velocity head to pressure bead. and orient the gas for the next rows of rotating vanes
(by reversing gas direction). The first few rows of the stationary vanes are usually adjustable to compensate for
off-design operation conditions. The rest stationary vanes are fixed to the casing. Dewhirl vanes remove the
swirl from the gas before it enters the discharge nozzle. [2]

Like centrifugal compressor, axial compressor needs shaft seal to reduce the gas leakage. It uses balance drum
to reduce the axial hydraulic imbalance and thrust bearing for the remaining axial imbalance. Journal bearings
are used for the radial hydraulic imbalance.

..
'"
1-=

--......'--
Figure II An axial compressor. (Courtesy of Elliott Group)

Like centrifugal compressor, axial compressor flow rate is limited by surge and stonewall lines, see Figure II a.
Surge is very damaging to an axial compressor, because of the large mass of gas flow and thin rotor blades.
Figure II a also shows that at reduced speed (70% of design or less), rotating stall will happen. Although
operating in this region will not damage the machine, operation in this speed should be avoided. Axial
compressor relies on the adjustable stator vanes or operating speed to extend its operation range, see Figure II b.

Compression ratio generated at each rotor or stator section is low. Therefore, a lot more rotor and stator sections
are required to achieve a compression ratio. Due to the low overall compression ratio, interstage cooling is
usually not required for an axial compressor.

53
 , ~"-
,
\
\
\
\
\

-
..........
.... RPM

SCT't* ....
until:
n" ..

.,..
~'-~......, \'OUIIII r'\"OoI

Figure II a A typical axial compressor performance curve. [2) Figure II b Vary axial compressor performance using adjustable
stator. (2)
I1I.4 Reciprocating compressor

Depending on the compression elements used, there are two types of reciprocating compressor: piston/plunger
or diaphragm. The majority of reciprocating compressor uses piston/plunger and it is usually selected for flow
less than 6,000 acfm and discharge pressure up to 6,000 psig. Diaphragm type reciprocating compressor is used
to handle smaller flow and high discharge pressure, for gas flow up to 100 acfm and 15,000 psig discharge
pressure. (I}

The advantages of using reciprocating compressor are that 1) high head, 2) constant volume flow, and 3) high
efficiency (75-92%). Its disadvantages are 1) high maintenance cost, 2) high capital cost, 3) large space
required, 4) pulsation flow, and 5) low reliability.

IIl.4.1 Mechanical details

A typical piston reciprocating compressor is shown in Figure 12. It has a crankcase to house the crankshaft.
Crankshaft converts the rotating motion of a driver to reciprocating motion of piston using connecting rod,
crosshead, and piston rod. Lubricant is collected at crankcase sump and pumped to lubricate crankshaft bearing,
connecting rod, and crosshead.

Figure 12 A typical piston reciprocating compressor. [8]

Compressor piston or plunger is moving back and forth inside a cylinder. (In general, plunger is used for high
pressure and low flow operation.) Compressor cylinder has suction and discharge valves to allow the gas
54
coming in or out of the cylinder. The cylinder can be either single-acting or double-acting design. For single-
acting design, there is one suction and one discharge action per each crankshaft revolution. For double-acting
design, there are two suction and two discharge actions per each crankshaft revolution.

Cylinder liner is usually provided for a cylinder, since it is easy to replace it rather than the whole cylinder.
There are two types ofliner. wet and dry. Wet liner is used as the inside pressure cylinder wall and the inside
wall of the water jacket around the cylinder. It is designed to Stand the differential pressure between cylinder
and water jacket. Dry liner lines the cylinder wall and is not required to add strength to the cylinder. Either liner
is made of metal.

Some cylinder is lubricated with lubricant. Iflubricant will contaminate the gas, piston ring of graphitic carbon
or plastic is used at piston to minimize the wear of cylinder and piston. This is a nonlubricated cylinder. Piston
ring at piston is used for sealing pwpose. Wearing rings (rider rings) are also installed at piston to minimize the
wear between piston and cylinder. Piston rod packing is used to minimize gas leakage from cylinder. A distance
piece is provided between crankcase and compressor cylinder to prevent gas leak into the crankcase and
lubricant leak into the cylinder.

ill.4.2 Volumetric efficiency

The suction and discharge valves inside a cylinder are spring-loaded check valves. They require a small
differential pressure to open them. Therefore, at suction stroke, the pressure inside the cylinder is less than the
suction line pressure, and at discharge stroke, the pressure inside the cylinder is higher than the discharge line
pressure.

For a reciprocating compressor, at end of a discharge stoke, the piston does not travel all the way to the end of
the cylinder. The volume between the piston and the cylinder end at end of the discharge stoke is called the
clearance volume. For a double-acting cylinder, there are two clearance volumes, one at the cylinder crank end
and the other at the cylinder bead end

Volwnelric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor is calculated using Eq. (11) with corrections mentioned in
section V.4. It represents the actuaJ gas compression capacity to the piston displacement. It is a function of
compression ratio, clearance, compressibility factor at suction and discharge, and isentropic exponent

Low molecular weight gas is easy to slip in cylinder from discharge side to suction. This will reduce the
vohnnetric efficiency and a larger compressor is required

m.4.3 Discharge temperature

The main problem of high discharge temperature is that the life of piston ring, piston rod packing, and cylinder
valve are reduced Therefore, gas discharge temperature in cylinder is usually limited to 300°F for
nonIubricated cylinders and 325°F for lubricated cylinders. [I] However, for some lubricated cylinders,
discharge temperature of 350400°F is allowed to minimize number of stages and capital cost [I]

ill.4.4 Rod loading

Rod loading is an important information to check an existing reciprocating compressor for a new service. For
high pressure application, usually piston rod is extended through the piston to the cylinder bead end The
extended piston rod is called tail rod. The purpose of tail rod is to minimize the rod loading across the piston.

55
1II.4.5 Compression ratio

The maximum compression ratio of a reciprocating compressor stage is usually limited by discharge
temperature and rod loading. Up to 500 psig discharge pressure, compression ratio is usually limited by
discharge temperature. Above this pressure, rod loading is usually the limiting factor. [6]

Usually a reciprocating compressor stage can provide a compression ratio 5: I. Above this compression ratio,
multistage compression is required and the number of stage can be estimated by Eq. (14).

for a high compression ratio stage, its volumetric efficiency will be low and a large cylinder will be required to
handle the gas flow rate. High compression ratio also will result high rod loading and a large frame. Therefore,
there is limitation on compression ratio for economic reason.

m.4.6 Cooling

Sometimes cylinders are cooled by water or light oil in a coolingjacket, The purpose is to cool the gas inside
the cylinder to minimize compression horsepower. However, it is not an effective method to minimize power
consumption and care must be taken to avoid condensing the gas in the cylinder. [4]

For multistage compressor, it is better to provide an interstage cooler to cool down the gas before it enters the
next stage. This will reduce the gas volume to be compressed and horsepower consumption.

1lI.4.7 Speed [1]

For reciprocating compressor, the important speed is the average piston speed, not the compressor rpm. Piston
speed is a function of compressor rpm and stroke length. Normal piston speed is 600-800 ftlsec. For
nonJubricated application, normal piston speed is below 600 ftlsec per API 618.

There are three types of reciprocating compressor speed: 1) low speed (300-500 rpm), long stroke (7 in. and
more). 2) medium speed (500-800 rpm), medium-stroke (5-7 in.), and 3) high speed (900-1800 rpm), small-
stroke (2-6.5 in.).

1Il.4.8 Control

Almost all reciprocating compressors must be unloaded to some degree during startup to avoid exceeding
available driver torque. Common methods of unloading are discharge venting, discharge to suction bypass, and
holding open the inlet valves. Unloading can be done either automatically or manually. (5]

Capacity of a reciprocating compressor can be controlled by varying operating speed. For variable speed drivers
such as steam turbine or gas engine, varying speed can be achieved easily by regulate steam flow or gas fuel to
the engine.

For a constant speed driver such as motor, capacity of a reciprocating compressor can be controlled by
unloading inlet valve and/or unloading pockets or reservoirs at the cylinder. Lift suction valve (suction valve
unloading) will prevent compression and open pocket to cylinder (clearance unloading) will increase cylinder
clearance volume. Either action will reduce compressor capacity. If gas demand is intermittent, on-off control of
motor can be used to control capacity.

56
Usually pressure sensor at compressor outlet is used to initiate its capacity control. If pressure at compressor
outlet is falling, that means more gas compression is needed. If pressure at compressor outlet is rising, it means
less gas compression is required.

m.4.9 Spare

The reliability of a reciprocating compressor is low, 92-95%, comparing to the reliability of screw or centrifugal
compressor at 98-99.5%. [I] Therefore, a spare unit is required for a reciprocating compressor.

111.4.10Pulsation

Because suction and discharge valves are open only part of the stroke, gas flow to and from compressor are
pulsating. Pulsation flow needs to be damped, so that 1) gas flow to and from compressor will be smooth, 2)
prevent overloading or underloading compressor, and 3) reduce unit vibration. [5]

Pulsation can be controlled using a volume bottle or a pulsation dampener (snubber). A volume bottle is an
empty vessel served as a surge drum. Figure 13 can be used to estimate the required volume of a volume bottle.
[5]

o~
~20
:>

t 2- 10
ijj~
15 sJM je sizes I
<,
-- L-::::: t-'_ ~
I""

\
-- -::::
:::Ei 5
OltMfh8198 bj'11Ie sJze,s)
o
o 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400
PreMure, psi

Figure 13 Approximate pulsation damper sizing chart. [5]

lIlA. I I Performance curve

Performance curve of a reciprocating compressor is shown in Figure 6. It is a vertical line slanted to the left due
to slippage. This performance also shows that reciprocating compressor will push discharge gas against any
system resistance at discharge. To protect the compressor and discharge piping, a relief valve at compressor
discharge line is usually installed.

Il1.4.12 Head and power requirement

Head and power requirement of a reciprocating compressor can be calculated using Eq. (2), Eq. (3) or Eq. (6),
Eq. (7) as for a centrifugal compressor.

IlL5 Rotary compressor [1]

There are four different types of rotary compressors available in the market: straight lobe (Figure 14a), sliding
vane (Figure 14b), liquid-ring (Figure 14c), and screw (Figure 14d, 14e).

57
 ;
-
..
Figure14aStzai&bt loberowy_.(12) fip< 14b

Straight lobe rotary compressor is one of the oldest and simplest rotaJy compressor. It bas IWOrotors, which are
held apart by timing gears. 11relics 00 the intennesb of the rotors to move gas from inlet to discharge. It is used
for low pressure or vacuum service. 11is a low cost and low mainteoance machine. Its efficiency is less tbao a
screw compressor due to higher slippage. 11can tolerate some liquid, but not solid panicles. lIS capacity is
50,000 acfm or less with discbarge pressure less tbao 10 psig, [5,6]

Sliding vane rotary compressor bas • cylindrical rotor in an eccentric casing. Vanes are 10000edin radial slOIS
inside the rotor. As rotor turns, vanes slide in and out of the rotor by centrifugal force. The aapped gas volumes
between vanes are reduced and gas is compressod to a higher pressure at discbarge port. It is a low cost machine
with high efficicocy because oflow slippage. However, it needs more lubricalioo on its rubbing parts (10 limes
more tbao a reciprocating compressor). It bas high mainlc:nanee cost due to wear of rubbing parIS and it can not
tolerate solid panicles in gas. lIS capacity is 5,000 odin or less with discharge pressure less tbao 50 psis. [5, 6)

Liquid-ring rotary compressor uses liquid ring around the casing and impeller (rotor vanes) to compress gas. lIS
rotor is located eccentrically inside the cylindrical casing. When rotor turns inside the casing, liquid forms a
ring inside the casing by centrifugal force. It is used for vacuum or low pressure service. lIS advantages are low
discharge temperature, insensitive to liquid or solid panicles carryover, low maintenance, and low cost. lIS
disadvantage is low efficiency (35 - 5001e), since a lot of coergy is spoot in cimMling the liquid inside the
casing. Its capacity is 2,000 acfm or less with discharge pressure less tbao 100 psig. [5,6]

Screw rotary compressor uses two belical screw rotors to compress gas. There are two types of screw rotary
compressor in the markec oil-tree screw compressor (Figure 14<1)and oil-injected screw compressor (Figure
14e) (abbreviated as OFS and OIS). They become popular recently and are used to replace centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors in many applications. The efficiency of either OFS or OIS compressor is about the
same as a comparable centrifugal compressor at 70 - 85% .

--
..... it1ion..-d

Figure 14d Oil free screw compressor. (10) Figure 14e Oil injected

58
screw oompressor. (7)
OFS compressor was invented in 1930. in Sweden.It is favored for hanc!ljnggas eentaining solid particles (up
to 200 micron), with liquid entrainment, or polymerizing gases, Solid panicles or liquid entrainment "ill cause
piston ring and cylinder damages for reciprocating compressor and impeller wear and vibration for eesurifugal
compressor. Polymerizing gases tend ID COat any COIWICI meta1 with polymer. This ",11 cause cylinder
overgrown with polymer for reciprocating compressor and impeller .mbalance and gas passageway blockage for
centrifugal compeessor. OFS compressor uses timing gears ID ensure the rotors not physical contacting each
other. It aUo....s solid Orliquid particles passing through the unit and coating of pelymer will close the clearance
between rotors and make them more efficient in operation. OFS compressor is a reliable madrine and spare unit
is not required. The disadvantage of OFS is that it needs four sboft seals. four sboft seal systems can add
$250,000 to the unit. OFS compressor can handle 250 - 50,000 acfin gas and 400 psig discharge pressure. [I)

Other features of OFS are: I) Maximum discborge temperature is 450 - 500 F, 2) Normal COIDjAOSSion ratio is
about 5: I per stage. Higher compression ratio can be achieved by injeering liquid into the feed gas. 3) Operating
speed is 3,000 - 8,000 rpm typically and it can be directly driven by steam turbine, 4) Normal rotor tip speed is
250 - 350 ftlsec, 5) Capacity control can be achieved by inlet thronling, gas recirculation, and varying operating
speed, 6) Capital cost of OFS compressor is about the same as the same capacity centrifugal comjA<SSor.

OIS oornjAe5S0r was introduced in 1958. 11is DOwdominant in air, remg..ation, and fuel gas ItlatteL Three
reasons cause OlS compressors gain popularity: I) Improvements in lubricant in 1980. reduce lubricant dilmion
and corrosion problem. 2) Improved liquid and gas separation technology reduces liquid in gas to liquid free
level « 0.01 ppm), 3) Improved compressor capacity and discharge pressure limits. OIS compressor can bandIe
150 - 10,000 acfin gas and 870 psig discharge pressure. [1)

Liquid is injected into O[S eompeessor chamber through ports at the slide valve. The discborge Hquid-ges
mixture is separated ala separator, Gas is furtherc)ean up by demisters al the separatOr before leaving the unit,
and liquid is pumped back to compressor after gping through a cooler and a 61.... Usually one rotor drives the
other ",thom using timing gears.

The advantages of OIS compressor are 1) 0001discborge temperarure (less than 200"F), 2) high compression
ratio allowed (up ID 23: I) and less stage required, 3) high reliability and no spare required, 4) smooth discharge
flow without pulsation. The disadvantages are: I) need a liquid/gas sepataIOI' and liquid recirculation system, 2)
inlet gas should be clean and not good for polymerizing gases (20% or more).

OIS compressor lOtally relies on an imcmal slide valve ID oootrol its capacity. The slide valve recirculates the
compressed gas before compression is completed. Therefore, ''UY Iitile energy is wasted. OIS lDlit efficieocy is
\'ery closely tied ID its rotor tip speed (165 - 200 ftlsec). Therefore, variable speed driver is usually DO( used for
OIS compressor capacity eomrol,

..;m short
Standard OIS compressor may cost boIf the price of a comparable API centrifugal comjAOSSOT
delivery time of 20 - 26 weeks. Custom make OIS compressor may cost about the same price as a comparable
API centrifu8a1 comjAOSSOT with 35 - 40 weeks delivery time.

The performance curve of a rotary compressor is SOO"'l1in Figure 6. This curve is a slanted suaigbt line just the
same as tbe one for a reciprocating compressor. TherefOre, a relief valve is usually required ID protect the
compressor and its disebarge piping.

Head and po...... requiremenrcf a rotary comjAOSSOC

can be calculated using Eq. (2), Eq. (3) or Eq. (6), Eq. (7)
as for a reciprocatiog compressor,

59
IV. Compressor selection

following factors are usually considered before selecting a compressor. A brief discussion of these factors
follows (with emphasis on selection among centrifugal, reciprocating, OF8 and 018 compressors), see Table 3
for detai Is.

(I) Volumetric flow rate and discharge pressure: A compressor selection chart based on inlet volumetric flow
rate versus discharge pressure is shown on figure 2 for cost effective commercial available compressors. In
general, centrifugal compressor is selected for high flow and constant head/variable flow applications.
Reciprocating compressor is selected for high head and constant volume flow applications. 018 and OFS
compressors are selected for constant volume flow and moderate head applications.

(2) Reliability: Usually, centrifugal and OFS or OIS compressors are very reliable, and spare unit is usually not
required, Reciprocating compressor is not very reliable, and usually a spare unit is required.

(3) Gas compositions: Ingeneral, centrifugal compressor is more sensitive to gas composition. For MW less
than 10, centrifugal compressor may not be a good candidate for the service, and reciprocating or rotary
compressor should be considered.

(4) Carryover solid or liquid, polymer gas: OFS compressor is known able to handle dirty gas with sold
panicles, entrained liquid, or polymer gases. Centrifugal compressor can tolerate some solid or liquid, but OlS
compressor and reciprocating compressor cannot tolerate solid, liquid, or polymer gases.

(5) Maintenance: In general, maintenance cost of reciprocating compressor is higher than that of centrifugal and
rotary compressor.

(6) Capital cost: In general, capital cost of reciprocating compressor is higher than centrifugal or OfS
compressor. Cost of standard OIS compressor is lower than centrifugal or OfS compressor.

(7) Efficiency: In general, reciprocating compressor has the highest efficiency, then centrifugal and OFS or OIS
compressors.

(8) Pulsation: This is a unique problem for reciprocating compressor, not for centrifugal, 01S, or OFS
compressors.

(9) Surge, sensitive to vibration: These are unique problems for centrifugal and axial compressor, not for
reciprocating, OIS, or OFS compressors.

(10) Maximum compression ratio per stage: 01S compressor has the highest compression ratio per stage, about
23: I. Next are the reciprocating and OIS compressors,S: I. Centrifugal compressor has low compression ratio
per stage of 1.5-3: I.

(II) Maximum discharge temperature: For 018 compressor, it is 250°F, due to most lubricant break down at
280°F. For reciprocating compressor, it is 300 - 400°F. for centrifugal compressor, it is 350 - 5000F. For OFS
compressor, it is 400 - 500°f.

(12) Plot area: In general, reciprocating compressor needs the largest plot area. Centrifugal and OFS
compressors needs moderate space area and OIS compressor needs smaller area.

60
Table 3 summarizes selection factors for centrifugal. reciprocating. and OIS and OFS compressors. [I]

Type of Comp_or 01$ OFS Centrifugal R.eiprocatJng

Principle ofoperation PO-OIS PO-OFS Dynamic PO

Max flow. acfm 10.000 47.000 150.000 6,000
M.~ Pd, psig 865 400 1,500-5,000 6,000
Soyr.rellbility/upllme 98-99.5% 99-99.5% 97·99.S% 90-95%
API c;ontinuous run, h 16,000 24,000 24,000 8,000
StInCIby required No No No Yes
Gn~ef!ed Small Small Large Slnal-tnedium
~ melecularweighl 2.0 2.0 100 2.0
SoIIcIIIoquid tHllrlirvnent Yes No No No
Polymer gas application No Yes 0Iffic:iJII No
MalnltHlance requried low Low Low MedounH'tigh
Inslallation costs low Medium Medium High
$pate parts cost low Medium High Hlgh
Operating cost Low Low Low-rnedium MedIunH'tigh
Design effidtHlcy 7O-a5% 70~5% 70-88% 7>92%
Pulsation None None None Latge
s..rve No No Yes No
Max. compression rtIlioI stage 23'1 5:1 1.>3'1 5:1
Max dosdlarge lempenllure 250 400-500 35().SOO JOO.4OO
PIot_ X 2X 2X 4X
~Iionlevel Small Small Small Large
SenSItive to vibcfllion No No Yes No
Noi.. level (with enclosure) 85dB 85dB 85dB 90 dB
Starling torque Low Low High High
Fnl critical speed Below Below Above Below

V. Compressor calculation

V.I Affinity laws of centrifugal compressor

Affinity laws or fan laws of centrifugal compressor are shown "to Eq, (Ia) to Eq. (Ic). Basically. affinity laws
state that compressor flow rate (Q) is proportional to its operating speed (N). the head (H) developed is
proportional to the square of its operating speed, and power (BliP) consumption is proportional to the cube of
its operating speed. They can be used to estimate compressor performance at other operating speed for single
stage or multistage units. However, they give good prediction, iftbe new operation is close to the design speed
with low compression ratio and gas velocity.

QI INI =Q2/N2 (Ia)

HI I (N1)"2 = H2 I (N2)"2 (Ib)
BHPI I (Nl)"3 = BHP2 I (N2)"3 (Ic)

V.2 Brake horsepower calculation

In theory, gas compression can be carried out isothermally or isentroptically. In reality, gas compression is more
close to adiabatic operation. Compressor manufacturers like to use polytropic method to do their compressor
calculation. The advantages of using polytropic method are: (I) polytropic efficiency is independent of
compression ratio, and (2) total polytropic head of a compressor equals to the sum of tile polytropic head of
each stage. Figure 15 shows the gas compression path for isothermal, isentropic, and polytropic compression on
pressure versus volume diagram. The area to the left of the compression curve is the work required for the
compression. It can be seen that isothermal compression required the least work.
61
Brake horsepower required for a compressor is equal to gas horsepower plus mechanical loss. There are three
methods to calculate the required horsepower. Each method is discussed in this section and can be used for any
type of compressors.

(I) Isentropic method:

This method uses the theoretical isentropic compression as a basis. Then, it uses an isentropic efficiency to
estimate the actual required horsepower.

For isentropic compression, the isentropic head, Hs (infeet), is calculated by following equation.

Hs = 1545 (Zavg) (Ts) [ r " «(k-I)/k) - 1]/[MW(k-l )/k] (2a)

r = Pd I Ps (2b)
k = Cp I Cv = Cp I (Cp - 1.986) (2c)

Zavg is the average of compressibility factor at average compressor inlet and outlet operating conditions; Ts is
the compressor suction (inlet) temperature in OR (Rankine); r is compression ratio; Pd is compressor discharge
pressure, in psia; Ps is compressor suction pressure, inpsia; MW is molecular weight of gas; Cp and Cv are gas
molar heat capacity at constant pressure and volume, in btullb mole-T; k is isentropic exponent at average
suction and discharge conditions.

The gas horsepower is calculated as follows.

GHP = W (HsY[33000(Es)J (3)

W is gas flow rate, in lb/min; Es is compressor isentropic efficiency, in fraction.

Compressor discharge temperature, (Td, in OR), is calculated as follows.

Td = Ts + Ts [r" «k-l)/k) - I] I Es (4)

p • ..,..• 00I18tInt
__ ~- x -1 (.... m... )
- _____--:x. k(_tb_)
/'" x. n (poIytIopic:)

V,volume Figure 15 Gas compression path.

(2) Polytropic method:

As mentioned before, most compressor manufactures use polytropic method for compressor calculation. The
polytropic efficiency, Ep, is defined by following equation, Eq. (5a).

nI(n-I) = [kI(k-I)] Ep (5)

62
See Figure 16 for conversion of isentropic efficiency to polytropic efficiency. Once polytropic efficiency (Ep) is
known, Eq, (5) can be used to calculate the polytropic exponent (n).

The head developed by polytropic compression (Hp, in feet) is calculated by following equation.

Hp= 1545 (Zavg)(Ts) [r"«n-l)/n)-I]/[MW(n-I)/n] (6)

Gas horsepower is calculated as follows.

GHP = W (Hp)/[33000(Ep)] (7)

Isentropic and polytropic head are related by following equation.

HslEs = HplEp (8)

In polytropic method, compressor discharge temperature is calculated by following equation using polytropic
efficiency.

Td =Ts+Ts[r"«n-l)/n) -I]/Ep (9)

.. " ,. ..... •

~ __
• ... '.1:1.' .......
(r)
• ..
................. % •
Figure 16 Conversion between isentropic and polytropic efficiency. [5]

(3) Using pressure-enthalpy (P-H) diagram:

If P-H diagram is available for the compressed gas, it can be used to estimate compression head and gas
horsepower more accurately and faster.

From the P-H diagram, Hs can be calculated directly followed the isentropic compression path. Once Hs is
known, Eq. (3) can be used to calculate gas horsepower, and Eq. (4) can be used to calculate compressor
discharge temperature.

Mechanical loss due to friction in bearings, seals, and speed increasing gears can be estimated by the Scheel's
equation.
63
F = (GHP) " 0.4 (10)

Brake horsepower for the compression then can be calculated as follows.

BHP= GHP + F (11)

V.3 Number of stages

For a centrifugal compressor, minimum number of stages (or wheels) required in the unit is estimated from
Figure 8.

The speed of a centrifugal compressor can be estimated by following equation.

N = (N nominal) { Ht 1 [(s)(Hmaxlstage)]} (12)

Nominal speed (N nominal) to develop 10,000 ft head per stage is estimated from Table 2. Ht is the total head
required, and it is calculated by Eq. (2) or Eq. (6). s is the required number of stages in a compressor. The
maximum head per stage is estimated by following equation based on molecular weight of the gas.

Hmaxlstage = 15000 - 1500 (MW)" 0.35 (13)

For a reciprocating compressor, first estimate the required total compression ratio by allowing piping and
intercooler pressure loss. Then, estimate the number of compression stages required by allowing equal
compression ratio for each stage. Usually, the maximum compression ratio is about 5 for one reciprocating
compressor stage. Mathematically, required stages (s) in a reciprocating compressor unit can be estimated by
following equation:

r"(l/s)<5 (14)

V.4 Volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor

For a reciprocating compressor, its effective capacity is calculated as its piston displacement times its
volumetric efficiency. Its piston displacement (PD) is calculated by Eq. (15a) for single-acting piston and Eq,
(I5b) for double-acting piston.

PD = 0.000455 (stroke) (N) (D"2) (15a)

PD = 0.000455 (stroke) (N) (2 D"2- d"2) (I5b)

PD is piston displacement in ft3/min; stroke is length of piston movement, in inch; D is cylinder inside
diameter, in inch; and d is piston rod diameter, in inch.

Clearance volume of a reciprocating compressor is usually expressed as a percent of piston displacement and
referred to as percent clearance or cylinder clearance, C.

C = 100 (clearance volume, in3) 1 (piston displacement, in3) (16)

Volumetric efficiency (VE) of a reciprocating compressor is calculated by following equation by accounting 4%

loss at suction and discharge valves:

VE = 96 - r - C «ZslZd)(r "(Ilk» -1) (17)

64
When a nonlubricated compressor is used, the volumetric efficiency should be subtracted by an additional 5%
for the slippage of gas. If the compressed gas is heavy gas like propane, an additional 4% should be subtracted
from the volumetric efficiency. [5]

Nomenclature:

acfm actual cubic feet per minute.

BHP brake or shaft horsepower, hp.
C cylinder clearance as percent of piston displacement
Cp specific heat at constant pressure, btullb-°F or btu/lb mole-sf'.
Cv specific heat at constant volume, btullb-°F or btullb mole-T.
E compressor efficiency, in fraction.
F compressor mechanical loss in horsepower.
H head, ft.
icfm inlet cubic feet per minute.
k isentropic exponent, dimensionless.
MW molecular weight.
N compressor rotating speed, rpm.
n polytropic exponent, dimensionless.
P gas pressure, psia,
Q gas flow rate, acfm,
r compression ratio.
s number of stages.
T gas temperature, "R.
W gas flow rate, lb/min.
Z compressibility factor.

Subscripts
avg average.
d compressor discharge.
p polytropic process.
s isentropic process or compressor suction.
t total.
1 condition 1 or compressor suction condition.
2 condition 2 or compressor discharge condition.

65
References:

1. D. G. Jandjel, Select the right compressor, Chemical Engineering Progress, July, 2000, p.l5-29.
2. Compressor Performance - Selection, Operation, and Testing of Axial and Centrifugal Compressors, by M.
T. Gresh, Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, Massachusetts, 1991.
3. Process Compressor Technology, Volume I, Estimating Centrifugal Compressor Performance, by R. P.
Lapina, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas, 19S2, pp. I-IS.
4. Compressor Handbook, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas, 1979.
5. Engineering Data Book, 12th edition, 2004, Section 13, Compressors and Expanders, Gas Processors
Suppliers Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma
6. Compressors and Expanders, by H. P. Bloch, etc., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, New York, 19S2.
7. H. P. Block, P. W. Noack, Chemical Engineering, February, 1992, p. 100-10S.
S. E. H. Livingston, Chemical Engineering Progress, February, 1993, p. 27-36.
9. API Standards 617, 3rd edition, Centrifugal Compressor for General Refinery Services.
10, Atlas Copeo website: http://www.classzero.com.
11. L. E. Wetzel, Optimizing vacuum systems for energy-efficient operation, Chemical Processing, August,
1996, pp. 4S-50.
12. http://openticle.com/200S/03/0S/rotary-Iobe-type-compressor/; http://openticle.coml200S/03/0S/rotary-
compressors/

66
Chapter 4 Heat Exchanger
I. Introduction

Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one flow stream to another. They are used to heat. cool,
vaporize, or condense a stream to satisfy processing requirement.

The basic heat transfer mechanisms are conduction, convection, and radiation. The heat transfer can be achieved
through direct or indirect contact of streams. It can happen between two streams or multiple streams. In this
chapter, we will concentrate on heat transfer through conduction and convection, indirect contact, and between
two flow streams. Direct contact heat transfer equipment such as cooling tower and heat transfer by radiation
such as fire heater are not discussed here.

Several examples of heat exchangers are listed below:

(I) Heating: Heat up crude oil before sending it to a crude distillation column furnace.
(2) Boiling; Vaporized column bottoms in a reboiler or generating steam in a boiler.
(3) Cooling: Cooling down a product before sending it to storage.
(4) Condensing: Condense the column overhead vapor to provide reflux and product.

A heat exchanger, which is used to heat or cool a vapor or liquid stream, is called a heater or a cooler. A heat
exchanger, which is used to vaporize liquid, is called a reboiler or boiler. A heat exchanger, whicb is used to
condense vapor, is called a condenser.

Usually, it is process engineer's responsibility to identify the requirement of a heat exchanger in a process unit.
In this chapter, the basic design of double-pipe heat exchanger, shell and tube heat exchanger and air cooler are
discussed.

II. Heat Exchanger Process Specification

In general, it is process engineer's responsibility to select the heat exchanger type and to specify its process
requirement on a data sheet. With the heat exchanger process specification, vendor is able to design a new heat
exchanger to fit the process need or to rate an existing heal exchanger for the new service. Providing the beat
exchanger process specification is the first step to purchase a new heat exchanger or to rate or revamp an
existing one.

Following process information are usually provided in a heat exchanger data sheet:

(1) Design duty in btulhr or in mmbtulhr.lt usualJy is 110"/0of normal duty.

(2) Stream allocation: which stream will be placed at shell or tube side (for shell and tube and double-pipe heat
exchanger).
(3) Type of heat exchanger (shell and tube heat exchanger, double-pipe heat exchanger, or air cooler).
(4) Hot and cold side fluid total flow rate in IbJhr and its breakdown in vapor and liquid, ifany. (For air cooler,
only hot side fluid is required.)
(5) Hot and cold side fluid inlet and outlet temperatures and inlet pressures.
(6) Allowable pressure drop for the hot and cold side stream.
(7) Hot and cold side fluid physical properties at inlet and outlet conditions. The required physical properties are
density, heat capacity, viscosity, and thermal conductivity for vapor orland liquid phase. For two phase fluid,
surface tension of liquid is required,

67
(8) For vaporizing or condensing service, a heating or cooling curve is required, listing temperature, pressure,
weight fraction of vapor (or vapor and liquid flow rates in Iblhr) and physical properties of vapor and liquid at
various equal increment of heat duty.
(9) Fouling factor for the hot and cold fluid.
(10) Design pressure and temperature at hot and cold side. Usually, design temperature is 500P above maximum
normal operating temperature, and design pressure is 110%of maximum normal operating pressure or 25 psi
above it, whichever is greater.
(II) Material of construction at hot and cold side.
(12) Corrosion a1lowanoefor the hot and cold side material.
(13) Minimum design metal temperature ~.
(14) Insulation: Insulation type and thickness.
(15) Other information: Stress relief requirement, horizontal or vertical, heat exchanger specifications,
corrosive, erosive, and any hazardous nature of the hot or cold fluid, available plot area, steam out condition,
etc.

With above information provided, a heat exchanger vendor should be able to design a new heat exchanger or to
rate an existing heat exchanger properly. Avoid over specifying a heat exchanger to avoid costly design. Ifnot
sure, consult a heat exchanger engineer or vendor for their recommended design, such as the heat exchanger
type, stream allocation, and others.

III. The Basic Features of Heat Exchangers and Their Types

m.1 The basic features of heat exchanger design

IlI.I.1 Heating or cooling curves

Heating or cooling curves of a heat exchanger are a plot of cold or bot stream temperatures versus heat transfer
duties. For pure component stream, its heating curve will be like Figure 1. Line AS represents the heating
process to heat a liquid stream from point A to its bubble point B. Line BC is the vaporization (boiling) process,
where the saturated liquid (point B) is vaporized to saturated vapor (point C). Line CD is the superheating
process, where the saturated vapor is superheated. Mirror image of the curve in Figure I will be a cooling curve
for the stream. Line DC is the cooling process to cool the superheated vapor to its dew point C. Line CB is the
condensation process, where saturated vapor is condensed to saturated liquid. Line BA is the subcooling
process, where the saturated liquid is subeooled. For multicomponent stream, its heating or cooling curve will
be similar to Figure I, except the boiling or condensing portion is not a horizontal line, but a sloped or curved
line.
o
I'-

i! e
c

~.- Figure I A typical heating or cooling curve.

Heating or cooling curves are important information for heat exchanger design, especially when it has phase
change. Most times, heating or cooling curves are presented in tahuJation form together with weight fraction of
68
vapor and liquid/vapor physical properties. so that they can be input into a computer program for heat
exchanger design or rating calculations. For heat transfer not involving phase change, heating or cooling curves
or tabulation are usually not necessary. since all physical properties are linear function of temperature. For these
cases only stream inlet and outlet physical properties are required for design or rating calculations.

1lI.l.2 Flow pattern

The basic flow patterns in a heat exchanger are countercurrent flow, co-current (parallel) flow, and cross flow,
see Figure 2. For countercurrent flow pattern, two flow streams are flowing in opposite direction to each other.
For co-current flow pattern, two flow streams are flowing in the same direction. For cross flow pattern, two
flow streams are flowing at an angle to each other.

(1) Counter(low: (1) Counter(low: T1

Stream1 12~12
Stream2
11
(2) Parallelflow:
(2) Parallel(low: T1
12
Stream1 -----
t2
Stream2 -----

(3) Cross flow:

Stream1 ---+f--·-
Stream2 Duty. mmbtulhr
Figure 2 Basic flow patterns in heat exchangers and the corresponding heating/cooling curves.

InFigure 2, the heating/cooling curves corresponding to each flow pattern are shown. If the cold stream outlet
temperature is higher than the hot stream outlet temperature, then this heat exchanger has a temperature
crossover.

Ingeneral, countercurrent flow is the most efficient flow pattern in heat transfer, since it can achieve the highest
temperature changes in both streams, and it can achieve heat transfer in one unit even there is temperature
crossover. On the other hand, co-current flow is the least efficient flow pattern, since its hot stream outlet
temperature has to be hotter than the cold stream outlet temperature. Flow pattern in most shell and tube heat
exchangers are countercurrent flow, mixed countercurrent/co-current flow, and co-current flow. The efficiency
of cross flow in heat transfer is in between the countercurrent flow and the co-current flow patterns. It is used in
air cooler with air and process stream flow at 90 degree angle to each other.

III. 1.3 Heat transfer medium

Heat transfer medium between two streams is usually a cylindrical tube. Tubes are made of metal due to its high
thermal conductivity, rigid structure, and easy to fabricate. Tubes can be bare or with fins to increase heat
transfer area Most air cooler using finned tube to increase heat transfer area to offset the low heat transfer at air
side.

69
IlL 1.4 Overall heat transfer coefficient

Heat transfer of a beat exchanger, heal exchanger duty, is proportional to its overall heat transfer coefficient,
heat transfer area, logarithm mean temperature difference, and a correction factor.

Q=U'A'LMTD'F (1)

Q is heat exchanger duty, in btulhr; U is overall heat transfer coefficient, in btuIbr-ft2- of; A is total heat transfer
area, in ft2; LMTD is logarithm mean temperature difference, in of; F is LMTD correction factor, in fraction.

For countercurrent flow heat exchanger, F equals I.For mixed countercurrent/co<urrent flow or cross flow
heat exchanger, correction factor F has to be looked up in prepared diagrams according to beat exchanger
configuration or to be calculated.

For a sheU and tube beat exchanger, the rule of thumb is to keep F at about 0.8 or more for each sbeU.This
design wiU result the cold stream outlet temperature equal or less than the hot stream outlet temperature. The
purpose is to minimize required heat transfer area and inefficient heat transfer. If there is temperature crossover,
two or more shells will be required for the service.

A heat exchanger duty can also be calculated by following equations using stream heat capacity, assuming no
phase change:

Q = Wh • Cph • (TI - TI) (2)

Q = Wc' Cpc " (Q - tl) (3)

Wh and Wc are weight flow of hot and cold streams, in IbIhr, Cph and Cpc are heat capacity of hot and cold
stream, in btullb-OF;TI and II are inlet temperature of hot and cold streams, in OF;TI and t2 are outlet
temperature of hot and cold streams, in OF.

The overall heat transfer coefficient is depended on tube inside heat transfer coefficient, thermal conductivity of
the tube and thickness of tube wall, tube outside heat transfer coefficient, tube inside fouling factor, and tube
outside fouling factor. For heat transfer through tube, it is calculated by following equation.

I/U=ro/(bi' ri)+(roIl2)'ln(ro/ri)/kt+ I Iho+Rf (4a)

Rf= Rfi (rotri) + Rfo (4b)

hi and ho are tube inside and outside heat transfer coefficient, in btuIbr-ft2- OF; ro, and ri are tube outside and
inside radius, in inch;
kt is tube thermal conductivity, in btulhr-ft- OF; Rfis total fouling factor or resistance, Rfi and Rfo are tube
inside and outside fouling factor or resistances, in br-ft2- °Flbtu.

In general, high velocity and low fouling will increase overall heat transfer coefficient and beat transfer.
However, high velocity wiU cause high pressure drop. Other factors will increase overall heat transfer
coefficient are high fluid thermal conductivity, high fluid beat capacity, low fluid viscosity, high tube thermaJ
conductivity, and thinner tube wall, A summary of the effect of fluid physical properties to tube inside and
outside heat transfer coefficient, and tube and shell side pressure drop is listed in Table 1. From this table, it can
be seen that for turbulent flow, fluid mass flux (flow divided by flow cross section area, in IbIhr-ft2) and fluid
thermal conductivity has bigger influence on tube inside or outside heat transfer coefficients. For turbulent flow,
fluid mass flux has bigger influence to tube side or shell side pressure drop. Tube diameter has bigger influence
on tube side pressure drop for either laminar flow or turbulent flow in tubes.
70
Sometimes flow in tubes is in laminar flow region and turbulators are used to insert in tubes to increase the fluid
turbulent to improve heat transfer.

Table 1 Relationship of tube inside and outside heat transfer coefficient and tube and shell side pressure drop to
fluid physical properties/flow rate/exchanger eters, Sl
physical properties flow region hi ho dpl dns
mass flux (0) turbulent G"O.8 G"O.6 CY'1.8 CY'1.8S
laminar G"O.33 0
thermal conductivity (k) either k"O.67 k"O.67
heat capacity (Cp) either Cp"O.33 Cp"O.33
viscosity (11) turbulent 1l"-{).47 1l"-{).27 11"02 1l"O.IS
laminar (Wllw)"O.14 11
density (p) either lID 110
tube diameter (d) turbulent d"-O.2 d"-OA d"-1.2 d"-{).IS
laminar d"-{).33 d"-2
tube length (L) turbulent L
laminar L"-{).33 L
tube ;(N) either N
no. of baffle spaces (SP either SP
no. tube rows crossed (] tC) RC
..
Notes: hi IS tube inside heat transfer coefficient, ho IS tube outside heat transfer coefficient, in btulhr-ft2- OF; dpt
is tube side pressure drop, in psi; dps is shell side pressure drop, in psi; I1W is fluid viscosity at tube wall
temperature.

III.I.S Logarithmic mean temperature difference and correction factor

Logarithmic mean temperature difference is calculated by Eq. (5). Logarithmic mean temperature difference
multiplied by correction factor (F) is the effective mean temperature difference. It is a measure of effective heat
transfer driving foree in a heat exchanger.

LMID = (dTI - dT2) lin (dTl/dT2) (S)

dTl is the larger temperature difference of (T1-t2) and (T2-tl) for countercurrent or cross flow heal exchanger
orof(Tl-ti) and (T2-t2) for co-current flow heat exchanger, and dT2 is the smaller one, in OF.

Software such as HTRl computer programs are available to calculate heat transfer area required for a specified
duty and flow conditions (design calculation) or to calculate flow outlet conditions for an existing heat
exchanger (rating calculation).

III. 1.6 Codes

Codes commonly used in industry are TEMA, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (commonly referred as
ASME code), and APL ASME stands for America Society of Mechanical Engineers, TEMA for Tubular
Exchanger Manufactures Association, and API for American Petroleum Institute. Many companies also have
their own standards. TEMA is applicable to shell and tube heat exchanger design. ASME code is applicable to
design pressure parts of a heat exchanger. API 660 is used for shell and tube heat exchanger design, API 661 for
air cooler design, and API 662 for plate and frame heat exchanger design.

71
TEMA is divided into three classes. TEMA R is for severe pctIOleum related service. TEMA C is for moderate
commercial service, and TEMA B is for chcmieal service. TEMA application is subjected to following
limitations: I) shell diameter not exceeding 100 inch, 2) pressure not exceeding 3000 psig, 3) the produet of
shell ctiameler and pressure not exceeding 100,000 inch-psig. The intmtioo of the Iimitatioo is to limit the shell
thickness to about 3 inches, and stud diameter to about 4 inches. Outside these limits, TEMA Standards still can
be used. (3J

ID.L7 Fouling

For most beat exchangers, after a certain period of service, a layer of material will be deposited 00 its be< or
cold side beat transfer surface. This deposit layer is usually referred to as fouling to a heat exchanger. The
severity of fouling is dependent on the fouling nature of the stream. rube material, and flow velocity. Fouling
will reduce the beat 1I1IDSferand increase pressure drop for a beat exchanger.

Fouling varies with time. In general, • fouling layer built up rate depends 00 its deposition rate and removal
rate. There are three types offouling buill up process, For the first type, me fouling layer is built up linearly
with time. This fouling is USIJ3Ilyeaused by bard adherent deposits. For the seeood type, the fouling layer is
built up with time to certain thickness and then stop built up anymore. This fouling is usually eaused by soft or
fragile deposits. For the third type, the fouling layer thickness is cycling to a thiclter layer due to periodic
treatment or change of conditions, [2J For the first and third type fouling process, the unit bas to be shut down,
once the fouling layer is too thick to transfer ""Iuired heat duty. For the secood type fouling, the unit can
continue to provide its service as long as the fouled unit can provide the required heat duty.

There are several fouling mecbanisrns, which are explained below:

I) Precipitatioo fouling: It is eaused by over saturation of salts in a process stream as it is heated up or cooled
down. This kind fouling is happened in liquid ooIy. Example is sealing in cooling water.
2) Particulate fouling; Particles carried in process stream are deposited 00 heat transfer surface. This can happen
in either liquid or vapor streams. Examples are carryover particles in cooling water and dust in 8ue gas.
3) Chemical reaction; It produces solids to deposit 00 beat transfer surfaee by chetnieaI reaction or corrosion.
Examples are coke or polymer formatioo at bot rube surface.
4) Biological fouling: Micro or macro organisms are developed 81beat 1I1IDSfer surface, This happens ofteo in
cooling water system.
5) Freezing fouling: Liquid is frozen at beat transfer surface. This happens ",iIen • stream cootains components,
which will be frozen at cooling temperarure.

Most fouling is caused by several mechanisms For example cooling water fouling is usually eaused by
precipilation, particulate, corrosion, and biological fouling.

In heat exchanger design, • fouling factor is assigned to the bot and oold side to account the fouling layer
buildup. Fouling factor is used to calculate overall beat transfer coefficient as in Eq. (4a-b). Overall beat transfer
coefficient calculated without fouling factors (lk) represents the early sIaliI' elean service of a beat exchanger.
Overall beat transfer coefficient calculated with fouling fa«ors (UO represents the laxerstage dirty service of
the beat exchanger. Using fouling factors will result in a smaller overall beat transfer coefficieot and more
required heat 1I1IDSferarea. Eq. (6) shows me fractioo of dirty service beat 1I1IDSfer area Over clean surface area
is a function of me clean overall heat transfercocfficient and toIaI fouting resistance.

Adl Ac-' + Uc' Rf (6)

Where Ad is required beat transfer area for dirty service, in fl2; Ac is required heat 1I1IDSfer
area for dean
service. in fl2
ri
For a fixed fouling factor, heat exchanger with larger clean overall heat transfer coefficient will require more
heat transfer area for dirty service. For example, for Uc at 10, 100,500 btulhr-ft2·oF, and fouling factor at 0.002
br·ft2· °Flbtu, the fraction of dirty service beat transfer area over clean service heat transfer area is 1.02, 1.2, and
2.0 respectively. This means that required dirty service heat transfer area is 2%, 20%, and 100% more than its
clean service area. In away, fouling factor is a safety factor to provide extra surface area for a heat exchanger to
ensure it will provide the required duty at later stage of operation.

Typical fouling factors for different fluid are listed in Table 2. For more detail choices of fouling factor, TEMA
Standards [3) should be consulted.

Table 2 Typical ouling actor:

Fluid fouling factor, hr-ftz-°Flbtu comments
hydrocarbon vapor 0.001 - 0.002 depend on fluid
hydrocarbon liquid 0.00 I ·0.003 depend on fluid
coolina water 0.002
steam 0.0005
amine 0.002
air cooler air side 0.002 based on bare tube surface

m.l.s Guideline for selecting tube or shell side fluid

Preferred tube side fluid: (1) fouling fluid except U-tubes, since it is easier to clean tubes, and bas less stagnant
areas. (2) corrosive fluid, since tubes are less expensive to be replaced. (3) high pressure fluid, since tube can
stand higher pressure.

Preferred shell side fluid: (I) low available pressure drop, since shell side has more space. (2) large flow rate,
(3) boiling service, (4) more viscous fluid

m.I.9 Corrosion allowance

Per TEMA Standards, for carbon steel pressure parts, using I/S" corrosion allowance for TEMA class R heat
exchangers, use 1/16" corrosion allowance for TEMA class B and C heat exchangers. Heat exchanger tubes, its
parts don't stand pressure, or alloy pressure parts do not require any corrosion allowance. See TEMA Standards
for more details.

Ill.2 Type of heat exchangers

Based on service, beat exchangers can be classified as cooler, heater, condenser, and vaporizer such as
evaporator, boiler, or reboiler. Cooler is used to cool a stream and beater is used to heat a stream. The stream
can be vapor or liquid. Condenser is used to condense a vapor stream panially or totally. Vaporizer is used to
vaporize part of the liquid to vapor. There is no phase change for cooler and heater, but there is phase change
for condenser and vaporizer.

Based on different mechanical construction, the common types of beat exchanger used in industry are double-
pipe or multi-tube hairpin, sbell and tube, air cooler, plate and frame, and spiral. Only the first three types of
beat exchanger will be discussed in this chapter.

73
IIl2.1 Doable-pipe or multi-tube hairpin h.... exchang«

Double-pipe or multi-rube hairpin heat exchanger is mainly used for service requiring small heat duty_ Double-
pipe beat exchange. duty is usually smaller than multi-tube hairpin heat exchanger and its sbeII diameter range
from 2 to 6 in, It is commonly used for high fouling service sucb as slurry. For multi-tube beat exchanger, its
shell diameter range from 6 to 30 in and surface amo up to 10,000 ft2 pet unit, Most time, it is used as a heater
or cooler. Occasionally, it is used for ooodeosatioo or vaporization service, It also used as tank suction beater or
inline bearer to beat up viscous liquid from storage tank or at a pipeline. Consider using this type heat
exchanger, ifUA is less than 100,000.11]

A typical double-pipe or multi-lube hairpin beat exchanger is shown in Figure 3_ It consists of two sbell/lube
sections connected by a rerum bendand a sbelVlube elosere section at shell side inlet and outlet. For double-
pipe beat exchanger, the shell/tube section consists of'rwo diffemu size pipes, ooe inside the other. For multi-
tube hairpin beat exchanger, the sheUltubesection eonsisrs of a shell and muhiple tubes fined ime a tube sheet
at onc end. The tube or tubes inside the shell can be bare or with longitudinal fies, Fin tubes are used to increase
heal transfer surface area. Most components of the unil are of standard design. Ingeoetal, inner pipe or tube
tondIe is designed 10 be removal ror cleaning.

The advantages of using double-pipe or multi-tube hairpin beat exchangers are:

I) It is a countercurrent flow uniL Tcmpaatun: crossover is not a problem, 2) suitable for high pressure service,
since both shell and rubes are pipes, 3) applicable 10fluids with large Icmpaatun: difference "oi!hout expansion
joint, 4) easy 10 install, and add on additional units, 5) standard design, usually DOlcustom made. Its delivery
time is s~ 6) It is easy to maintain - clean, inspect, or replace pans.

The disadvantages are:

I) II is bolty, since tube length is usually 20 It or longer, 2) space is Deeded fur removing inoer tube or tube
bundle.

1ll.2_2Shell and lube heat exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchanger is the most widely used beat exchanger. It eon be used as a beater, cooler,
condenser, and v'pori= with "ide range of pressure and temperarure. Most time, il is custom made. For sheD
and tube beat exchanger design, its shell side design is l11O<C complicated than rube side design.

74
The major components of a shell and tube heat exchanger are a shell with tubes, a front end stationary head, and
a rear end head. TEMA uses a letter to represent each different construction of these three components, see
Figure 4. TEMA uses the combination of these three letters to describe the construction of a heat exchanger. For
example, BEM is a heat exchanger with a bonnet type integral front cover. a shell, and a bonnet type integral
end cover.

_INO
""$
...... _
nAflOffAl' ....... »til "'"'
-"'"
n~Th ~ - 1.:-- •• ~.

A t
I
.. ..... -
~
I
D 0Hf. ,~ SHill
I 11 L =-
~
'lxtO fUN ~ f'
11]
lIU -10 S'''''IONAIY H(AO
1-J_ _
'~N~
.... 0 .(MOVAa, COllft , J~""""''''.......I~ ~-'L--- - M ~

(.....
""lO tUN.5Hf£T
~ rw-o (IIASrS SHllll UJ(f ....- ~l",J()N"y "fA()
w,IM l~'UOtN.l ."f'lE

';"~~
• ...
~.. ,.~
G
~I .-..1----- ,] N cqr.
'IX(o fUNSHU!f
!
,',,1,', ulCf ?( srATIO,...IY HIAO
IONNt' ItNftClAl COV( •• "ttl flOW

C
._.,t~
IT
n.E)1
-UVJ.f .
H
~I..
i.. i]
OOUkl
T
...~.

$JI\1l flOW
p ,~{j~~r
OUTSlOt 'AOCtO HOAliNG HtAO

"!CW - 5 ~~":.:.,,,
~ ...::,ww_.
C..... N""l .HUc;.tAI. WITH 'VI"
5lUtt ...NO ttMOv"ILf COVtI
J
~ I
I] nOA'~
W11H tAClONO DtVK'l
HlAO

I=¥;~
l.
'11'

N
OfVlotO flOW

T T '9~':;:~"·
- - - .... .........
.. : ~!
•
lfl). .:» L -
..C :( ""'1 'ttlOUCiH 'lO"'....a H(.O

CMANHfl INUGI'Al 'MUM fUlt·

H.t • ...0 ftM()VAllf (OWl
K
I
a nlf "'pt ItflOtlf'
1
U
f=-
~
j)
U--lUIE I\.1NOlf
~~ r-
D I" P-: T
;~ w .
'-.r· 'c I
'
~J)
.'
X
~I [
:¥ft~
.~
~'"
"
lXTU.... 'U SlALtO
V((IAL HlOti "(~Ulf CLOSUIt CtOSS'LOW
'L.O'''IHO luanHlrr
Figure 4 TEMA shell and tube heat exchanger nomenclature. (3)

75
 1ll.2.2.1 Type of front end stationary bead

From end SIaIiooary bead or inlet subonaiy bead is used to introduce tube side flow into !he boa! excbana<:r. It
consists following pans; channel. CO'"Cr,penition plale(s}, and tube side inldloutlet nozzles. Cbannd or bead
bonel is. c:ircu1ar sheil It mayor may not ba'"e tube sbeet anacbcd 10it. eon. may or may not be inIepaI with
ebannel. For boa! ""changer w;th more than one tube pass, penitioD plaleS lie insIalIed inside tile lIlIIion:uy
bead to sepuate tbe rube flows from different tube paths and 10 direct !he rube flow back into !he next tube path
or outlet. For odd tube pass heal ""changers. only one inlet nozzle is required at !he inlet channel. For even tube
pass exchangers, both inlet and outlet nozzJcs are required ar tbe inlet channel

1be lDO$I common TEMAfront end stationary bead types are 'A', '8', 'C,'N', and '0'.

'A' type SIationaey bead bas a flat CO\"Crplaae. The lias CO\U plate is bolted to !he inlet c:Iumnd. 11can be
removed 10 clean rubes w;tbout dilCOllDeCling piping to the inlet channel. As a rule of dmrnb, !he upper limit of
usin& the flat co, ... plate by diameter times pressure is 85,630 incb-psia. (2) FIal cover plate is lI!UII)y
specified, if freqUCD1 tube cleaning is required. (4)

'8' type stationary bead bas an integRled cover and channel. This design is cheaper than •A' type. The bonnet
type COver can be semi-eUipsoidal, torispbcrical, or hemispherical form, 11also can be removed to clean tubes
except piping to the channel needs to be disconnected. II bas less flange connecrioos than 'A' stationary bead
and therefore it can be used for high pressure service and to reduce fugitive emissions or light gas leakage.

'C' type stationaIy bead is similar 10 'A' type stationary bead except tube sbeet is w"Ided 10 !he inlet cbaooel to
eliminale tilejoint beN..., inlet channel and tube sheet. Type 'C' stationary bead can be used for high pressure
service and to reduce fugitive enUssioG or light gas Jeakage also. Tube bundle for 1)1'" 'C' stationuy bead is
moovabIe.

'N' type ~ bead is similar 10 'C type except tube bundle is 1IOIU'en>O'-.bie.

For high pressure service, bolts used for type 'A', and 'C' statiooary bead become iaIger and CO$I)y and type
'0' design is used 10 alleviate this problem.

IIl2.2.2 Type of sbells

Tbe bean of a shell and lube exchanger is Ibe sbeII and !he tube bundle inside it. Heat ttansfer between tube and
shell side flujd happens inside tbe shell AI tube's sutt.:e. SbdI is a C)1indricaI harrellO boose tbe rube bundle,
TIle mosI common TEMA sheD type is •E' type.

'E' type shell is a one pass shell 11bas Oangcs on both ends and i1s inlet and oUllet DDZZIes are _ opposite ends
oflbe sbell.

'F' type shell bas a longiludinal baffle, which is a flat plate. It is inSlalled in thc middle of the sbell to split it
into upper and lower half circular compartments. One end of the baffle touches tube sbeel and the other end is
open for Oow (does DOllOuchthe tube sbeet). II bas IWOsbell passes and 1\00" tube passes and Oow pattern is
counl=t For fixed tube sheet design, the longitudinal baftle is welded 10tube sheet and shell. For
removable tube bundle design, it uses scaling strip or padring 10seal the longitudinal baffie's edge againsI Ibe
sheI.I. lis inlet and outlet DDZZIes lie on the same side Dexl to tube !beet. lis ad,'8IIIagcs are ~ flow
design and low COSt by usin& one sbell inSIeIId of two. Ho-..-evu, possible fluid Ieabge tbrougb baftIe is the
diS8Ch'lllllge. II is mainly used for low sheI.I side Oowand close tt:mpentureapp"wh (or ttmp..........
CI'OSSO'''') application. Its pressure drop is obout 8 times of 'E' sbell. (2)
76
'G' type shell is a split flow shell. It also bas a longitudinal baffie in the middle of the shell as 'P type except it
is open at both ends and it is not sealed or Yielded to the shell. It mainly used for certain condensing or boiling
applications (such as horizontal th.ermosyphon reboilcr) where shell side heat transfer coefficient is not
influence by the shell side fluid velocity. Its inlet and outlet nozzles are at middle of the shell. Its pressure drop
is about the same as 'E' shell. [2) It has 00 baffies. Its tube length is restricted to be less than 10ft, since its
length should be less than the twice of the maximum unsupported rube length permitted by TEMA (about 5 ft).
II bas low pressure drop. (13)

'H' type shell is a double split flow shell. It basically is two 'G' sheUs. Itbas two longitudinal baffles and two
sets of inlet and outlet oozzles. For tube length greater than 10ft, 'H' shell should be used Itbas not baffles.
and most time, it is used as a borizootal tbermosyphoo reboiler. It bas low pressure drop. [13)

'J' type shell is a divided flow shell. It is used to minimize shell side pressure drop. Its pressure drop is about
1/8 of 'E' shell. It is mainly used for low pressure gas cooler. (2) For vaporizing service, one inlet and two
outlets configuration is used For condensing service, two inlets and one outlet confi.gwation is used

'X' shell is a cross flow shell. It does not have baffies. Shell side fluid flows across tube bundle to the other side
of the shell. Pressure drop is low. For long tubes, more than one set ofinletloutlet oozzles will he used.
Sometimes, perforated plates are used to help distribute the shell side flow across the mbe bundle. It is mainly
used for low pressure gas condensing service. (2)

'K' shell is mainly used for kettle type reboilcr. A removable tube bundle (Ll-nrbe or pull through floating-head
type) is insened at ooe end, Liquid enters the unit from the bottom oozzle. A weir plate is provided to ensure
that tube bundle is covered by liquid Liquid overflow the weir to a surge COI1lp3lUlle2lI and exit the unit, Vapor
space is provided above the liquid level to separate the entrained liquid particles &om the vapor before il exits
the unit, The depth of the vapor space depends on the amount vapor generated and allowable liquid entrainment.
Usually, il is about one third of the shell diameter. To further reduce the liquid entrainment, a demister or
perforated pipe should be installed 81 vapor outlet to reduce liquid entrainment, Kettle type reboiler is usuaJly
more expensive than thennosypbon type reboiler,

ill.22.3 Type of rear end bead

Rear end bead or outlet bead is used to direct tube side flow back to inlet head or exit the unit, It consists
following parts: channel, cover, partition plate(s), and a tube side outlet nozzle for odd lUbe pass units. It is
similar to the inlet head, but il bas more varieties and uses different TEMA symbols.

'L' type rear end bead is the same as 'A' type inlet bead.

'M' type rear end bead is the same as'S' type inlet bead.

'N' type rear end bead is exactly the same as 'N' type inlet bead.

'P', 'S', "I" and 'W' type rear end heads are four dilferent floating tube sheet designs. They all have removable
tube bundle, which can be removed for repair or cleaning (inside or outside). Since their tube sheets at rear end
are floating, they all can bandle the different tbermaI expansion of sheU and tabes without using an expansion
joint. 'P' type rear end bead uses external packing without an imemal tube bundle cover to achieve this goal. 's'
and "I" type rear end beads use an internal tube bundle cover, and 'W' type rear end bead uses external sealed
floating tube sheet 10 achieve this goal.

77
'P' type rear end bead is an outside pocted floorin& bead A cylindrical borrcl (skin) is welded to the fIootina
tube sbccI.. A. end of the sIcirt, a sliP'<'" bockia& fIaoge and a flat COIo'a" are used to c:om.iD the lUbe side Ouid.
SbdJ side Ouid is ..... i".. 1by pocI:iJo& rinas insIaIled 1Jetv,,,.., the skin and pedtiDll box Ila!Jge at the sbdl. A
pocIting foDower ring is used to tighten the pKkinas-

'S' type rear cod bead bas its Ilootina bead imide the shell cover. lIS Ilooting lUbe sheet is bobed in bclw«:n a
split bec:lcini ring and• Oangcd Ooatinll bead cover. It is SOfJlttjrnesreferred as split ring type floatina bead
design. lISshell cev ... diameter is ~than the shell cIiametJor.lts shell eever is always removable. IflUbe
bundle is to be removed, its shell cover, spli' ring, and 1Ioating bead mUSlbe ...".,ved first.

"T" type rear end bead is similar to 'S' type except that its fIoatina nibe s'- and sheD cover are of the same
size as the shell and the split backin& rina is DOt used. I. is easier to pull OUIthe: lUbe bundle than'5' type
Ilooting bead. I. is ~ referred as pulIlbrougb type floating bead design. lISshell 00\",. eon be desip:<!
as 00CH<m0VabIe.

'W' type rear end bead is a I*'ked Ilooting bead "ith laman riDg. I..ike 'P' type bead, it is an ouISide pocted
floating bead. It bas r-o.., sets of podling rin& at outside of the 1Ioating bead lUbe sheet 1Jetv,_, the: shell side
Oanae and the rear bead thnge to StOp the lcabge of sheIJ side and rube side Ouid. a.:...".., the """ sets of
poclcioa rill(!, there is • Iantem ring with weep boles to "",,'tilt leakage from one side to another. This is the
ebeapes. Ooating bead design.

Type'S' and 'T' rear end beads have inlA:Tnlljoints. Design using these kind rear end beads oeeds to be careful
to avoid Ouid leakage from ooe side to the oth.... For the same size .ype: 'S' and type "I" rear end bead, type "I"
rear end bead design "ill have Iess rubes due to its intemal joints. The auidelinc of using '5' and 'T' type rear
end beads_ 0UIIincd below in terms ofcost. Us: '5' type: rear cod hcad. if I)cxpemi>-. mataiaI is n:quirecI
for lUbe bundle. rube sheets, baftles, andllooting bead .. "":r. due to smalJerlUbe bundle eon be used, 2) for
small unilS "ixre sealing strips _ required to block the l>yJms flow. due to smaI.ler sbellcan be used.. u.."T
type: ..... end bead, if I) easier 01' freqUCD' mai!!ltn8n(:e is required. sieee rube bundk aID be pulled out witboul
open the rear end sheD _.2) shdl side design pressae is abo\ ... 300 psis. and beat tr.msfer area is over 2SOO
ft2, due to besvy split ring and Ooati~ bead required for '5' type rear end bead, 3) lUbe side design pr<s$UIe is
above 600 psig. due to possible leaIc:age a. Ooating bead joint, 4) Wse shell side inlet and outlct oottl es
required, due to less rubes .-1to be removed. S) rear sheD cover .-1no. be removable, 6) expcosivc material
is required fOl' patlS (split ring, Ooating eo ver, andbolting) """taet with shell side Ouid. [4]

'U' .ype TEMA designation means usina U-rubes for the unit. The unit bas one: lUbe sheet. The rube bundle is
"""'\'able. lISOUISidesurfaces can be cJeaocd by """""'nical means, bUIits inside surDce is difficuI. to c1"""
by mochInical means andcbemicaI dcanin& bas to be used. TherefOl'e, it is prefmul to put _,_fouling Ouid at
tube side. Each U-rube is free to Cl<pIDCI tbcrmalIy relative to sbdL Therefore, expansion joim at shell is _
required, C\'tIl iftbetmal expansion bctweco the sbeIJ and lUbe side is IMge. It does _ ha\-. inlm>aI joints,
therefore, man: rubes can be in... ned in thesbell. bUllessthan 1)1'" 'L·. 'M', aDd 'N' beads. Asrqard to
repair, only lUbes at pc:ripbay ate aeeessible for repair 01' rep.. It. Domoged inner U-rubes ore bud to
access ODdmust be plugged.

111.2.2.4 Otbu com_IS

I. Tube sheet: Tube sheet is used to sepom.1Ube andsheD side Ouids and to imlllli rubes. Except U-1Ubebest
ex<hangers, aU other beat CX<hangen need two lUbe sbccts on eaeb end of the rubes. Sometimes doubl.1Ube
sheet "ill be used ateath end ofrube, ;fit is critical 10 "",,'tnt lcaIc:ageber-o...... 1Ubeside and sbeIl side Ouids.

78
TEMA 'L', 'M', and 'N' rear end bead usc: fixed lUbe sbeeIs. 11$lUbe sbeCIs an: welded 10sheJJ. The od".,".,OS
oftbis clcsilJD an: (COOIpOling 10 flOllin& bead clcsilJD) I) provide COUDIr:n:WTt:r:IlIlow design. ...ilidJ is espc:ciaIly
IJDOd for case bas temperaIUtt C<OSSO\ .... 2) man: tubes can be u-!Ied, 3) lUbe sheet gasket is eJimina!ed.
Tubes an: ..........1>1e and can be cleaDed Wide. but il$ ourside cannot be "OCeS$ed iii< cleaning or repair and
h..... 10be cleaned using cbemicals. Tberefon:, it is pn:fem:d 10 pll nco-fouli"@ fluid 81 sbdI side. For the AIIlC
......... for fixed tube sheet design. it is pre(erred 10 put DOIlIXIUOSi"" Ouid at sIleD side. Other disadvantage is
lbat i.may require apansioo joint, if the lhennaI "",pansion difference bclweeo $beD and tube side is latae.

TEMA 'C' front end bead uses remo"abletube bundle. lIS rube sheet is weIded to tube dJamJeL lIS tube inside
and outside, and shell inside can be accessed (or cleaning.

Tube sheet mclallllUSl be selee1ed,.. lh8I it is suitable 1il<ci1ha lUbe or!beU side Ouid.lflhis meuI can IlOl be
'0
found. • bimclallic tube sheet bas be used. ooe side suitable for shell side Ouid and the other side suitabl. iii<
lUbe side fluid. If!he meuI is too exp ... sh .... clodding may be required 10 reduce !he COSL

Minimum tube sheet tbictocss is provided by TEMA. For TEMA class R. its thid:nrss less the COi.""'"
ail""....., should 001 be less than the lUbe outside diam<Ier. Chcdt TEMA SWxIards for mare infCll1DMioo. PI
2. Tubes: Tubes with Yo" and I" oul$ide diameter an: the most commonly used tubes. Tubes are usually
specified by tube outside diameter. tube thickness, and tube length. Typical tube thic:Imess for carbon steel and
stainless steel are listed inTable 3. Most shell and tube heal exchangers use bere .ubes. Occasionally. fin Niles
are used.

Tubes should be thick enough 10 stand operating pressure and corrosion, Most tube can standhigh pressure. For
example., a Yo" <IIlbon sted tube with 0.083" thickness (BWG 14) (below SOO oF) can stand 2320 psig inremal
pressure and lOIS psig external pressure. 'l'lIcftfOR, tube thickness seloctioo is usually basedon cost, conosioo
resi_ and standard, not pressure. Tube thickness is usually "';fied by minimum thiokness or ........
thidaJess. Toleran ee for minimum thicbIcss requires aD tubes 800..., its -w.J Ihidness and mu:imum
thickncs is limited to 18 to 22%1arger thaD !he DOminalthictness. Tolerance lil<a\~ thicknessrcquin:s aU
lUbes ,.ithin ± 8 to 10% of its -w.J thiclaxss. [2J

U·tubes are tbinncr at llIdius bends. TbererOR, it needs 10 be dJecked 10see ",ilctbcr it is able 10stand the
operating pressure and corrosion. TEMA specifics th8I such thinnin8 should not exceed 11% of tube wall
thickncss and limits flat1ming at !he bend to 10% of tube outsidediam .. cr. IlJ

For. fixed diameter shell, using strIaIlcr and longer tubes will provide more beat trMsfcr area. Ho"'CVCf. tube
length is limi1cd by plOI plan, mop limitatioo, and dilliadties ofhandJin8- For removable tube bundle., a space
cquallO!he bundle length bas 10be raerved for its """1(""1. In aeneraI. the upper limit oftube length for
removable tube bundle is JO It. and for f",ed tube sheet unit. it is SO It. [2J

79
Tube pitch is the distance between the centers of 1\\'0 tubes. TEMA specifies that the ratio of tube pitch to its
outside diameter be at least 1.25, and for fouling service, the gap between 1\\'0 tubes be at least 0.25 inch to be
accessed by mechanical means. Typical tube pitches are shown in Table 3, also.

Figure 5 shows four different tube pitch layouts. 30 degree pitch is also called triangular pitch and 60 degree
pitch is also called rotated triangular pitch, 90 degree pitch is also called square pitch and 45 degree pitch is also
called rotated square pitch. The advantage of using square or rotated square pitch is tube outside surface can be
cleaned using mechanical device, Therefore, triangular or rotated triangular pitch layout should be used for
clean service and square and rotated square pitch layout can be used for fouling service, If flow is in laminar
region, 30 and 45 degree pitches arc preferred choices, because it will cause more flow disturbancc:s than the 60
or 90 degree pitch arrangement,

(flowdiractionJ ~

(1) (2) m (4)

Figure 5 Four tube pitch layouts: (I) triangular pitch, (2) rotated triangular pitch, (3) square pitch, (4) rotated
square pitch.

3. Tube end joints: Each tube end is inserted into a hole drilled in tube sheet. The most common scaling method
berween the tube end and tube sheet is to use a roller. Usually, grooves are provided at the hole of tube sheet.
Each groove is about 1/8" wide and 1/64" depth. A roller is used to expand the tube into the grooves and to
fonn a seal between a tube and its tube sheet, see Figure 6. For tube sheet thickness greater than I inch, TEMA
requires at least two grooves to be provided for each tube end joint Otherwise one groove is adequate. [2J

,,. .... f$ L.- T.. ~. >~.. t

A
j
....,. _!
T""e

L-..~
Figure 6 A tube end joint at tube sheet

A roller expanded joint may stand up to 3625 psig shop hydrostatic test pressure. However, this does not
guarantee the joint can stand the field applications. Iftube end to tube sheet joint is required to be welded to
prevent leakage only. this kind of welding is seal welding. lfthe welding is required to carry the longitudinal
tube loads, a better tube end welding (strength welding) is required. See TEMA Standards for details. Strength
welding is usually specified for amine and sour acid gas service (with I:I2S).

4. Tube pass: Tube pass is a tool for heat exchanger designer to oontrol the tube side velocity, pressure drop,
and heat transfer. Each time tube side fluid flows from one head to the other is counted as one pass. For
countercurrent flow heat exchanger, it has one tube pass and one shell pass. Iftube side flow is low or there is
enough allowable tube side pressure drop, tube pass should be increased to increase rube side velocity and heat
transfer. For tube pass more than one. partition plates are required at inlet and outlet heads to direct the tube side
fluid flow.

80
5. Bames: Baffles are installed perpendicular at tube bundle to I) control the shell side fluid velocity (also the
shell side heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop), 2) prevent tube failure due to the flow induced tube
vibration, and 3) support the tubes to avoid sagging. There are two types of baffles: plate type and rod type. We
will discuss plate type baflle only in this chapter.

The plate type baffles are made from a circular plate. Part of it is cut away. This cut away portion is called
baffie window. It is used for shell side fluid to flow through it. Baffle window's chord height is called baffle
cut. It is measured in term of percentage of shell inside diameter. There are three commonly used plate type
baffles, see Figure 7. They are single segmental, double segmental, and triple segmental baffles. Single and
double segmental baffles are the most commonly used baffles. Shell side fluid upstream of a baffle is flowing
perpendicularly across the tube bundle. This is cross flow. Above baffle, shell side flow is flowing parallel to
the tube bundle. This is window flow. Cross flow is more efficient than the window flow in terms of heat
transfer.

heW.". cut -'Ic8I ~ cut

(a) single segmental baffle .

• ~B
(b) double segmental baffie.
-B-
I! -B- B&
(c) triple segmental baffle.
~~
Figure 7 Three commonly used plate type baffles. (3)

Heat exchanger design should start with single segmental baffles. Then, baffle spacing and baffie cut should be
decided. The distance between two baffle plates is called baffle spacing or pitch. It is a design parameter more
critical than baffle cut A smaJler baffle spacing will cause less cross flow (less heat transfer) and higher shell
side pressure drop. A larger baffle spacing will cause more window flow (less heat transfer) and flow induced
vibration (more unsupported tube).

TEMA recommends minimum baffle spacing be 1/5 of shell side inside diameter or 2 inches whichever is
larger. For maximum baffle spacing, for various carbon steel (up to 750°F), stainless steel (up to 750°F), and
low alloy tubes (up to 850°F), see Table 4. [3J In practical practice, it is recommended to use baffle spacing not
less than 30% of shell inside diameter, and not larger than the shell inside diameter. (9)
.
Table 4 Maximum baffle : 13J
Tube 00. inch Maximum baffle spacing. inch
0.625 52
0.750 60
1.000 74
1.250 88
81
Baffle CUIcan range from 15 to 45%. If baffle cut is too small, shell side ffuid will be ajet flow tbrougb tbe
window, causing recirculation aI tube bundle, and less heal ttansfer.Ifbaffle cut is too latge, shell side will
bypass part of tube bundle and cause less heal ttansfer. In pnICtieaI Jftdice, it is recommended to use baffle cut
aI ZO"I10 1035% of shell inside diamder. (9) 1bere must always be some overlap of tbe edges of adjacent baffles.
[2) Ifshell side pressure drop is latger than allowable PI='"' drop, tty double segmental baffle or divided flow
shell (fEMA 1) or cross flow shell (fEMA X). [8J

For a borizontal beat exchanger, baffle CUIcan be borizontal or vertical. Horizontal baffle cut is usually used for
clean single phase fluid. For dirty, condensing, Or vaporizing Ouid, vertical baffle CUIis better, since it will not
nap dirts Or liquid bebind tbe baffle piaies,

During design stage, designer will install tubes through baffle window 8lC3S, so that a smaller shell can be used.
However, sometimes Ibis design "illcause vibration problems. To avoid Ibis problem anotber design called '00
tubes in window' is used, whicb allow no tubes be instaJIed in tbe baffle windows. This design will reduce tube
vibration problem. but a huger sheD is required.

Support type baffle plate is mainly used to support tubes. If shell side beat transfer coefficient is DOt affected by
shell side fluid velocity, regular baffle pla~ 8IC not required and support type baffle pi.,. can be used. Support
type baffle plate is usually a circular pl81Cwilbow baffle cuts,

Clearance is required between eacb tube and its corresponding bole at baffle plate. Clearance is also required
between baffle plates and shell inside wall. Both required clearances are specified in TEMA. 1be clearance
between tube and baffle bole varies from 1132=to 1164", and the clearance between baffle and shell ...-all varies
from 0.125" 10 0.438". Sometimes, a smallcrclearanoe is r<quired to incn:asiog heal transfer efficiency or to
reduce tube vibration, but it will cost more 10 fabrieaIC tbe unit, [2, 3J

6. Impingement plate: If sbell side fluid enters tbe unit with high velocity or it contains solid or liquid particles,
it may damage tbe tubes under tbe inlet nozzle. Under tbese situations, an impingement pl81Cis required 10
protect the tubes, TEMA provides a guideline 10 cbec:k when an impingement plate is required in terms of the
produet of Ouid density (Ib1ft3) and its inlet nozzle velocity in square (ft2lsecZ).

Under following conditions, an impingement pl81Cis required: (JJ

I) For noncorrosive single phase fluid, if density-velocity square is greaer than 1500.
2) For cosrosive liquid, boiling liquid, or slurry. if density-velocil)' square is greater than 500.
3) Any corrosive vapor or two phase fluid.

hnpingemcnt plate is usually a flat or curved pl81C.It is about 1"" thick and sIigbt1y Iargcr than the inlet nozzle.
It is installed under the inlet l102ZIe abow ooe founb of tbe nozzle diameter, so that flo",ins area is about the
same as tbe inlet nozzle.

InstaIJ an impingement plate will remove some space inside lbe sheD. Tberefore, alatger sheD will be required.
Other options to avoid damage tubes under inlet nozzle are to instaJI impingement plate outside tbe shell using a
dome Or to use a box to introduce the Ouid into tbe sheD instead of a nozzle, but the most cases, impingement
plate is installed under the inlet nozzle.

7. Tie rods and spacers: Tie rods are circuJarmdai rods. They are used to bold tbe baffle plates. One end of the
rod is screwed inlO the tube sheet and tbe other end ends aI tbe last baffle plate by a lock nuL Between baffles, a
spacer, which is a tube or pipe, is fined On tbe tie rod to keep baffles at the CO<reCt distanoe. The length of eacb
spacer except the one close to tube sheet is of the same lengIb as bafIle spacing.
8. Expansion joint; For bear exchangers with fixed tube sheets, if tube and shell side fluid temperatures are far
apart, thennaI expansion of shell and tubes "ill be different, 1f1he temperature difference is greater than 200 OF,
usually expansion joint is required at shell to avoid tube joints at tube sheet becomes loose.

9. Auxiliary nozzles: Sometimes a vent and a drain nozzles are insfaIJed on a heat exchanger's channel and sbell
for its shutdown service. A pressure nozzle or coupling (3/4") may be installed at its tube and shell side inlet
and outlet nozzles for measuring pressure drop during operation. Likewise a tbennalwell nozzle (1.5") may be
installed at its tube and sbell side inlet and outlet nozzles to check the unit's beat transfer. To carry out cleaning,
a chemical cleaning nozzle (1.5") may be installed 00 its tube side aodfor shell side inIet10utlel nozzles. AU
above mentioned nozzles can also be installed on associated piping instead on nozzles. Actual nozzle size varies
wilh projec1-

10. lnIetfoutlet nozzles: TEMA Standards require !he product of fluid density (Ibfft3) and its nozzle velocity in
square (ft2/sec2) at shell side inlet Or outlet nozzle be less than 4000, and lUbe side inlet or outlet nozzle be less
than 6000 to avoid erosion. (3]

llI.2.2.5 The inefficiency:
will affect tbe performance
beat transfer (inefficiency),
baffles, and lbrougb baffle
minimized.
Selection ofbeat exchanger type, tube pitch. tube pass, baffle spacing, and baffle cut
of a beat exchanger. Tube bypass, fluid leakage, or fluid recirculation will cause less
and should be minimized, Identified fluid leakages are leakage tbru tube boles in
and shell. The latter leakage will not coooibute any beat exchange, and it should be

ill.2.26 Selection: A selection guide among various types of shell and tube beat exchanger for a particular
service is provided inTable 5.

ill.2.2.7 Shell and tube beat exchanger design Or rating: It is better to use a computer software, such as HTRI.

Table 5 Shell and tube beat exchanger selection guide' [5]

F10atiDl Heed Pto.tiDar-
1'Jpe 01 Dooip "U"1'cobe FiudTubllbe!t
Oatotcle hckecl Sp6tllae ...... I'Ioafuoc
PuJI·~ -
l!.iDc B1I.adIe
PnMsIon for difffrtn·
tiaI expansjon
indMduaJ IUbH
liftto_nd
expanrion joint.
iomen
Iloa_ .... d IIoatinghead IIoatlnghoad
Rt_ ..ablo bund:Io ...
) 00 yes )res yt$
Rt~_t bundI< ...
) not practieaJ Y" yes YH
~:uaJ.ubes only~jn ,... y.. yeo )...
-- ,.,..
re acable oowdel'O'i"
yes. )res,
Tb.be lnteriors
difficult to do
IDfICbanQUy. can lDf<ha.rocallyor _bankally ... Y'"
mecbarucal1y or mechanically OT
do cbomically cbomically cbemically dlemi<alJy cbe-mkaD)·
Tube exterior's \\1lh
lr1angu1ar pI.<b memically only chemically only cbeau--ca1ly only dlemieal!r only chemicaUyonly
cleanable
Tube exteriors ....
, th yeo. yM. r<"> yeo.
square p!Uh dean- mecb&Dkally or cbemkally only m«!wUcaUyor med>.ankally or mechanicaUy OT
able dIemk3JJ)' dwmitally cbemK2U$ <htmxally

......
Kumberor1.ube

fnttmal gaskets
any pratUc:a.J even
nUJllbe.r possible
normaUyoo
limitations
oonnally no
hmuatioGS
norttl3II<no
lilDltada.ll!
oornuny no
ueueuees
~1tm1nated
yes Y" }l!S no no

83
ill.2.3 Air cooler

Like shell and tube heal exchanger, air cooler is a common beat exchanger. It is mainly used as a cooler or a
condenser using air as cooling medium. Heal transfer in air cooler is cross flow type. since air and process fluid
flow perpendicular to each other. Due to low beat transfer coefficient of air, most air cooler using fin tubes to
increase heat transfer area. Most of air coolers are installed on pipe rack, so thai air can flow to them easily
without any obstruction. Some are installed at ground level. Usually, air cooler is used to cool down a stream 10
130 to ISO· F. Then. a shell and tube heat exchanger using cooling water is used to do the rest of the cooling.
The breakup temperature can be calculated by an optimum cost analysis. For area where water is scarce, air
cooler will be the only choice.

Basically, there are two types of air cooler according to tube bundle location relative to air fan in the unit For
forced draft air cooler, tube bundles are located at the discharge side of air fans. For induced draft air cooler,
tube bundles are located at suction side of air fans. See Figure 8 for the difference of these two types of air
cooler. Most air coolers are of forced draft type.

N"- •••
:::at'> " .:'::.:t-.. .: i,
-U!le
Secbon i~f\
. tfle J

ForcGddraft Induced draft

Figure 8 Two major air cooler types and their components. (7]

The advantages of forced draft air cooler are: I) tube bundle is easier to be removed for service, 2) fan and
motor are easier to be installed and accessible for maintenance, 3) easier for warm air recirculation for cold
climate service, 4) use slightly less horsepower, since air to fan is cooler. Its disadvantages are: I) poorer air
distribution over tube bundle, 2) top of tube bundle is exposed to ambient weather, 3) bottom of tube bundle is
bard to reach for cleaning, 4) more chance for hot exit air recirculation, due to lower exit air velocity and no
stack, 5) less cooling in case fans are failed due to low natural draft.

The advantages of induced draft air cooler are: 1) air distribution over tube bundle is more evenly, 2) tube
bundle is not directly exposed to ambient weather, 3) bottom of tube bundle are accessible for cleaning, 4) less
chance for hot exit air recirculation, due to higher exit air velocity and available of stack, 5) more cooling in
case fans are failed due to higher natural draft. Its disadvantages are: I) tube bundle is difficult to be removed
for service, 2) temperature limitation of exit air to avoid damage fan assembly, 3) loog shaft required 10 connect
fan to motor, 4) fan horsepower consumption are slightly higher due to hotter air to fan, 5) fan is difficult to
access for service due to high elevation and hot air.

Most air coolers are horizontal. But some are vertical or A-fiame to save space, see Figure 9. Vertical air cooler
is ideal for offshore platform usage, but crosswind may hamper its performance. A-fiame air cooler is used
exclusively in power plants to condensed turbine exhaust steam.

84
(a)
Figure 9 Two other air cooler configurations: (a) vertical, (b) A-frame.
(b)
..
,,__--=-__.\
fwI .... mbIy

Typically, the installed cost of an air cooler is about three times of an equivalent shell and tube heat exchanger,
but it has lower operating and maintenance cost. It is the only choice in areas where cooling water is not
available.

I1I.2.3.1 Components of air cooler

I. Tube bundle: This is the heart of an air cooler. Process fluid flows through it and is cooled down there. It
mainly consists of tubes and two headers (one at each end). Figure 10 shows tube bundles with two different
header box design, plug header box and header box with removable cover plate. A bay consists of one or more
tube bundles with one or more fan assemblies, one plenum, and structure. An air cooler consists of one or more
bays. A typical plain view of forced draft air coolers are shown in Figure II. [7]

I ~,Iwt 1 5t~f'r I~ r... ,,-<

I. Pl...6!,t~.t ~ Phe u \~:
oJ no,..t:'d bolot .... ,:,,," .. ~ ... or....
4 .!hc:f'4I'" h' ~.".... tl. II»~' ~MC'1IC1b
, T\bt II 1'\ibo1'pllftf'

Figure 10 Air cooler tube bundle and two types of header box design - (a) plug header, (b) (removable) cover
plate header. [7]

85
 ~
.. tm~
r-!;."""l
·...810·
~-'.' .... ;',..~
... .:'. .: '.
..... .~

I' m-=~
--, · , - .
. ...
.L .·
..
·
·.
..,
.. ..
'
. ·,.
, ~ · . ~.
1 - ·

....~:::.c..~ Figure II A typical plain view of forced draft air coolers. [7]

The design pressure of the tube bundle is 10".4over inlet pressure or 25 psi above inlet pressure whichever is
greater. The design tempenItW'e is 50"F above the highest operating temperature, or it can be the highest
allowable mew stress temperature or flange temperarure at the design pressure, whichever is the smallest.
Tubes (lDSide)are usually to be cleaned using steam. On the air cooler da!a sheet, this steam out condition
should be mentioned, and vendor should design the tube bundle to stand this condition.

Corrosion allowance depends on tbe process fluid. It is applicable to all Slrrfaa-s of tube bundle exposed to
process fluid, except tubes. Fouling factor also depends on the process fluid and flow velocity through the tubes.

Air cooler for single pass condensing service is required to slop the tube bundle at 1/8 iocbIfOOlto let
condensate moving to downstteam header box. For multiple pass condensing service or single phase service,
sloping is not required.

Sometimes it is economic to put several cooling services with small cooling duties in the same bay, each service
using a different tube bundle.

1.1 Tubes: MOSItubes used in air cooler are finned tubes. Most fins are made of aluminum due to its high
tbermal conductivity, low cost, and good mechanical strength. However, ifenvironment is corrosive 10
aluminum, such as ofIsbore service, galvanized carbon steel fin ...iII be a better choice. Bare rubes are also used
for air coolers. They are mainly used for high temperature service or fluid ....ith high viscosity. Tube length
I1IIIgesfrom 6 ft to SO ft. Use longer tubes are usually more economic.

There are several differem fin tubes available according to the ways fins attached 10 lUbe.
(I) Footed fin tubes: L-sbape fin is tension wrapped on tube, see Figure 12a.There ate two types. One oftbem,
the foot of fin isnot overlapped, and the other the fOOlof fin is overlapped. Fin, at each end of tube, is secured
by a collar. These finned tubes are limited to temperature of 450°F or less [II]. Higher temperature will cause
the aluminum fin loose from the tube due to its higher thermal expansion. FOOledfinned tubes are the least
expensi ve ones.
(2) Extruded fin tubes: Fins are extruded from a thick aluminum outer tube and mechanically bonded to an inner
tube, see Figure 12b.lt is good for temperature UP 10 600"F [II).
(3) Embedded fin tubes: FlDSare tension wrapped into a groove (0.01 inch deep) on tube, see Figure 12c. For
this type of fin tube, tube thickness need to be increased 10 provide for the groove. It can stand temperature UP
to 75O"F[II J.
(4) Welded or soldered fin tubes: FlDSare welded or soldered 10 lUbe. This type of fin tubes are usually used for
high temperature service (>SOO°F).FIDSare usually made of steel O£ stainless steel, not aluminum.
86
(5) Hot dip galvanized fin tubes: Fins are bonded to tube by hot-dip galvanizing. It is covered by a uniform
metal coat. This type of fin tube is a good choice for corrosive environment. It is good for temperature up to
250°F [II).

(a) L-fOOled, double L-fooced,

Figure 12 Various types of lin tube.
llllll
(c) embedded, (d)weldecL

The majority of finned tube has outside diameter from 0.75 to 2", fins from 7 to II fins per inch, and lin height
from 0.25» to. 0.75». However, the most common used one is I» OD, 9 to II fins per inch, and fin height of
5/8". Minimum fin thickness is 0.014" for lin height less than 0.5" Dr 0.016" for lin height more than 0.5". Tube
wall thickness of most carbon steel or low alloy steel tubes is 0.083". For stainless steel Dr nonferrous tubes,
most wall thickness is 0.065» and for titanium tubes, wall thickness 0.04~ is used.

1.2 Header Dr header box: There are two headers in a tube bundle. The front header is used to. introduce process
fluid into and leaving the cooler (for even tube pass unit). Both front and rear headers are used to.direct fluid to
the next tube pass using a partition plate. For odd pass tube bundle, rear header is used to direct fluid leaving the
unit.

Basically, there are two. types of header box design. One is header box with plugs, see Figure lOa. This type
header box design is the most common one. It used for low to. moderately high pressure service. Plugs are
provided at cover plate, one for each tube, so that they can be removed to. clean the tubes. The other header box
is with removable cover plate, see Figure lOb. It is used for fouling service and low to medium pressure «300
psig) service. For high pressure (>10,000 psig) service, pipe manifold will be used as air cooler's inlet and
outlet headers. [12]

1.3 Tube sheet Like the tube sheet in shell and tube heat exchanger, tube sheet for air cooler is used to.separate
process fluid from air and to. install the tubes.

Tube and tube sheet joint is provided by either using a roller Dr by welding. Roller is used to expand tube into.
the grooves at the hole on tube sheet. Each groove is about 1/8» wide and 1/64" deep. For tube sheet less than
I"thick, one groove is required. Fer tube sheet I"or thicker, two grooves are required. Welding is required for
the tube to tube sheet joint, if process fluid leakage is prohibited.

Layout of tubes is usually triangular, since it will provide more tubes per available area.

Thermal expansion of tubes should be checked to. make sure tube and tube sheet joint can stand the expansion,
In general, ifprocess fluid cooling tempernture difference is larger than 2OO"F, Ll-tube, split header, o.rother
means may be required to. relief the thermal expansion.

1.4 Supporting steel structure

Supporting steel structure is used to. house the header boxes and the tube bundles. API 661 recommends tubes to.
be supported at interval of6 feet or less to avoid sagging and meshing of fins. [6]

87
1.5 Others:

Vent and drain connections are usually provided at top and bottom ofbeader box. Pressure or temperature
instrument connections are usually provided at inlet and outlet oozz1es.

2. Fan assembly: It includes fan, motor, and associated driving device sucb as belt or gear, see Figure 8.

Air cooler is designed to operate at warm summer air temperature. When air temperature is cooler than the
design air temperature, process fluid will be overeooled, which may be undesirable. One Wlly to solve this
problem is to reduce the air flow through the air cooler. This can be done by using multiple funs at the unit, 2-
speed or variable speed motor, louver, or variable pitcb fans. Air flow can be reduced by tum off some fans.
manual or automatic control of motor speed, change louver air inlet shutter position, or fan pitch.

Using multiple funs at an air cooler also provides some flexibility in operation, since if one fan is failed, others
are still on to minimize the lost of cooling. Many units use one set of fans at fixed speed and the other SCI of
fans at variable speed 10 reduce the cost, but still have flexibility in operation. For variable speed fan, operated
at low speed will reduce the power consumption.

Besides motor, sometimes steam turbine or other hydraulic driver will be used to drive the fan. Like variable
speed motor, if it is operated at low speed, steam consumption is less.

3. Plenum: There are two types of plenum, box or transitioe type, for either forced draft or induced draft air
cooler, see Figure 8.

4. Louver: Louver is used to control the amount of air entering the tube bundle. It is also can be used to control
the inlet air temperature and air flow to the tube bundle to provide a better process outlet temperature control.
This kind control is necessary for some product has high pour or freeze point and at place weather can be very
cold. Air recirculation is usually used to control the process outlet temperature. Two widely used systems,
internal and external air recirculation, are shown in Figure 13a/13b.

r--~
-_.
, ,------,
- ~
,l,.......A
• I'
'*lOr tIr ... ..,

./-- -"
- ....
,,
.............
...,
"\_;::;.

I
I
,
!
/~-
Coo_
• "
--"--
t~~P«I\1

~OC:~T~ -", Col

I
{
.... f-

--
-'
'-_
••
, r--
0 __ 0
If1..--
I~
-
_,J
- I- ../ <, i
-"'""'-
-.~.N"'"
(a) Internal recirculation design
,
;'
.
(b) External recirculation design
Figure 13 Air cooler with internal and external recirculation design.
ibg"""'~.~~

For intemaI air recirculation system, the manual fan moves the air through the half portion oftbe tube bundle.
The auto-variable pitch fan operating in reverse mode will draw the bot exit air from the upper rccircuIation
88
chamber to the lower recirculation skirt to mix with the fresh cold air from outside. The air flow through the top
louver is controlled by the process outlet temperature controller.

For external air recirculation system, addition louvers are added to control fresh cold air flow and warm
recirculation air. Air inlet temperature is controlled by the louver for the fresh cold air. Air flow through top
louver is still controlled by the process outlet temperature controller. External air recirculation system will
provide better process outlet temperature control, but it is more expensive.

Some air coolers don't have louver.

Il1.2.3.2 Piping to air cooler: Piping manifold is used to distribute process fluid to different tube bundles. Its
design may lead to different amount of process fluid entering each tube bundle. This maldistribution of process
flow will cause different cooling at each tube bundle and reduction in performance. In general, the problem is
more serious in condensing service than in single phase cooling.

The recommended inlet and outlet manifold for single phase cooling and condensing service (two phases) is
shown in Figure 14. For single phase cooling, pressure drop through manifold is little compare to pressure drop
through tube bundle, therefore, less complicated manifold, such as Figure 1480is acceptable. For condensing
service, symmetric piping manifold, such as Figure 14b, should be used to ensure even fluid flow to each tube
bundle.

For tube bundle width greater than 3 it, it is suggested that using two inlet nozzles at the header box to provide
better inlet distribution. For tube bundle width greater than 8 ft or operating pressure less than 40 psig, consider
using three inlet nozzles at the header box.

-
-
-
Iubo

(a) single phase cooling -

(b) condensing
Figure 14 Recommended inlet and outlet manifold for air cooler: (a) single phase cooling, (b) condensing.

m.2.3 ..3 Environment: Although the design air temperature can be determined from ambient temperature
record, but it is important to I) watch out the prevailing wind direction during summer and the
equipment/building around the air cooler to make sure exit hot air will not be recirculated back into the fan
inlet, and 2) keep the air cooler away from hot equipment.

III.2.3.4 Air cooler design or rating: It is better to use a computer software, such as HTRI.

89
Nomenclatures:

A total heat transfer area,ft2.

Ac Required heat transfer area for clean service, ft2.
Ad Required heat transfer area for dirty service, ft2.
Cp fluid heat capacity, btu/lb-°F.
d tube diameter, inch.
dps shell side pressure drop, psi.
dpt tube side pressure drop, psi.
dTI the larger temperature difference of (Tl-tl ) and (T2-t2), OF.
dT2 the smaller temperature difference of (Tl-tl) and (T2-t2), of.
F LMTD correction factor.
G mass flux, Iblhr-ft2.
hi tube inside heat transfer coefficient, btu/hr-ft2_oF.
ho tube outside heat transfer coefficient, btu/hr-ft2_oF.
kt tube thermal conductivity, btu/hr-ft-Pf'.
k fluid thermal conductivity, btu/hr-ft-T.
L tube length, ft.
LMTD logarithm mean temperature difference, OF.
N tube passes.
Q heat exchanger duty, btu/hr.
RC number of tube rows crossed.
ri tube inside radius, inch.
ro tube outside radius, inch.
Rf total fouling factor or resistance, hr-ft2- °Flbtu.
Rfi tube inside fouling factor or resistance, hr-ft2- °Flbtu.
Rfo tube outside fouling factor or resistance, hr-ft2- °Flbtu.
SP number of baffle spaces.
tl cold fluid inlet temperature, OF.
t2 cold fluid outlet temperature, OF.
TI hot fluid inlet temperature, OF.
1'2 hot fluid outlet temperature, of.
U overall heat transfer coefficient, btu/hr-ft2_oF.
Uc overall heat transfer coefficient for clean service, btulhr-ft2_oF.
Uf overall heat transfer coefficient for dirty service, btulhr-ft2_oF.
W fluid flow rate, lblhr.
p fluid density, Ib/ft3.
J.1 fluid viscosity, cp.
J.1w fluid viscosity at tube wall temperature, cp.

Subscript:
c cold fluid
h hot fluid.

90
References:

1. How to size and select your heat exchanger, Bas Tex Corporation (Koch Heat Transfer Company).
2. Hemisphere Handbook of Heat Exchanger Design, G. F. Hewitt, Coordinating Editor, 1990.
3. Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 8th edition, 1999; 9th edition, 2007.
4. Yuba shell and tube exchantfers technical manual, October, 1990.
5. Engineering Data Book, 12 edition, 2004, Section 9, Heat Exchangers, Gas Processors Suppliers
Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
6. API Standard 661, Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Services, 4th edition, November 1997.
7. Engineering Data Book, iz" edition, 2004, Section 10, Air Cooled-Exchangers, Gas Processors Suppliers
Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
8. G. P. Purohit, Thermal and hydraulic design of hairpin and finned-bundle exchangers, Chemical Engineering,
May 16, 1983, pp. 62-70.
9. R. Mukherjee, Don't let baffling baftle you, Chemical Engineering Progress, Apri11996, pp. 72-79.
10. R Mukherjee, Avoid operating problems in air-cooled heat exchangers, Hydrocarbon Processing, March
1997, pp. 69-76.
11. W. J. Baker, Selecting and specifying air-cooled heat exchangers, Hydrocarbon Processing, March 1980, pp.
173-175.
12. GEA Rainey Corporation's brochure: Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for Process and Power Industries, 2007.
13. R Mukherjee, Effectively design shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Chemical Engineering Progress, Feb.
1998, pp. 21-37.

91
Chapter 5 Vessel
Y.Introduction

Vessel is a common process equipment in plant, It is usually used (1) as a liquid surge drum for liquid storage,
(2) as a vapor/liquid separator to separate vaporlliquid mixture to vapor and liquid streams, (3) as a liquid/liquid
separator to separate liquidlliquid mixture to light liquid and heavy liquid streams, (4) as a distillation column
with installed packing beds or trays for fractionation, (5) as a reactor with installed catalyst beds for chemical
reactions, (6) as a filter with installed filter media for filtration, or (7) as a dryer with installed drying media to
dry vapor or liquid stream. In this chapter, we will mainly discuss the vessel sizing of the first three
applications.

II.Vessel Process Speci fication

In general, it is process engineer's responsibility to specify process requirement of a vessel on a data sheet, With
the vessel process specification, a vendor is able to design or select a vessel to fit the need. Providing the vessel
process specification is the first step to purchase a new vessel or to rate an existing vessel.

Following process information are usually provided 00 a vessel data sheet;

(I) Vessel size: vessel inside diameter, and vessel length (from seam to seam or from tangent line to tangent
line). Both dimensions are in inch Or in feet and inch. Usually, process engineer will size the vessel based 00
process stream's flow rate and physical properties. Ifa vendor is asked to size a new vessel or to rate an existing
vessel, process engineer has to provide the required information to the vendor.
(2) Vessel's normal operating and design conditions: They are temperature (in "F) and pressure (in psig).
(3) Vessel nozzles: Provide a list of vessel nozzles and following information for each nozzle: number of nozzle
required, nozzle size in inch, nozzle flange rating and type of facing, and a description of its service.
(4) Vessel internals: Specify required vessel internals, whether they are removable or DOt, and their dimension.
(5) Material of construction: Specify the material to be used to fabricate the vessel and its internals.
(6) Corrosion allowance: Specify the corrosion allowance for vessel and its internals.
(7) Vessel sketch: To show the vessel dimension, vessel's position (vertical or horizontal), and
location/dimension of the intemals.
(8) Insulation: Insulation type and thickness.
(9) Stress relief requirement,
(10) Others: Project vessel specifications, site conditions, any hazardous nature of the process fluid in vessel,
steam out condition, minimum design metal temperature (MDMI), which is the minimum ambient ternperature
in most cases, etc.

Vendor or vessel engineer will fill in mechanical details of the vessel on the data sheet

III. The Basic Features of Vessel

III.I Vessel code

Most vessels are cylindrical, either vertical or horizontal. Vessel head is usually 2 to I ellipsoidal bead. For high
pressure service, hemispherical bead is used. In USA, vessel greater 15 psig design pressure is usually built per
ASME Section VIII, division I (most eases, up to 3,000 psig) or division II (for reduced wall thickness, up to
10,000 psig). In general, vertical vessel uses small plot plan and borizontal vessel needs more space. A long
vessel is made of several sections. The length limitation of each vessel section is about 10 ft due to the
limitation of rolling machine for the vessel plate.

92
m.2 Vessel nozzles

Most vessel has foUowing nozzles: inlet oozzles 10 let each feed enter the vessel; outlet nozzles to let each
prodecr leave the vessel; vent for depressurizing the \...... 1or 10provide ventilation during maintenance; drain
to drain liquid from the vessel; maD"'''Y for personnel to erner the vessel for inspection or to install inlernals;
instrument nozzles for install instruments such as temperature gauge, ptCSSUIC ~e, level instruments, and
level bridles; pressure relief valve nozzle for connecting pressure relief valve inlet piping; steam om nozzle for
steam om the \'CSSCI;other process nozzles as needed. Process oozzle size is usnally the same size as the
connecting piping.

lll3 Vessel internals

Most vessel internals used for vapor and liquid separation are: I) inlet divcrtcr -It is used for primary
separation of vapor and liquid in feed due to their difference inmomenrum. 2) mist extractor -It is used to
further remove fine liquid droplets from vapor. 3) vortex bleaker -It is used to prevent vapor be drawn into the
outlet liquid. It should be provided, if liquid is fed to • pump to avoid malfunction of pump. 4) overllow baf!le
plate (weir) - It is used to separate light and hca.y liquid compar1mCDts in a vaporJliquidJljquid separator
(thrce-phasc separator). Some thrce-phasc separator is designed witbout over:flow weir and retied on control
interface level 10 separate the light and beavy liquid streams.

lnlet diverter has many different designs. Consult vessel maoufacttm:r or mechanical engin<xr for proper
choice. For feed has little or no vapor, sometimes pipe size inlet diSlnl>utor is used instead of inlet diverter. Slot
area of pipe inlet distributor is usually twice the inlet nozzle cross sectional area. Slot area is slightly above
normal liquid level (NLL) to let vapor exit. lflberc is 00 vapor in feed, slot area can be provided belowthc
NLL to avoid splash, or to loeate the feed oozzJe below NLL without using inlet distributor.

Some horizontal wellbead production separator or large separator has foUo,",;"g additional intemals: 5) wave
breaker - Itis usually installed downstream of inlet diverter about 6" above NLL and 6~ below LLL at 10 ft
intervals to prevent liquid waves. Wave bleaker is a metal plate with holes on it to let liquid flow Ibrougb. 6)
d...turbulator - It is usually installed downstream of inlet divertcr and wave bleaker about one vessel diameter
from vessel seam. II is used to eliminate any tutbuJenre in vapor, so lhalliquid droplets can be settled easily.
nL4 Vessel support

Vertical vessel is usually mounted on skirt or legs. Slcitt is a cylindrical metal pipe with skirt \'CIlIS and access
opening (for outlet piping). Horizontal vessel is usually mouoled on two coecrete blocks with saddles. Some
vessels with agitator are mounted On platfonn for stable operation. Some arc installed in an underground
concrete sump for environment reason. Lift lugs arc provided at a vessel, so that it can be lifted for installation.

nL5 Vessel corrosion allowance

Vessel material of construction and COITOSiooallowance (CA, in inch) is usually scleeted based on
recommendation from metallurgist, based ODservice, operating conditions, and expected service period. CA for
carbon steel is usually 1I8~, for aUoy is 1116"Orless. For c!added vessel, cladding is the CA for the vessel.

m.6 Vessel design pressure and temperamre

Depending on tbe operating pressure and tempe:ralllre, process engineer has to select a design pressure and
design temperature for each vessel. Usually, vessel design pressure (p, in psig) is 110% of the maximum
operating pressure or 25 psi above it, whichever is laJger. Vessel design temperature (T,in "F} isusually 5O"F
above maximwn operating temperature, or it can be the highest aUowable metal stress temperature or flange

93
temperature at the design pressure, whichever is the smallest (Consult a vessel engineer, if not sure.). If
maximum operating pressure and temperature are not occurred at the same time, two sets design
pressure/temperature should be listed for vessel engineer to evaluate which one is critical.

In.7 Vessel wall thickness

Based on the selected vessel design pressure (P) and temperature (T), vessel shell wall thickness (dts, in inch)
and head wall thickness (dth, in inch) can be calculated as follows:

dts= p. (120)1 [2 (S· E- 0.6 P)] + CA (Ia)

dth = P • (120) 1 [2 (S • E - 0.1 P») + CA (for ellipsoidal head) (I b)
dth == P • (120) 1 [4 (S • E - 0.1 P)] + CA (for hemispherical head) (1c)
D is vessel inside diameter, in ft; S is allowable metal stress, in psi; E is joint efficiency. For carbon steel,
allowable metal stress (S) is 20,000 psi for temperature up to 500°F.

ID.8 Vessel weight

Vessel shell weight (Ws, in Ibs) and vessel head weight (Wh, in lbs) can be calculated as follows:

Ws = PI • O· L· dtsll2· pm + weight of nozzles (ld)

Wh == 1.084· lY'2 • dthll2 • pm (for ellipsoidal head) (Ie)
Wh = PI 12 • lY'2 • dthll2 • pm (for hemispherical head) (If)
PI is a constant, equals to 3.1416; Lis vessel length, in feet; pm is metal density, in Iblft3. For steel, pm equals
488.4 Ib/ft3.

Total vessel weight (WT, in Ibs) without internals is the sum of vessel shell weight and head weight.

WT= Ws+2· Wh (lg)

Vessel cost is proportional to its weight.

IV. Vessel Sizing

Vessel sizing of liquid surge drum, vaporlliquid separator, and liquid/liquid separator will be discussed in this
section. Before doing vessel sizing, following process information should be collected first: feed design weight
flow rate (WF, in Ib/hr), vapor weight fraction in feed, vapor density (pV, in lblft3), liquid density (pL, in
lb/ft3), and vessel operating conditions - temperature (t, in OF)and pressure (p, in psig).

IV.I Sizing liquid surge drum

Examples of liquid surge drum are liquid feed surge drum and liquid product surge drum. Liquid surge drum
can be either vertical or horizontal, see Figure 1a and 1b. The drum is either operated under its liquid vapor
pressure or it is blanketed with inert gas and operated at certain controlled pressure, above the liquid vapor
pressure.

94
 IniII
.e..
~~::;:::;:::J
..L
(I : I I
I)
IIIMII In.. auIIIt
Figure Ia A typical vertical liquid surge drum. Figure Ib A typical horizontal liquid surge drum.

The key sizing parameter is liquid surge time or residence time (tr, in min). It is corresponding the liquid surge
volume from high liquid level (HLL) to low liquid level (LLL) based on design feed volumetric flow (QF, in
ft3/hr). Liquid surge time should be per project specification. If there is no project specification available, use
following guidelines for preliminary liquid surge time selection:

To a distillation column or heater 10 min

To a pump 5 min
To off-site tankage or other unit 3 min
These surge times are based on an experienced operator's response time to a process upset.

Allow 3 minute liquid surge time from LLL to low low liquid level (LLLL), and 3 minute surge time from HLL
to high high liquid level (HHLL). It is assumed that at HLL or LLL, liquid level alarm wiu be sounded to alert
the operator, and at HHLL or LLLL, the feed flow or liquid outlet flow will be stopped by an emergency
shutdown valve. HHLL and LLLL is user's option to have them or not.
The liquid surge volume (VL, in ft3) from HHLL to LLLL is assumed to be 80 to 90% of the total vessel
volume without considering vessel head volumes for conservative design. Following equations can be used to
size a vertical or horizontal surge drum:

VL = QF • (tr + 3 • a) 160 (2a)

&=2, if HHLL and LLLL needed; a=l, ifHHLL or LLLL needed; a=O, if there is no HHLL or LLLL.

AT a VL 1 (b • L) b=O.8 to 0.9 (2b)

0: 2 • (AT 1PI)1\ 0.5 (2c)
QF is liquid feed design volumetric flow rate, in ft3/hr; AT is drum cross sectional area, in ft2, L is vessel
length, in ft.

For a selected drum length (L), surge drum diameter (0) can be calculated from Eq. (2b) to (2c). It is suggested
to select a set of L, starting from 5 ft and with 5 it increment. Calculate the corresponding surge drum diameter
(0), and vessel weight. From this table, select a surge drum with the smallest vessel weight. Once the surge
drum size is selected, calculate and set the liquid levels and make sure the level instruments are able to measure
the HHLL and LLLL.

IV.2 Sizing vaporlliquid separator

Examples of vaporlliquid separator are (I) amine flash drum, where majority of inlet flow is liquid with very
little flashed vapor, (2) compressor suction knock out drum or fuel gas knock out drum, where the majority of
inlet flow is vapor with very little carryover liquid, (3) hot separator in hydrotreater, where considerable amount
of vapor and liquid are in the inlet flow. In general, vapor/liquid separator can be either vertical or horizontal.
95
However, compressor suction knock OUI drum or fuel gas knock out drum is always a vertical vessel, since less
plot area is required.

There are Iwo typeS of vaporJliquid separators according to the method used for vaporlliquid separation. The
first type uses gravity settling method to separate vapor and liquid flow in feed. The second type use mist
eliminator to achieve the separation. In general, the first type separator is larger in size, and il is usually is
designed 10 remove liquid droplet greater than 150 microns in vapor flow. The second type separator is more
efficient and smaller (cost less). It is able to move liquid droplets down to 10 microns or larger in vapor flow.

rv .2.1 Sizing vaporlliquid separator by gravity settling method

The key step for this method is to determine the minimum liquid droplet size to be removed from vapor flow.
Usually, this minimum liquid droplet size is 150 microns. The settling velocity (V5, in ft/sec) of this minimum
liquid droplet can be calculated by following equation:

vs = (4g· (3.281·10"-6·dp) *(pL-pV) / (3pV • C» "0.5

= 0.01186· (dp .(pL-pV) / (pV· C»
"0.5 (3a)

g is gravitational constant, equals to 32.174 ftlsec2; dp is liquid droplet diameter in micron; C is drag coefficient
of the liquid droplet. This equation is a general equation applicable to any size liquid droplets. It is derived
based on vertical upward vapor flow, balancing the gravity force and drag force on the liquid droplet, and
assuming the liquid droplet is a rigid sphere.

For 150 micron liquid droplets, drag coefficient (C) can be calculated by the Karamanev method, using
following equations [6 ).

Ar=2.517 (10"{-9»(dp"3)(pL-pv)pv/ (J.I"2) (3b)

C = (432 / Ar) (I + 0.047 (Ar"{2J3») + 0.5 17 / (I + 154 (Ar"{-IJ3») (3c)

Ar is Archimedes number, dimensionless; 11 is vapor viscosity, in cp,

Once drag coefficient (C) is known, liquid droplet settling velocity (vs) can be calculated using Eq. (3a), and
vessel size can be calculated as follows.

IV.2.Ja Sizing vertical gravity settling vapor/liquid separator

Vessel diameter (0) can be calculated as follow:

AT-QV/(3600·vs) (4a)
0-2 • (AT / PI)" 0.5 (4b)
QV is vapor design volumetric flow, in ftJ/hr.

A typical vertical gravity settling vaporJliquid separator is shown in Figure 2a. Vessel length can be estimated
per Figure 2a. Vessel liquid surge volume up to HHLL is calculated per Eq, (<Ie). HHLL height can be
calculated by dividing the liquid surge volume by the vessel cross sectional area (AT). It is up to design
engineer to decide whether the vessel head volume should be excluded from the liquid surge volume.
VL=QL·(tr+3·a)/60 (4c)
a~, ifHHLL and LLLL needed; a=I, ifHHLL or LLLL needed; a=O, if there is no HHLL or LLLL.
QL is liquid design volumetric flow, in ftJ/hr.

96
 0«24" ,...

~outIIt
VIIItIII
......
• -1nIIt...., 1engIII.
do -\II1II« 0UIIet noule diem, .. r,
Figure 2a A rypicaJ vertical vapor-liquid separator - Figure 2b A rypicaJ horizontal vapor-liquid separator -
by gravity settling method. by gravity settling method.

TV.2.1b Sizing horizontal gravity settling vaporlliquid separator

For horizontal separator, liquid droplet settling velocity (vs) is still calculated by Eq. (3a). But for horizontal
separator, liquid droplets are settled in vertical direction perpendicular to vapor flow velocity (v, in ftlsec). For
horizontal separator, there is a requirement for its vessel length (L). The requirement is that the vessel should be
long enough for the selected minimum size liquid droplets to settle into the liquid phase before the vapor flow
exit the vessel. Mathematically, following equation should be valid:

L I v 2:: Hv I vs (4d)

Hv is minimum vapor phase height in a horizontal vessel, in ft.

Rearrange Eq. (4d) to show the relationship of vapor velocity (v) and liquid droplet settling velocity (vs) as
follows:

v .:s (L I Hv) • vs (4e)

In most cases, LlHv is greater than one. Therefore, for horizontal separator vapor velocity (v) is usually larger
than the liquid settling velocity (vs). This means the required vessel vapor cross sectional area for horizontal
separator is Jess than that for a vertical separator, sinoe in vertical separator, the vapor velocity (v) equals to or
Jess than the liquid droplet settling velocity (vs).

From calculated liquid droplet settling velocity (vs), vapor velocity (v) can be calculated using Eq. (4e):

v = (L I Hv) • vs = LID • (D I Hv) • vs (41)

For conservative, let DlHv equals one, and Eq. (41) can be rewritten as follows:

(4g)

Some designers take more conservative approach. They discount the vapor velocity calculated by Eq. (4g) by a
factor of 0.85 to 0.9. This is up to the user to make the choice.

By assuming a LID value (suggest using 3), vapor velocity (v) can be calculated from Eq. (4g), and required
vapor cross sectional area (AV) in vessel can be calculated by following equation:
97
AV = QV / (3600 • v) (4h)

For horizontal vaporlliquid separator, minimum vessel length should be as follows, per Eq. (4f):

L min = Hv· v/vs+ (dx + do/6) (4i)

dx is length of inlet diverter, in ft; do is outlet nozzle diameter, in inch.

Liquid surge volume (VL) is calculated using Eq. (4c). The required liquid cross sectional area (AL, in f\2) is
calculated as folJows, by selecting a vessel length (L):

AL=VL/L (4j)

Vessel total cross sectional area (AT) is the SWll of the vapor and liquid cross sectional area:

AT=AV+AL (4k)

Once AT is known, vessel diameter (D) can be calculated as follows:

D = 2 • (AT / PI) A 0.5 (4m)

It is suggested to select a set ofL, starting from lOft and with 5 ft increment. For each L, calculate the
corresponding separator diameter (D), and vessel weight. From this table, select a separator with the smallest
vessel weight. Make sure selected vessel length is longer or equal to L min.

IV.2.2 Sizing vaporlliquid separator with mist eliminator (2)

For different process, liquid droplets (mist) in vapor have different size and range. Following are few examples:

Vapor source: Liquid droplets size, micron:

from trays or packing 5 to 800
from evaporation 3 to 1000
from condenser 0.1 to 50

Mist eliminator is used to remove the liquid droplets in vapor flow. There are three types of mist eliminator-
wire mesh, vane, and fiber bed. Each has its own application.

Wire mesh mist eliminator uses wire mesh pad to capture liquid droplets from vapor. A typical wire mesh mist
eliminator is show in Figure 3. WIreS used in a wire mesh pad can be metal, plastic, or glass. User can choose a
wire mesh pad made of different size (diameter) of wire, different thickness (usually 4" or 6" thickness), and
different compactness or density. The most common stainless steel (metal) wire mesh pad is made of 0.011 inch
wire, 6" thick, and 91b/ftJ density. WIre mesh mist eliminator can remove liquid droplets down to 10 to 1
micron. The shape of a wire mesh pad is usually round or rectangular. Wire mesh pad is usually installed
between two metal grids with rods to tie the grids together. Wire mesh mist eliminator should not be used, if
there are solids in vapor, or liquid droplet is foaming or viscous. The reason is the mesh pad will be plugged by
solids, or its efficiency will be reduced.

98
 Figure 3 A typical wire mesh mist eliminaror, [Courtesy of Amistro]

Vane mist eliminator uses vane pad made of corrugated plates to capture liquid droplets from vapor. A typical
vane mist eliminator is show in Figure 4. The vane plates are made of metal or plastic. User can choose a vane
pad of different thickness, different plate spacing, and different turns (corrugation). The most common vane pad
is 8" thick, 0.5" spacing, and 6 turns. Vane mist eliminator can remove liquid droplets down to 10to 20
microns. The shape of a vane pad is usually round or rectangular. Vane mist eliminator bas following
advantages comparing to wire mesh mist eliminator: It is sturdier, has less pressure drop, able to handle higher
vapor velocity (30 to 40% higher), able to handle higher Liquidload (S to 10 times higher), able to tolerate
solids, viscous or foaming liquid in vapor, or violent upsetS.

..J-A>s<mIiIy
Bolts
Figure 4 Cross section of a vane mist eliminator. [I]

Fiber mist eliminator uses fine fibers (cellulose, glass, or plastic) to remove liquid droplets from vapor. It can
remove liquid droplets below I micron. In this chapter, application of fiber mist eliminator will not be discussed
funber. Consult manufacturer for its application.

Both wire mesh and vane mist eliminator use the same principle to capture liquid droplets in vapor. They rely
on the impingement of liquid droplets on wire or vane to capIUTC them. The captured liquid droplets will
coalesce to become larger liquid droplets, and finally drain away from the mist eliminator. Some feamres of
hoth mist eliminators are presented below:

(I) Efficiency of liquid droplet removal: Larger liquid droplets have larger momentum, and they are not easy to
change direction. Therefore, they are easier to impinge on wire or bend of vane plate, and be captured. Figure S
shows performance of wire mesh mist eliminator using different wire sizes, and their efficiency in removal
liquid droplets. from figure S, we see that for each different wire size wire mesh pad, its liquid droplet removal
efficiency drop below 100% for liquid droplet below certain size, and the thinner the wire, the smaller the liquid

99
droplets can be removed. For vane mist eliminator, using smaller vane spacing will allow eliminator [0 capture
smaller liquid droplets.

Figure 5 Performance of wire mesh mist eliminator using different size wires. [2]

(2) Vapor velocity: A[ low vapor velocity,liquid droplets have low momentum and are difficult [0 be captured
by wire or vane plait. But at too high vapor velocity, liquid droplets at wire or vane plait will be blowed away
by the vapor flow. There is a vapor velocity range for each mist eliminator [0 work properly.

Figure 6a is a report of 3 wire mesh pad performance using air-water mist mixture. In Figure 6a, wire mesh pad
pressure drop versus air velocity is ploned at several mist (water droplet) loading. These CUl'"eS show that: (I)
There is a vapor velocity operaUIl& range (3 [0 II ft/sec) for a wire mesh pad [0 perfonn well Wire mesh pad
tun) down ratio is about 4 [0 I. (2) Pressure drop thru wire mesh pad is small, less than I" Water column (ViC).
(3) Pressure drop thru wire mesh pad will be increased. if uUSlloading inaeases. The amount pressure drop
increase is small

A cross sectional view of the wire mesh pad at point A, B. and C (in Figure 6a) is shown in Figure 6b. At point
A, vapor velocity is within the acceptable range, and wire mesh pad performs well. A[ point B, vapor velocity is
high enough [0 cause liquid droplet blowed away from wire mesh pad (re-entrainment), At point C, vapor
velocity is so high that wire mesh pad is flooded, most liquid droplets are blowed 3\\'3y. and very Iinie liquid is
drained from the pad.

~tir~~"tMdlldbrc:_ . iIi ............ ......:I

Figure 68 Pressure drop of a horizontal wire mesh mist eliminator at different air velocity and water mist
loading. [2]

100
 --
IocI::IIIi!IlOM..
.-c Dr
Me. ....
.,..,__
~
--..J
,
tIIop.\
....~
--
-- me

............
,...
~.......,.
A:

.. ..... a:

'......
......,. .... '-'*
...... ...:._..
c, ,.... e:-
.......,... .....a:
Figure 6b Vertical cross-section view of the performance of 3 wire mesh mist eliminator in Figure 7a. [2J

For vane mist eliminator, there is also 3 vapor velocity operating range for it to perform well. But vane mist
eliminator is less susceptible to re-entrainment and flooding than wire mesh mist eliminator. Therefore, it can
operate IIIhigher vapor velocity (30 to 40".4) higher. Vane mist eliminator turndown ratio is also about 4 to I.

(3) Others: Both wire mesh and vane mist eliminazors will perform better, ifthe difference between liquid and
vapor density is larger, or vapor viscosity is low. The reason is these effects will help wire or vane plate to
caprure liquid droplets. Either wire mesh pad or vane pad can be installed horizoma!ly or vertically. In general,
vane mist eliminator is more expensive than wire mesh mist eliminator.

Figure 6a can be genenilized by dividing the air velocity by [(PL-pV)l pvro.5, and convert the abscissa to a
generalized Souders-Brown velocity (normalJy called K factor or vapor load factor). The converted figure is
shown in Figure 7a. A similar figure shown in Figure 7b is presented for vane mist eliminator. Figure 73 and
Figure 7b will be used for sizing the wire mesh pad and vane pad. The recommended K factor used for wire
mesh pad or vane pad sizing is listed below:

For wire mesh pad: for vertical vapor flow, K = 0.35 ftlsec; for horizontal vapor flow, K = 0.42 ftlsec.
(For mist load up to about 0.1% liquid by volume, which is equivalent to 0.5 gpmIft2liquid captured at 10 ftlsec
vapor velocity. For higher mist load, K factor should be derated.)
For vane pad: for vertical vapor flow, K = 0.50 ftlsec; for horizontal vapor flow, K = 0.65 ftlsec.
(Vane pad is DOl sensiti ve to mist load.)
K factor for horizontal vapor flow is larger, since liquid draining is not affected by the vapor flow.

The above recommended K factor is valid for operating pressure from 15 to 100 psig. For wire mesh pad
operating at higher pressure, K factor can be calculated as follows per GPSA engineering data book [1]:

K a 0.35 - 0.000 I (P -100) 0< p <1500 (Sa)

p is the operating pressure in vessel, in psig.

GPSA engineering data book [1J also recommends to derate K factor for following system:
For amine and glycol unit, multiply K by 0.6 to 0.8.
For compressor suction drum and expander inlet separator, multiply K by 0.7 to 0.8.
For vertical separator without mist eliminator, multiply K by 0.5.
For vane pad at higher pressure (>100 psig). consult manufacture about the K factor.

101
 V I(.V.I~(I\.·p;yo; ._
VIPOf toed teaor I "'-c
Fiaure 7. Pressure drop versus K factor for a typical FiaW'e 7bPressure drop versus K factor for a typical vane mesh mist
eliminator. 12] eliminator. (2]

Once K factor is determined, allowable vapor velocity (va, in ft/sec) thru wire mesh pad or vane pad can be
calculated as follows:

va - K • [(pL-pV)f pV]" 0.5 (5b)

Once allowable vapor velocity (va) is known, vaporlliquid separator can be sized as follows:

IV.2.2a Sizing vertical mist eliminator vaporlliquid separator

Ifhorizontal mist eliminator is used, use the sizing outlined in section IV.2.1a to size vessel, using va instead of
vs in equations. Refer to Figure 8a for vessel length. If a vertical mist eliminator is used, allow minimum 12"
space between the bottom of the mist eliminator and the inlet diverter,

IV.2.2b Sizing horizontal mist eliminator vaporlliquid separator

If vertical mist eliminator is used, use the sizing outlined in section IV.2.1 b to size vessel, using va instead of vs
in equations. Refer to Figure 8b fur vessel length. Sometimes a borizontal mist eliminator is installed at nozzle
outlet. For this case, allow minimum 12" space between the bottom of the mist eliminator and the mtLL.

.. ct4':1 -
_CMIIIt

::11:;1:: ,...
...,

.....,
iIIIt
-~
I

..!:I:I*
D Of 24" 11M.
211
12"

....--
"*1.
............... ,
I ••
....II;IU.
•
~
~

IquId CIIAIIl
..,..
......
"IICIII$"',. .
eli·
1Io·_CMIIIt .......... ' III.
*.........,~.
do·_ ouIIt .... 11.......
' ..
Figtue Sa A typical vertical vaporIIiquid separatOr· Figure 8b A typical horizomaJ V3pOI'lliqukl
~tor·
use mig eliminator. use miSI eiiminator.

102
IV .2.3 Inlet diverter for vertical vaporlliquid separator using horizontal mist eliminator

For a vertical vaporlliquid separator with horizontal mist eliminator, it is important that the vapor flow to the
mist eliminator is evenly distributed. Dynamic pressure of the inlet feed can be calculated as follows:

Dynamic pressure of feed, psi = pF • vF"21 (144 g) g=32.174 ftlsec2 (5c)

pF is density of feed, in lblft3; vF is feed inlet velocity, in ftlsec.

If dynamic pressure of feed is under 0.261 psi (1800 pa), simple inlet diverter using baffle or pipe can be used.
Otherwise a better inlet diverter is required to evenly distribute the vapor to mist eliminator. [6]

IV.3 Sizing liquid/liquid separator

Liquidlliquid separator is used to separate heavy liquid and light liquid from a feed. It is a liquid full vessel.
Depending on the upstream process, the heavy liquid in feed contains light liquid droplets, and the light liquid
in feed contains heavy liquid droplets.

Low shear process will produce larger liquid droplets (>30 microns), and beavy/lightliquids can be separated
using gravity settling method. Examples oflow shear process are: solvent extraction, mixer settlers, steam
stripping, washing process, and counter-current tower. Coalescer pad can be used to speed up tbe liquidlliquid
separation and reduce the separator size.

High sbear and thermal process will produce finer liquid droplets (I to 30 microns), and coalescer pad is
required to achieve heavy/light liquid separation. Examples of high shear and thermal process are: centrifugal
pump, choke valve, condensation of immiscible liquids, entrained dispersion from primary separation, and sub-
cooling ofliquid in storage.

Coalescer pad is either wire mesh pad or corrugated plate pad. Material of construction can be metal or plastic.
In this section, preliminary liquid/liquid separator sizing by surge volume metbod or using coalescer pad will be
discussed.

IV.3.1 Sizing liquidlliquid separator by surge volume method

From experience, required surge time for different liquidlliquid separation is listed in Table I.From required
surge time, the required total volume oftbe separator can be calculated using following equation.

VT = QF • tr 160 (00)
QF=QL+QH (6b)

VT is the required total separator volume, in ft3; QL is the light liquid design volumetric flow rate, in ft31hr,
QH is the beavy liquid design volumetric flow rate, in ft3/hr.

For a selected vessel length (L, in feet), vessel cross sectional area (AT, in ft2) and vessel diameter (0, in feet)
can be calculated by following equations:

AT=VT/L (7)
0=2 • (AT I PI}"O.5 (8)

Prepare a table with a set of selected vessel length (L), calculated vessel diameter (D), and LID ratio. Select a
vessel its LID ratio is from 3 to 5 as a preliminary size for the Liquidlliquidseparator.
103
 r
. al surge tune fior lqUl'd!l'lqul'd separation: [1]
T abl e 1 T.yplC
Type of operation surge time, min
Oil/water separation
Oil above 35 deg API 3 to 5
Oil below 35 deg API
100 F and above 5 to 10
SOF 10 to 20
60F 20 to 30
Ethylene glycol/oil 20 to 60
Amine/ oil 20 to 30
Caustic / propane 30 to 45
Caustic / heavy gasoline 30 to 90

A typical verticalliquid!liquid separator layout is shown in Figure 9a, and a typical horizontalliquid/liquid
separator layout is shown in Figure 9b.

,..

,I
•
2<11
12" INn.

dI· InIII noate dIIm ••• r.

CIo -1gN liquid oue.t I'IOIIIe
Figure 9a A typical verticalliquidlliquid separator - Figure 9b A typical horizontal liquid/liquid separator -
by surge volume method. by surge volume method.

IV.3.2 Sizing liquid!liquid separator with coalescer pad

Sizing guideline is as follows:

(1) For horizontal separator: keep flow rate at 3-6 ftlmin.

(2) For vertical separator: keep flow rate at 0.5-1.5 ft/min.

If the interfacial surface tension is < 15 dyne/em, the separation will be difficult (due to stable emulsion). If the
interfacial surface tension> 35 dyne/ern, easier separation is expected.

Once the fluid velocity is determined, follow section IV.3.1 to find the vessel size. This vessel sizing is
preliminary. For final sizing, consult a vendor specialized in coalescer pad.

104
IVA Comments of vessel sizing

For vaporlliquid separator sizing, it is user's choice to use gravity settling method or mist eliminator method to
size the vessel. In general, if mist eliminator will be plugged during operation, it may be better to using a larger
vessel (use gravity settling method to size vessel) without using mist eliminator. Otherwise, mist eliminator
method will be a better choice, since a smaller vessel (less expensive) can be used for the service.

Vessel sized for liquid surge drum and vaporlliquid separation by gravity settling method can be used for final
design. Vessel sized for vapor/liquid separation by mist eliminator method should be checked by the mist
eliminator vendor to confirm its size. Vessel sized for liquid/liquid separation by surge volume method or with
coalescer pad is a rough preliminary sizing. Its size should be checked by vendor or an expert.

V. Common practice

1. Vessel nozzle size should not be over 50% of vessel diameter to avoid expansive reinforce pad requirement.
Maximum nozzle size is preferred to be about 40% or less of vessel diameter.
2. Per Code (ASME Section VIII, Div. I), vessel should be stress relieved, if its wall thickness is 1.5" or larger.
3. For large vapor flow, it may be cheaper to use split flow design to reduce the required vapor flow area. Feed
will enter the vessel at its midpoint and vapor exits from both ends of the vessel, or feed is split to halfand
enters the vessel from each end, and vapor exits from vessel's midpoint.
4. Vessel internals: some is removable, and some is not. It is up to the user to specify. Removable internals
should be able to pass thru the manway. Normal manway size varies from 18" to 24".
5. Vessel diameter has a limitation due to road or transportation limitation. Usually, a vessel is fabricated in a
shop. Then, it is shipped to field for installation.
6. Vessel length is usually measured from one tangent line (T/T) to the other tangent line. But sometimes, it is
measured from one seam line to the other seam line. The portion of the vessel head from its tangent line to seam
line is its straight flange. For ellipsoidal head, its straight flange is usually 1.5" to 2" long.

Nomenclatures:

a a constant used in Eq. (2a) and Eq, (4c).

AH vessel heavy liquid cross sectional area, ft2.
AL vessel liquid or light liquid cross sectional area, ft2.
Ar Archmedes number, dimensionless; see Eq. (3b).
AT total vessel cross sectional area, ft2.
AV vessel vapor cross sectional area, ft2. C drag coefficient.
CA corrosion allowance, inch.
di inlet nozzle diameter, inch.
do outlet nozzle diameter, inch.
dp liquid droplet diameter, micron.
dx inlet diverter length, ft.
dth vessel head wall thickness, inch.
dts vessel shell wall thickness, inch.
D vessel inside diameter, ft.
105
E joint efficiency.
g gravitational constant, 32.174 ftlsec2.
Hv minimum vapor phase high in horizontal vessel, ft.
K K factor or vapor load factor, ft/sec.
L vessel length, ft.
p vessel operating pressure, psig.
P vessel design pressure, psig.
QF feed design volumetric flow rate, ft31hr.
QH heavy liquid design volumetric flow rate, ft31hr.
QL light liquid design volumetric flow rate, ft31hr.
QV vapor design volumetric flow rate, ft31hr.
S allowable metal stress, psi; use Eq. (la-c).
t vessel operating temperature, of.
tr liquid surge time from HLL to LLL, min.
T vessel design temperature, of.
v vapor flow velocity, ftlsec.
va allowable vapor velocity, ft/sec.
vF feed inlet velocity, ftlsec.
vH heavy liquid velocity, ft/min.
vL light liquid velocity, ftlmin.
vs liquid particle settling velocity, ftlsec.
vsH heavy liquid droplet settling velocity, inch/min.
vsL light liquid droplet rising velocity, inch/min.
VL vessel surge volume, ft3.
VT total vessel volume, ft3.
WF feed design weight flow rate, Iblhr.
Wh vessel head weight, lb.
Ws vessel shell weight, lb.
WT total vessel weight, lb.
pm metal density, Ib/ft3.
pF feed density, Ib/ft3.
pL liquid or light liquid density, Ib/ft3.
pV vapor density, Ib/ft3.
Il viscosity of major fluid phase, cp.
J.LH viscosity of heavy liquid phase, cp,
ul, viscosity of light liquid phase, cp.

106
References:

1. Engineering Data Book, 12thedition, 2004, Section 7, Separation Equipment, Gas Processors Suppliers
Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
2. AMISTCO Mesh & Vane Mist Eliminators, Bulletin 106, January, 2004, AMISTCO Separation Products,
Inc.
3. Coalescers, Enhanced Separation Technologies, LLC, pp. 1-10.
4. Liquid-Liquid Coalescer Design Manual, ACS Industries, LP, pp. 1-15.
5. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Edited by D. W. Green and R. H. Perry, 8thedition, 2008, McGraw-
Hill.
6. Enhanced Separation Technologies LLC brochure.
7. AMISTCO gaslliquid separation technology seminar.

107
Chapter 6 Line Sizing
L Introduction

Line sizing is a task 10 decide what line size should be used for a line to transport fluid from one destination to
another. If a line size is too small, it will need more power to move the fluid, and it may cause erosion, noise,
and vibration at line. Ifa line size is 100 large, it will increase the capital cost for the line instaJlation. Most lines
are used to handle single phase flow (such as liquid, or vapor (or gas», Or two phase flow (such as liquid and
vapor mixture), or gravity Dow, Or slurry (such as liquid with suspended solid particles). The cost of lines in
some plant can be 20% of the plant's capital cost or more. Therefore, lines are one of the major COSIS in building
a plant. Inthis chapter, bow to select a proper line size for different flow applications will be discussed.

The line discussed in this chapter is a line from one destination to another with piping fittings (such as elbows,
reducers), instruments (such as flow meter, temperature or pressure gauge), and valves (such as block valve,
check valve, control valve) on it This line handles same amount of fluid througb out the entire line. For single
phase flow, gravity flow, or slurry line, there is no change of phase throughout the line.

ll. Factors ofline sizing

Following factors should be considered during line sizing:

I. Fluid to be handled: Identify the fluid to be handled is a process fluid or a utility fluid (sucb as steam, cooling
water). Next identify it is single phase flow (vapor or liquid only), !WOphase flow, gravity flow, or slurry flow.
Also check whether the fluid is Newtonian fluid or not. For Newtonian fluid, its viscosity is constant at fixed
operating conditions (temperarure and pressure). This chapter will discuss line size for Newtonian fluid only.
2. Available pressure drop: The available pressure drop ofa line is the pressure difference of the line from its
starting point to its end point, Itis due to the differenee in operating pressure, static pressure, kinetic energy
from starting point to its end point
3. Erosion: Iffluid velocity is too high, it will cause erosion in line.
4. Corrosion: Some fluid is corrosive to carbon steel line. Therefore, either line velocity has to be reduced Or
line material has to be upgraded.
S. Gravity flow: It is for liquid flow only. Line size has to be large enough to ensure gravity flow.
6. Slurry: Line velocity has 10 be greater than solid settling velocity to prevent solid particles settling down in
line.
7. Sonic velocity: For compressible fluid (vapor or gas), the upper line velocity is sonic velocity. Most vapor
lines, even the flare header, line velocity is designed below sonic.
8. Aging: As plant aging, line inside ftow area may change. Insome case, it may be fouled or debris
accumulated and cause the Dow area reduced. Ifthis is expected, a larger line should be chosen or line cleanup
device should be provided. On the other band, some line may be corroded and needs 10 be replaced.
9. Multiple services: Some line may be used 10 handle different service. II sbonld be evaluated for each service
10 find out the required line size.
10. Continuous Or intermittent service: Depending on the service, some line service is continuous and some is
intermittent.

Ill. Line sizing

Flow rate should be based on maximum design rate. Fluid properties should be based on normal operating
conditions.
ill.1 Single phase line
1ll.!'1 Preliminary single phase line sizing
108
For lines having plenty available pressure drop, its line size is limited by erosion velocity. For lines with limited
available pressure drop, some line sizing method is based on line pressure drop per 100 ft ofline or based on
line velocity. Line sizing criterion varies with different line application. For example, pump suction and
discharge line have different sizing criteria. Some corrosive fluid, its line is sized base on line velocity. A
guideline for pre1imlnary line sizing for lines with limited available pressure drop is listed in Table 1.

Line erosion velocity is estimated by following equation for either vapor or liquid line:

V erosion = 100 I p"O.5 (1)

V erosion is line erosion velocity, in ft/sec; p is fluid density, in Iblft3. For solid free or non-corrosive fluid, this
is a conservative estimation of line erosion velocity. Actual erosion velocity may be 150 to 200"10 higher. [I]

Table I Preliminary line sizing criteria with limited available pressure drop (dp).
Liquid lines Max. dn, psi/loo ft Max. velocity, ft/sec Comments
Pump suction: Minimize do to satisfy pump NPSHR.
Sub-cool liquid 0.5 -
Saturated liquid 0.3 -
Pumpdi e 2.5 - Also for line without oumn.
Cooling water: Minimum velocity at 2 ftlsec
Main header 1.0 -
Branch header 1.5 -
Steam condensate:
Sub-header - 2
Header - I

Vapor lines Max. dp, psi/100ft Max. velocity, ftlsec Comments

Process Iines: Also for comnressor discharge line.
Below 14.7 psia 0.01 - 0.1 100 - 250
0- 100 Dsi!!; 0.5 100-150
100 - 250 psig 1.0 100 - ISO
250 - 500 Dsi.1!: 1.5 100-150
Above 500 psig 2.0 100 - 150
Comoressor suction:
Below 14.7 psia 0.01 - 0.1 50 - 125
0- 500 psig 0.25 50 - 75
Above 500 psig 0.5 50 -75
Steam:
Below 100 psig 0.25 -
100 - 250 psig 0.5 -
Above 250 psig 1.0 -
Special fluid In carbon steel oioinz.
Lean amine solution - 6
Rich amine solution - 3
Caustic soda - 4
Salt water - 6
Water - 12 Erosion velocity

109
ITI.I.2 Single phase line pressure drop calculation

There are equations available for single pbase line pressure drop. The basic equation is Darcy's formula:

DP = f· p • L • v"2 I (24 g • d) (2)

DP is line pressure drop, in Ib/in2 (Psi); fis friction factor (dimensionless); L is line length, in feet; v is line
velocity, in ftlsec; d is line inside diameter, in inch; g is acceleration of gravity, 32.174 ftlsec2.

For single phase liquid line with flow Q (gpm), its line pressure drop can be calculated by following equation:

For single phase vapor line with flow w (lb/sec), its line pressure drop can be calculated by following equation:

DP = f· L· w"2 I (c2 • P • d"5) c2=O.023 (3b)

For vapor line, with high pressure drop (P11P2~), line pressure drop should be corrected using the acceleration
factor (AC), see Eq. (4a). For liquid line, AC equals zero, no correction is required.

DPx = DP I (I - AC) (4a)

AC = G· vI (144 g • Pavg) (4b)
G=w/A (4c)
Pavg=(pI +P2)/2 (4d)

DP is uncorrected vapor line pressure drop, in psi; DPx is corrected vapor line pressure drop, in psi; AC is
acceleration factor, dimensionless; G is mass flux, in Ib/sec-ft2; v is line velocity, in ftlsec; A is line inside cross
sectional area, in ft2; w is vapor weight flow, in lb/sec; PI is line inlet pressure, in psia; P2 is line outlet
pressure, in psia; Pavg is average line pressure, see Eq. (4d), in psia.

Friction factor (f) is a function of Reynolds number. It can be calculated by following equations:

Re = 10000 D • v· pI (6.7211) (5)

Re is the Reynolds number, dimensionless; D is line inside diameter, in feet; f1 is fluid viscosity, in cp
(centipoise).

For Reynolds number less than 2000, fluid flow in line is laminar flow. Its friction factor (f) is calculated by
following equation:

f=64 IRe (6)

For Reynolds number greater than 4000, fluid flow is turbulent flow. Its friction factor (f) is a function of line
roughness and Reynolds number, and it is calculated by following equations: (2)

f= 8 [(8 I Re)"12 + 1 I (c3+c4)"1.5 ]" (I/12) (7a)

c3 = [-2.457 In «7/Re)"O.9 + (0.27 dD»]"16 ; c4 = (37530 I Re)"16; e is line roughness, in foot.

Friction factor can also be calculated by using Colebrook equation as follows:

110
If (f'O.5) - -2 log (tJD)I3.7 +2.51f(Re • f"O.5)J (7b) (log's base is 10.)

For Reynolds number greater than 2000, but less than 4000, fluid Oow is in a ImDSition flow region between
laminar and rurbulent flow. A friction factor versus RO)'DOldsnumber and line roughness diagram is shown in
Figure I. (3) r..
is Moody or Darcy friction factor. If is Fanning friction factor. r..:
f= 4 If.

!-.......
Figure I Single phase friction factor versus Reynolds number and relative line roughness (tJD). (3J

m.2 Two phase line

m.2.1 Preliminary two phase line sizing

For lines baving plenty available pressure, its line size is limited by erosion velocity, which is calculated using
Eq. (1) using density of the two phase mixture, p mix, in Iblft3. P mix is calculated as follow:

p mix· (wL + wv] f (wU pL + wvl pv) (8)

wL is liquid phase Oow rate, in n>'sec; wv is vapor phase flow rate, in Iblsec; pL is liquid phase density, in
IbIft3; pv is vapor phase density, in IbIft3.

For lines with limited avaiJable pressure. preliminary line sizing criterion for vapor or liquid in Table I can be
used. depending the two phase mixture is close to vapor or liquid.
m.2.2 Two phase line pressure drop calculation

Two phase Dow is more complicated than single phase Dow. Depending on the amount of vapor and liquid in
the Dow, its flow pattern is different. Fwther complication is the line orientation (horizontal, vertical, or
inclination) ...ill affect the Dow pattern in line. Different two phase Dow patterns in horizontal and vertical lines

III
are shown in Figure 2. [5) In general, slug flow should be avoided, especially in vertical line upward flow, since
it will cause hammering and vibration problem, and it may damage equipment as well.

. .'

~ f\-, ~~
" ~ .. ,
,
>
, ..·, :
,

·, '.,
\ .,'",
·,
..... "
..
.. -
..•.. ,

..
m.2.2.1 Two phase flow regions estimation [4)

For horizontal line, two phase flow regions can be estimated using the map, Figure 38, developed by Mandbane,
Gregory, and Aziz [16). The coordinates of the map are calculated as follows:

VsL=QLI A (9)

VsL is superficial liquid velocity, in ft/sec; QL is liquid volume flow; in ft3/sec; A is line inside cross sectional
area, in ft2.

Vsv=Qvl A (10)

Vsv is superficial vapor velocity, in ftlsec; Qv is vapor volume flow; in ft3/sec,

The two phase flow patterns in horizontal line are: bubble, plug, stratified, wavy, slug, annular, and spray
(dispersed), in the order of increase vapor flow. These flow regions will be affected by fluid pressure, line size,
liquid surface tension, and line inclination (see [4) p.17-14 for more details).

For vertical line up-flow, phase flow regions can be estimated using the map, Figure 3b, developed by Aziz,
Govier, and Fogarasi [17). The coordinates of the map are calculated as follows:

112
Nx=Vsv·Xa (II)
Ny=VsL·Ya (12)
Xa = [(pv / pa}"O.333] Ya (13)
Ya = [(pL· Swa) / (pw· S)]"O.25 (14)

Nx is modified superficial vapor velocity, in ftlsec; Ny is modified superficial liquid velocity, in ftlsec; pa is air
density ar600F, 14.7 psia at 0.07641b1ft3; pw is water density at 60°F, 14.7 psia at 62.37 Iblft3; Swa is surface
tension of air and water at 600F, 14.7 psia at 72.4 dyne/cm; S is liquid surface tension, in dyne/em.

The two phase up-flow patterns in vertical line are: bubble, slug, forth (or chum), annuJar, mist, in the order of
increase vapor flow. A generally accepted down-flow two phase flow regions are not available.

For line inclination is greater than 10 to 20 degrees, two phase flow pattern is more close to vertical line than

- _-.._
horizontal line, and Figure 3b should be used to estimate its flow region.
'oc--------,--------~--------~
10.0

'.0
. =
- ,.0

!
~
~ 0.1 ..we.,...

O'Ol.~~.w~_.~~~~~~~~
C. I lA '0.0 tQQ..O tDO.O
G.'

0.01 0.1
·Q.2I:JtH.· ....

+-l~PhaeO·SC%!4..,-+

'.0
lo ... _

10
-
.....:
...

...

100 500
v....ftfeec Nx. IIIoee
Figure 3a Flow regions in IWO phase borizontalline. (16) Figure 3b Flow regions in up-flow twO phase vertical line. (17]

ill.2.2.2 Two phase flow line pressure drop calculation [20]

Two phase flow is more complicated than one phase flow. There are several methods available for two phase
flow pressure drop calculation. Most of them are very complicated. In 1964, Dukler, Wicks, and Cleveland
published an article (two parts) compared several two phase flow pressure drop calculation methods using
experiemntal data .. In part A of their article, they found Lockhart-Martinelli method is the best among the five
methods (Baker, BankofI, Chenoweth-Martin, Vagi, Lockhart-Martinelli). In part S, they presented two simple
two phase pressure drop calculation methods based on similiarity analysis, and they found these two methods
are better than Lockhart-Martinelli method. Tbese two method are homogeneous flow method (or Dukler no
slip method) and Dukler constant slip method. Details of these two methods are presented in this section.
Among these two methods, they found OukJer constant slip method is more accurate, and provides more
conservative pressure drop estimates. Both methods are applicable to any two phase flow no matter what flow
region it belongs to.

1. Homogeneous flow method (DukJer no slip method)

This method assumes vapor and liquid are well mixed as a homogeneous mixture, no slip between them. The
liquid volume fraction, density, and viscosity of the mixture are calculated by following equations, which are
derived from DukJer's similarity analysis:
113
x = QL / (QL + Qv) (I Sa)
pm", = pL (x) + pv (I -x) (ISb)
I.Lffins= J1L (x) + uv (I - x) (lSc)
x is the no slip liquid volume fraction in the two phase flow; pm ns is the no slip density of the two phase
mixture, in Iblft3; j.llIlns is the no slip viscosity of the two phase mixture, in cp; ul, is liquid viscosity, in cp; uv is
vapor viscosity, in cp.

Per Eq. (ISb) and Eq. (lSc), the two phase mixture's density and viscosity are volume averages. Once they are
known, we can calculate line pressure drop using the method outlined for single phase flow in section ill.1.2.

2. Dukler constant slip method

This method assumes vapor and liquid are not mixed. There is a constant slip (split) between them. Based on
DuJder's sirniliarity analysis, constant slip density (pms, in Ib/ft3) of the two phase flow is calculated by
following equation:

PIIlcs = pL· (x"2/ RL) + pv " (I - x"2) / (I - RL) (16a)

RL is the constant slip liquid volume fraction in place inside the line; x is the no slip liquid volume fraction,
defined in Eq. (I Sa).

There are several methods available to estimate RL. Hughmark method (21) will be used, since it was found to
give good estimate, except at low liquid volume fraction «0.2) [20]. RL is calculated by follow equations:
Z = Re"(1/6)· Fr"(I/8) / (x"O.2S) (16b)
Re = 1488.160· G / j.UTlcs (16c)
G=wm/A (16d)
I.lffi<:s = J1L. RL + uv • (I - RL) (16e)
Fr = vro"2/ (g • D) (16i)
vm = wm / (plllns· A) (16g)
Z is a dimensionless correlating factor, see Eq. (16b); Re is Reynolds number, see Eq. (16c); Fr is Froude
number, see Eq. (16i); x is no slip liquid volume fraction, see Eq. (ISa); 0 is line inside diameter, in ft; G is
mass flux of the two phase flow, in lb/sec-ftz, see Eq. (16d); wm is total weight flow of the two phase flow, in
lb/sec; A is line inside cross sectional area, in ft2; I.lffi<:s is the constant slip viscosity, in cp, see Eq. (16e); vm is
the no slip two phase flow velocity, in ftlsec, see Eq. (16g).
Hughmark correlated a flow parameter, K., to Z to a curve using experimental data. Atherton and DeGance
provided following equations for the curve [22].
For Z<IO K= -(O.l6367 - 0.31037·Z + 0.03S2S·Z"2 -0.001 366·Z"3) (16b)
For Z> 10 to 100 K= 0.75545 + 0.003S8S·Z - 0.00001436·Z"2 (16i)
For Z > 100 K=O.9703S + 0.0731 • In (Z 1100) (16j)
The original K versus Z curve by Hugmark is only to Z=IOO. [21] Eq. (16j) is developed based on K=O.9703S at
Z= I00, and K= I at Z= ISO (extrapolated based on the original curve).
Onoe K is known, RL, the liquid volume fraction in place inside the line, is calculated by following equation:
RL=I-K/(I+pv/pL·[wm/wv-l]} (16k)
wv is vapor flow rate, in Iblsec.

114
Since RL is used to calculate J.Ull (Eq. (160), Re (Eq. (16c), and Z (Eq. (16b), iterated calculation is required to
find the final RL. if the finaJ RL is less than 0.2, let RL - X. the no slip liquid volume fraction. Reference 24 has
some sample calculation.

Once RL is calculated, two phase flow friction factor, fm, is calculated by following equation:

em - (l • fx (161)
(l e I .In(x) It 1.281 + 0.478 • In(x) + 0.444 • (In(x»l + 0.094 • (In(x))3 + 0.00843 • (In(x»~ (16m)
(l is a correction factor for the uncorrected two phase flow friction factor, fx. It is developed by Dukler using
experimental data. fx is the uncorrected two phase flow friction factor. It is calculated as single phase flow
friction factor, except using the constant slip R~, calculated by following equation:

Ree• ~ Ren• • pm., 1PIOns (16n)

ReM= 1488.16 D • 0 I J.Ullns (160)

Once fm is calculated, two phase flow line pressure drop can be calculated using Eq. (2), using fm (from Eq.
(161», Pm., (from Eq. (16a», and vm (no slip two phase fluid velocity, ftlsec, Eq. (16g).

The static head for vertical upflow two phase flow should be calculated using following density equation:

(l6p)

The Dukler constant slip method was originally developed based on using smooth pipe friction factor multiplied
by a two phase correction factor. However, using it with zero line roughness (smooth pipe) can result in the
pressure drop to be lower than the homogeneous flow method. Using line roughness will make the Dukler
constant slip method pressure drop more conservative than the homogeneous flow method. The calculated
pressure drop grows quickly with line roughness, so large amounts of overconservatism would result, if a line
roughness above about 0.000 15 ft were used. Inan ultra low sulfur gasoline hydrotreater reactor loop, the two
methods produced results that were very close to each other in contrast to an ultra low sulfur diesel unit where
the Dukler constant slip method using a 0.000 15 ft line roughness produced line pressure drops 15·20"10greater
than the homogeneous flow method.

3. Acceleration factor

DeGance and Atherton (23] mentioned that pressure drop due to acceleration is most appe.rent for mist flow
region, where it has high Reynolds number and low liquid boldup, But they mentioned that it may also happen
in other flow regions. The best policy is to calculate its value using acceleration factor (AC), and to decide
whether to ignore it or not.

The actual pressure drop is calculated by following equation using AC:

Actual pressure drop = uncorrected pressure drop 1(I - AC) (16q)

Ifhomogeneous method is used, AC is calculated by following equation:

AC=Oovm/(l44g·Pavg) (16r)
Pavg .. (PI + P2) 12 (16s) (PI, P2 in psis, as Eq. 4d»)
If DukJer's COnstanl slip method is used, AC is calculated by following equation:
AC = [GL ° VsL 1RL + Gv • Vsv 0(1 .20 RL) 1(I - RL)"2) I (144 g • Pavg) (161)
us
GL-wLI A (16u)
Gv;wv/A (16v)

GL is superficial liquid mass flux, in Iblsec-ft2, see Eq. (16u); Gv is is superficial vapor mass Dux, in Iblsec-ft2,
see Eq, (16v); VsL is superficial liquid velocity, in ftlsec, see Eq, (9); Vsv is superficial vapor velocity. in ftlsec,
see Eq. (J 0).

£11.3 Gravity (low line

Gravity flow is a liquid Dow. Many cases, the source and destination pressures are the same. equalized. The
Dow from the source to the destination is relied on sialic height difference to move the fluid. The liquid in the
source is drained into the destination.

There is a range of line sizes can achieve the gravity flow. The smallest gravity flow line size will be the one
calculated using static bead difference to overcome the line pressure loss. Try and error calculation is required
This line size can be calculated easily, if a hydraulic spreadsheet is available. The largest gravity flow line size
is based on self vent design. Literature report [6] indicated for Froude number is less than 0.3l,liquid will drain
from source to a vertical line with liquid film inside the line and vapor from the source will not be entrained
wilh the liquid (self vent). The self vent drain line size can be estimated by foUowing equation:

d= 0.9168 Q"O.4 (17)

Q is liquid flow, in gpm.

Available drain line design shows the line pressure drop varies from 1.0 to 0.1 psiI)(>O ft. More study should be
done to find out which line pressure drop should be used for gravity flow line. For preliminary gravity tine
sizing, it is suggested to use line pressure drop at 0.1 to 0.15 psi/100ft.

rnA Slurry line

Slurry flow is another two phase flow, with solid particles in liquid. It is more complicated than single phase
flow. There were many researches, theoretical and experimental, done in this area. The major concern for
engineering application is to predict limit deposit velocity of soLidparticles (V LO) and line pressure drop (OP).
The factors affect these predication are line velocity, friction f3ctor,line size (inside diameter), density
difference between solid particles and liquid. solid particle concentration, soLidparticles average size (or
dislribution), liquid density, and liquid viscosity. As regards to line orientation, the horizontal slurry line design
is more critical than vertical line, since its limit deposit velocity and line pressure drop are higher.

The slurry flow regions can be classified as follows, see Figure 5 [ll]:
I.Homogeneous flow: Solid concentration inside the line is the same everywhere. This usually bappens at high
line velocity, or wilh fine solid particles.
2. Heterogeneous flow: There is vertical solid concentration gradient inside the line, less solids at top of the
line, more solids at bottom of the line. This usually happens at reduced line velocity.
3. Saltation flow: There is a layer of moving solids at bottom of the line. This flow region is due to further
reduction in line velocity.
4. Flow with stationary bed: There is a layer of non-moving solid bed at the bottom of line. At this line velocity,
solid particles will settle down at bottom of line,

A slurry line will be in one of these flow regions (I to 4) depends on its line velocity.

116
Figure 5 also shows the slurry line pressure drop versus line velocity curve and the same line for a single pbase
pure liquid. From Figure 5, it is noticed that slurry line pressure drop is slightly higher than pure liquid line at
bigh line velocity, and mucb bigher at low line velocity. It is also noticed that slurry line pressure drop drops to
a minimum at a certain line velocity. This is the critical velocity for a slurry line. Further reducing the line
velocity, line pressure drop will not be reduced. At this stage, a stationary bed is formed at bottom of the line.
The constant line velocity below the critical velocity is the slurry line's limit deposit velocity.

-t" .: ',.
.~:.:. '.:.
". . .. "{- . t()MOC£lI[OUS flOW

K(fUCc.t~OU\ 11.0"'1
wr.nc,.. IlCWl
i .
RCWWUHA
s,",-'ICH-At't lUI
I
I

I.., ",

log.
-t--------
-.. L- ._.
~
',L' :0. •
'.l _
._
FLOW WITH A
STATIONARY SED
Figure 5 Slurry line pressure drop versus line velocity, and slurry flow regions. (I I]

1993, P. Doren and D. Barnea [7], developed a set of equations 10 estimated the limit deposit velocity and slurry
line pressure drop at any line velocity. Their equations are complicated (integral and differential forms) and
needs to be solved numerically. 1995, P. Doren and D. Barnea (8] compared their theoretical model with
experimental data. They found better estimation in limit deposit velocity and slurry line pressure drop
estimation. The advantage of their model is able to estimate the slurry line operation at flow below or above
limit deposit velocity, the height of stationary bed. and their estimations (V 10 and DP) are very close to
experimental data, but it is difficult 10 use their model. Therefore, an easier way to estimation slurry line limit
deposit velocity and line pressure drop is presented below.

rnA.I Slurry line limit deposit velocity

To start the slurry line limit deposit velocity calculation, an initial line size (inside diameter) bas to be selected.
Then, use following method to estimate the limit deposit velocity.

Method 1: In 1987, J. T. Davis [9J published an equation based on theoretical reasoning to estimate slurry line
(with one solid particle size) limit deposit velocity (V LD in ft/sec) as follows:

V LD = 3.2S1 F7 [19.6 (ps - pL)I pLj"O.54 [(df39.37)"0.46) (ISa)

F7 = 1.08 [(1+3.64 c)"I.09J [(I~)"O.55n] [(10"-6»)1/ (PU6237)}"(-0.09)(dp"O.lS) (18b)

c is average concentration of solid particles, in volume fraction; n is hindered settling velocity exponent,
dimensionless; ps is solid particle density, in Iblft3; pL is liquid density, in 1b1ft3;d is line inside diameter, in
inch; J1 is liquid viscosity in cp; dp is solid particle diameter, in meter,

For slurry has many different sizes solid particles, its average solid particle diameter can be calculated by
following equation:

dp = [sum (xi • dpi"3)]"(113), i = I to m (18c)

117
xi is weight or volume fraction of solid particles in ith fraction of solid particles distribution analysis, total m
fractions.

For quick estimation of limit deposit velocity, it is suggested to let n = 2 in Eq. (18b) [10]; otherwise use Eq.
(19a) to Eq, (19c) to calculate Rep and use Figure 6 to find n (19].

Rep = (10"6) (dp) (vp) (pU62.37) 1 J.l (198)

vp = 3.6148 [dp (PslpL-I) 1C] "0.5 (19b)
C = (432/Ar) (I +0.041 Ar"(213» + 0.511/(1 + 154 Ar "(-1/3» (19c) [16)
Where Ar - 9.8 (10"8) (dP"3) [(psl62.31 - pU62.31) (pLf62.31»)1 (J,l"2), for Ar up to 2-10" 1O.

Rep is solid particle Reynolds number; vp is solid particles settling velocity in quiescent liquid, in rnlsec; C is
drag coefficient; Ar is Archimedes number.

~r------------------------------'
"0.
n
..
0

3.0 ~

2.0 '- -'-' __ --I.:--__-':- .!:-__-'::-----J

!Cr' .cr' til' 10' .0' .0' .0'
Rep
Figure 6 Hindered settling velocity exponent as a function of particle Reynolds number. [19]

This method in general will provide higher limit deposit velocity estimation. J. T. Davies [9] in this article
compared his limit deposit velocity predication method with 4 sets experiment data using sand and water at
sand volume fraction of 0.12 and sand specific gravity at 2.65. For sand particle diameter ranged from 0.1 to 3.1
mm, and line inside diameter ranged from 9.4 to 100 mm, average errors are -1.6% (largest error -86%) for I"
set of 6 data, -28.8% (largest error -40.(010)for 2'111 set of 22 data, -21.1% (largest error -60.0%) for 3n1 set of 6
data, 9.5% (largest error 11.2%) for 4'" set of8 data, and -14.4% (largest error -31.0%) for 4th set of 8 data.
Negative error means overestimate, and positive error means underestimate. See reference 9 Table I for more
details of the comparison.

Method 2 In 1980, A R. Oroskar and R. M. Turian [10] based on theoretical reasoning (fraction of turbulent
eddies to keep solid particles suspended) and regression analysis of351 experimental data. These data cover
solid particle diameter from O. J to 2.04 rom. line diameter from J.9 to 31.5 ern, solid particle specific gravity
from 1.3 to 5.25, solid voLume fraction from 0.01 to 0.50, fluid specific gravity from 0.9 to 1.35, and fluid
viscosity from 0.41 to J 300 cp, See reference 10 Table 2 for more details. Oroskar and Turian reponed their
equation can predict experimental data within 21.8% error.

V LD = 6.07 [c"O.1536][(I -c)"03564] [(dJW(dl3937))"{..().378)][Re,."0.09] [x"O.3][(9.8dP(pslpL-l»)"0.5] (20a)

Re, = 10"6 (dl39.31) (pL/62.37) (9.8 dp (pslpL-l»"0.5 1).1. (20b)

118
Rex is a modified Reynolds number, dimensionless; x is fraction of turbulent eddies with velocities exceeding
vp. x in Eq. (20a) is a correction factor for limit deposit velocity. It is a function of vpIV LO. x value increases,
when vpIV LD decreases, The value ofx is usually> 0.95. [10) To simplify the calculation, it is suggest to let x
=1. For vpIV LD about 0.32, x=O.95. See reference 10 Figure 6 for more deIaiJs ofx versus vpIV LD variation.

Once slurry limit deposit velocity is found, it is recommended to select slurry line design velocity by adding I
to 2 ftlsec to the estimated limit deposit ,-elocity or by rimes it by 1.25. whichever is greater. One caution is that
for hard solid particles, too high slurry velocity will cause line erosion. Therefore. for slurry hand.ling hard solid
particles, a moderate safety margin should be added to the limit deposit velocity.

Based on selected slurry line velocity, recalculate the line diameter. d. If it is different from the initial estimated
diameter. repeal the calculation until they are agreed.

The above method for estimating slurry limit deposit velocity is a rough estimate. When possible. experimental
val ue should be used, since it is more reliable.

m.4.2 Sluny line pressure drop calculation

19n. R. Turiao and T. Yuan [II] proposed 8 way 10 estima!e the slurry friction factor at different flow region.
They derived their equations by using dmensionless analysis and regression analysis of 2&48 experimental data
with line diameter from 1.2610 69.9 em, solid particle specific gravity from 1.1610 11.3. particle size from 29.7
[038000 micron, solid concenuation from 0.0006 1042% by ..-oltune, and mean velocity from 0.009 to 6.7
meter/sec.

Following equations are used 10 identify slurry flow regions:

ROI = v"21 (31.93 c"1.083· fL"I.064· C"-O.0616· dx· g. (s-I» (21)
RI2 = v"21 (2.411 c"O.2263 • fL"-O.2334 • C"-0.3480· dx 0g. (s·l» (22)
R23 = v"2/ (0.2859 c"1.075· fL"·0.67· C"-O.9375 • dx • g • (s·l» (23)

vis sluny line velocity. in cmlsec; c is slurry solid concentration, in volume %; fL is friction factor of line flow
without solid particles. dimensionless; C is drag coefficient, dimensionless; dx is line inside diameter. in em; g
is gravitational constant, io 980 cmlsec2; s = pslpL, density ratio of solid particle to liquid, dimensionless.

Once ROI. R12. and R23 are calculated, flow region can be identified by using Table 2. The transition from
flow with statiooazy bed 10 saltation flow happens at ROI -I; between saltation flow and heterogeneous flow
happens at R 12= I; and between heterogeneous flow and homogeneous flow happens at R23= I. If flow region
can not be identified by Table 2, refer 10 reference [II) for further treatment.

T abl e 2 SIIwry rme flow reg on identifi canon

Flow region ROI ·1 R12·1 R23· I Number data points
o- stationary bed . . · 361
I - saltation + . · 1230
2 - heterogeneous + + · 493
3 - homogeneous + + + 645

Once sluny flow region is identified, sluny friction factor (fs) in this region is calculated by following
equations:
For flow with stationary bed region (region 0):
fs = fL + 0.4036 c"O.7389 • fL"O.n17· C"-O.4OS4 [v"21(dx • g • (s-I»)"·I.()96 (24)
119
For flow in saltation flow region (region I):
fs = fL + 0.9857 c"1.018 • tL"t.046· C"-0.4213 [v"21(dx • g. (s-I»]"- 1.354 (25)
For flow in heterogeneous flow region (region 2):
fs = fL + 0.5513 c"O.8687· fL"1.2 • C"-O.l677 [v"21(dx • g. (s-I»]"-0.6938 (26)
For flow in homogeneous flow region (region 3):
fs = tL + 0.8444 c"O.5024· fI.:'1.428· C"O.l516 [v"21(dx· g. (s-I»]"-0.353I (27)

fL is calculated using Eq, (7), with Re = 100 dx • v • (pU62.37)1 J.I.Drag coefficient, C, is calculated by
following equations: [11]

Let a =
Rep • C"O.S = [4 g dpx"3 (pL/62.37) «ps-pL)/62.37) 1 (3 J.I"2)]"O.S (28a)
log Rep- -1.38+1.94 log (a)-8.6*10"{-2)*(1080),,2-2.52 *10"{-2)*Ooga)"3+9.19*10"{-4)*(loga)"4+5.35*10"{-4)·(log 8)"5 (28b)
dpx is average solid particle diameter, in ern; log base is 10.

Once solid particle Reynolds number, Re", is calculated by Eq. (28b). Drag coefficient, C, can be calculated by
following equation:

C ~ (a 1 Rep}"2 (28c)

Once slurry friction factor, fs, is calculated, slurry line pressure drop can be calculated by Eq. (2). The above
method for slurry line pressure drop is a rough estimate. When possible, experimental value should be used,
since it is more reliable.

ill.S Pressure drop of pipe fittings

Most line has pipe fittings, such as elbows, tees, reducers. It also has block valves, check valves, or instruments,
such as control valve and orifice flow meter. They will cause pressure drop in line. In this section, we will
discuss how to calculate pressure drop thru pipe fitting, block valve, check valve, and control valve using loss
coefficient, K, since their pressure drops are required in hydraulic loop pressure profile calculation. Darby's 3-K
method will be used to calculate these pressure drops [12]. It is better than two K method or equivalent line
length methods. Fittings and valves pressure drop (in terms of pressure head, H) is calculated by following
equation,:

H = 144 OP 1 p = K • v"21 (2 g) (29)

K = KII Re + Ki (I + Kd 1dn"O.3) (30a)
K = (29.838 (12 0}"21 Cv}"2 (30b)
The loss coefficient (K) of fittings and block valves are function of Reynolds number and the nominal line size
(ct., in inch). The three K (Kl, Ki, and Kd) and equivalent line length (1.q) of different fittings and block valves
are listed in Table 3. Eq. (30b) is used to calculate control valve K with known inlet line inside diameter 0 (in
ft), and control valve sizing coefficient (Cv). Control valve pressure drop calculation by this method is a rough
estimate. For more accurate control valve pressure drop calculation, the methods in Chapter 7 should be used.

IIl.6 Final line sizing

The final line size of single phase flow, two phase flow, gravity flow, and slurry flow should be based on
hydraulic loop pressure profile calculation using actual line length and pipe fittings shown in the piping
isometric drawings.

120
Ill. 7 Tool for line sizing

Tool for line sizing is a computer program able to calculate line pressure drop and velocity for vapor, liquid,
two-phase flow, gravity flow, or slurry flow. The computer program can be a hydraulic spreadsheet able to
calculate the pressure profile of a hydraulic loop, or it can be a computer program which is able to calculate line
pressure drop and velocity at different line size.

IV. Optimum single phase line size

Optimum single phase (liquid or vapor) line size is diseussed in this section. It only applies to cases where line
pressure drop bas a cost to plant. For example, pump or compressor is used to overcome the line pressure drop.
It is not applicable to cases where line pressure drop is free, such as a pressure let down line.

There are two types of cost associated with a line. One is capital cost (total installation cost. (CI, in $», which
includes materials and installation cost, which is the cost before a plant is in operation. The other is operating
cost (CO, in $), which is the total cost required to operate this line over its life time (N, in years). Total cost ofa
line (CT, in $) is the sum of its capital cost and its operating cost. The optimum line size is selected, so that the
total cost is at minimum for the life time of this line.

CT=CI+CO (31)

For a fixed flow rate and operating conditions (fluid physical properties), factors affecting line capital COS! are:
pipe material cost, complexity of piping (which affect installation cost), and factors affecting line operating cost
are: life time of the line, utility (electricity) cost, pump or compressor efficiency. For lines without pump or
compressor, a faked pump or compressor efficiency of 1000/0should be used.

The total installation cost of a line, which is its capital cost, can be estimated from tbe material cost by multiply
it by a factor (al, dimensionless). Consul cost engineer about what this factor should be. Otherwise, we have to
make reasonable estimate of this factor. From N. Lindley and J. Aoyd [13] study ofa carbon steel piping
system, this factor is 3.0 for simple piping; for complex piping, it is 12.0 for 2" piping, 8.0 for 4" piping, 6.5 for
6" piping. These factors can be used for us to make a reasonable estimate of this factor. The material cost ofa
line is the sum of piping material cost (Cp, in S) and cost of material other than piping (such as instruments,
equipment) (Cx, in $).

Cl=al (Cx+Cp) (32a)

The optimum line size presented here is based on Yu'sarticles [14, 15] with following changes:

1. Friction factor is calculated based on estimated optimum line size.

2. Piping material cost is based on its weight (a2, S/lb).
3. Only line pressure drop is considered for operating cost. Control valve pressuredrop is assumed as part of the
fix cost as pressure drop of equipment on line.

Friction factor: Use 0.015 for friction factor for first optimum line size calculation. Once the preliminary
optimum line size is estimated, Eq. (7) is used to calculate the actual friction factor, and the finaJ optimum line
size will be calculated.

Line wall thickness (I, in ineb): Once the preliminary optimum line size is estimated, look up the pipe spec and
find the line wall thickness, and calculate the finaJ optimum line size.

121
Table 3 3-K coestants (loss coefficients) and equivalent line length for valves and fittings I12, 18)
Finina K) KI ~ 1T{d
Elbows· 90" Threaded, Standard (rId - I) 800 0.14 4.0
Threaded, Long Radius (rid - J.5) 800 0.075 4.2 16
Flanged, Welded, Bends (rid - I) 800 0.09) 4.0 20
(rld·2) 800 0.056 3.9 12
(rid - 4) 800 0.066 3.9 14
(rid - 6) 800 0.075 4.2 17
Mitered I Weld (90") 1000 0.27 4.0 60
2 Welds (45") 800 0.136 4.1 30
3 Welds (30" ) 800 0.105 4.2 24
45· Threaded Standard (rid - I) 500 0.071 4.2 16
Long Radius (rid - 1.5) 500 0.052 4.0
Mitered I Weld (45") 500 0.086 4.0 15
2 Welds (22.5") 500 0.052 4.0 12
180· Threaded, (rId - I) 1000 0.23 4.0 50
Flanged (rId - I) 1000 0.12 4.0
All (rId - 1.5) 1000 0.10 4.0

Tees Throuah·Branc:h (as elbow)

Threaded (rId - 1) 500 0.274 4.0 60
(rId - 1.5) 800 0.14 4.0
Flanged (rId - I) 800 0.28 4.0 20
Stub-in Branch 1000 0.34 4.0
Run Through threaded (rId" I) 200 0.091 4.0 20
Flanged (rId-I) 150 0.05 4.0
Stub-in branch 100 0 0

Valves Angle Valve > 45° Full Line size, ~ .. I 950 0.25 4.0 55
- 90· Full Line size, ~ - 1 1000 0.69 4.0 150
Globe Valve Slalldard, ~ - I 1500 1.70 3.6 340
Plug Valve Branch Flow 500 0.41 4.0 90
Straight Through 300 0.084 3.9 18
Three-way (flow through) 300 0.14 4.0 30
Gate Valve Standard, ~ - I 300 0.037 3.9 8
Ball Valve Standard, ~ - I 300 0.017 3.5 3
Diaphragm Dam-Type 1000 0.69 4.9
Swing Check V.... = 351P (lb,./W )rlll 1500 0.46 4.0 100
Lift Check V... - 40r p (1b,./W »)'In 2000 2.85 3.8 600

Compression ratio (r, dimensionJess): An initial estimate of compression ratio should be guessed. Once the
preliminary optimum line size is estimated, compression ratio should be updated. It only considers line pressure
drop, using the starting point pressure as 'suction pressure', and 'suction pressure' plus line pressure drop as
'discharge pressure'. See section IV.3 (2) for more comment,

Once the optimum line size is estimated, make sure the line velocity is not exceeding its erosion velocity.

Optimum liquid and vapor line size equations are presented in following sections. Nomenclatures, assumptions,
and equations of the symbols used in this section are explained as follows:

a I, ratio of capital cost to material cost, see Eq. (32a), dimensionless; a2, cost of piping material, in $/lb; aJ,
electricity cost, in $Ikw.
CI, capital cost (total installation cost), in $; CO, operating cost, in $; CT, total cost of a line, in $; Cp, line
material cost, in $; Cx, material cost other than line; in $.
122
pm, piping material density, in Ib/ft3; dpL, line pressure drop, in psi; dpx, other line pressure drop, such as
equipment or instrument pressure drop, in psi.
efiL is pump efficiency, in fraction; effV is compressor efficiency, in fraction.
1: Moody or Darcy friction factor, dimensionless.
His is vapor isentropic head, in ft; HP, required horsepower for line pressure drop, in hp; HPm is compressor
mechanical loss, in hp.
k is vapor heat capacity ratio, dimensionless; k:x is defined by Eq. (39c).
L, length of line, in feet.
mw is vapor molecular weight.
N, design life time of a line, in years.
pi, line inlet pressure, in psig; p2, line outlet pressure, in psig; PI = 3.1416.
Q is liquid flow in a line, in gpm.
r, compression ratio of compressor, dimensionless.
t, line wall thickness, in inch.
w is gas flow in line, in Ib/min.

Assumptions: Each year, plant is in operation for 8000 hours;

Piping material cost, Cp, is calculated as follows:

Cp = PI (d112) • (tlI2) • L • pm • 81 = (81 • PI / 144) • (d • t • L • Dm) (33)

From Eq. (32a), line capital cost can be calculated by following equation:

CI = al (Cx + (81 • PI /144) • (d • t • L • pm) (32b)

Other material cost, ex, is constant. CI is function of line inside diameter, d

Line operating cost is calculated by following equation:

co = a3 • 0.7457 HP • 8000 • N (34)

Line pressure drop, dp, is the sum ofline pressure drop, dpL, and other line pressure drop, dpx, which is a
constant for fixed flow rate:

dp = p2 - pi = dpL + dpx (35)

IV.I Optimum liquid line size

For liquid line, required horsepower for line pressure drop is calculated by following equation:

HP = Q. dp/(1714· efiL) (36a)

HP = Q. (dpL + dpx) / (1714 • effl.) (36b) [use Eq. (35)]

For liquid flow, line pressure drop, dpL, is calculated by following equation:

dpL = f· pL • L • Q1\2/ (4627.376 • d1\5) (37)

Pressure drop other than friction. dpx, for a line with fixed flow is constant. Substitute Eq. (37) into Eq. (36b),
and Eq. (36b) into Eq. (34). CO is a function of line inside diameter, d, assuming friction factor, f, is constant.
123
Substitute Eq. (32b) and Eq. (34) into Eq. (31). Let differentiation ofCT with respect to line inside diameter, d,
to zero. After some algebra manipulation, follow equation for the optimum liquid line size is obtained.

d optL = 0.746 (f· a3 • N· pL· Q"31 (al • a2 • t " etlL • pm»)"(1/6) (38a)

For carbon steel or stainless steel piping, pro=488.357 Ib/ftJ, sp. gr. 7.83. Eq. (38a) is reduced to following
equation.

d optL = 0.2658 (f· a3 • N • pL • Q"3 1 (al • a2 • t • etlL»"(1/6) (38b)

lV.2 Optimum vapor line size

For vapor line, required horsepower for line pressure drop is calculated by following equation:

HP = w • His 1 (33000 • eflV) + HPm (39a)

His = 1545 z· T· (r"kx -1)1(mw " kx) (39b)
kx=(k-l)/k (39c)
r=p2/pl =(P2-pl)/pl +1 =dp/pJ +1 = (dpL+dpx)/pl +1 (39d)

For vapor flow, line pressure drop, dpL, is calaculated by following equation:

dpL = f· L· w"21 (82.694 • pv • d"5) (40)

dpx is pressure drop other than line. For a line with fixed flow, it is a constant Substitute Eq. (40) into Eq.
(39dlb/a), and Eq. (39a) into Eq. (34). CO is a function ofline inside diameter, d, assuming friction factor, I: is
constant

Substitute Eq. (32b) and Eq. (34) into Eq. (31). Let differentiation of CT with respect to line inside diameter, d,
to zero. After some algebra manipulation, follow equation for the optimum vapor line size is obtained

d optV = 2.04 (f· a3 • N • r"kx • w"31 (al • a2 • t • eflV • pv"2 • pm»"(1I6) (41a)

For carbon steel or stainless steel piping, Dm=488.357 )b/ft3, sp. gr. 7.83. Eq. (38a) is reduced to following
equation.

d optV = 0.727 (f·a3 • N • r"kx • w"31 (al • a2 * t • eftV * pv"2 »)"(1/6) (4Ib)

Evaluate pv at line inlet conditions.

IV.3 Comments about optimum line sizing

Following comments are based on preliminary tests of the above optimum Line sizing equations:

(I) In general, the equations will provide oversized line size comparing to general practice, if life span of the
line (N) equals to 10 years and at larger flow rates. The reason is that the above derived equations are
mathematical solutions, but in reality using a smaller line size may be justified, since the cost difference from
the optimum may be little. It will need to calculate the total cost of several line sizes around the optimum line
size to check how much saving will be achieved. To match the general practice, it is recommended to let N=1
for liquid line size, and N=O.5 or less for vapor line sizing.

124
(2) Other recommended parameters are: Let effL and effV (pump and compressor efficiency)=I.O; r (vapor
compression ratio)= 1.0.
(3) For small or shorter lines, it may not be worth the effort to study the optimum line size. But for large and
longer lines, derived optimum line size equations are a tool for more detaiJed study.
(4) Using erosion velocity or known corrosive line velocity as an upper limit to reduce the line size from the
calculated optimum size.

V. Line list

Line list is usually initiated by process engineers. It provides a list of lines and line information in a unit. The
most important information in line list for each line are: line size, line number, line spec, insulation type and
thickness, stress relief, fluid category, fluid phase, operating conditions (temperature, pressure), design
conditions, upset conditions, fluid density.

Nomenclatures:

I. For single phase line, gravity flow line, or pressure drop of pipe fittings; section 111.1,Ill.J, or 11I.5.
A line inside cross sectional area, ft2.
AC acceleration factor, dimensionless.
cl, c2 constant in Eq. (3a) and Eq. (3b).
c3, c4 defined in Eq. (7a)
d line inside diameter, inch.
<In nominal line size, inch; used in Eq. (30).
D line inside diameter, ft.
DP liquid line pressure drop or uncorrected vapor line pressure drop, psi.
DPx corrected vapor line pressure drop, psi.
f friction factor, dimensionless.
fr Fanning friction factor, dimensionless.
fm Moody or Darcy friction factor, dimensionless.
g acceleration of gravity, 32.174 ftlsec2.
G mass flux, Ib/sec-ft2; see Eq. (4c).
H pressure head, ft; see Eq. (29).
K, K I,Ki, Kd pressure loss coefficients; see Eq. (30).
L line length, ft.
Q liquid flow rate, gpm.
PI line segment inlet pressure, psia.
P2 line segment inlet pressure, psia,
Pavg average line pressure, psia.
Re Reynolds number, dimensionless; see Eq. (5).
v line velocity, ftlsec.
V erosion line erosion velocity, ftlsec.
w vapor flow rate, Ib/sec.

2. For two phase line, section 111.2.

A line inside cross sectional area, ft2.
AC acceleration factor, dimensionless,
D line inside diameter, ft.
DP corrected line pressure drop, psi.
125
DPx uncorrected line pressure drop, psi.
fro corrected two phase friction factor; see Eq. (161).
fx uncorrected two phase friction factor.
Fr Froude number, see Eq. (16f).
g acceleration of gravity, 32.174 ftlsec2.
G mass flux of the two phase flow, Ib/sec-ft2, see Eq. (16d).
K a flow parameter correlated to Z; see Eq. (16h to 16j).
Nx modified superficial vapor velocity, ft/sec; see Eq. (11).
Ny modified superficial liquid velocity, ftlsec; see Eq. (12).
QL liquid volume flow rate, ft3/sec.
Qv vapor volume flow rate, ft3/sec.
Re Reynolds number, see Eq. (16c).
Re.. Dukler constant slip two phase mixture Reynolds number, dimensionless; see Eq. (16n).
Re". Dukler no slip two phase mixture Reynolds number, dimensionless; see Eq. (160).
RL constant slip liquid volume fraction in place inside the line; see Eq. (16k).
S liquid surface tension, dyne/em,
Swa surface tension of water and air at 60°F, 14.7 psia, 62.37 dyne/em,
vm (no slip) two phase mixture velocity, ftlsec; see Eq. (16g).
VsL superficial liquid velocity, ftlsec; see Eq. (9).
Vsv superficial vapor velocity, ftlsec; see Eq. (10).
wL liquid flow rate in weight, lb/sec.
wm total two phase flow rate in weight, Ib/sec.
wv vapor flow rate in weight, lb/sec.
x Dukler no slip liquid volume fraction, see Eq. (ISa).
Xa vapor superficial velocity correction factor; see Eq. (13).
Ya liquid superficial velocity correction factor; see Eq. (14).
Z a dimensionless correlating factor, see Eq. (l6b).

(l a correction factor for the uncorrected two phase flow friction factor, fx, see Eq. (16m).
pL Liquid density, Ib/ft3.
pmb Dukler constant slip two phase mixture density used to calculate static head,lb/ft3; see Eq, (16p).
pmns Dukler no slip two phase mixture density, Ib/ft3; see Eq. (l Sb).
Pm.. Dukler constant slip two pbase mixture density,lb/ft3; see Eq. (16a).
pv vapor viscosity, cp,
J.IL liquid viscosity, cp,
!IJllns Dukler no slip two phase mixture viscosity, cp; see Eq. (ISc).
~ Dukler constant slip two phase mixture viscosity, cp; see Eq. (l6e).
uv vapor viscosity, cp,

3. For slurry line, section lIl.4.

a defined in Eq. (28a).
AI Archimedes number, see Eq. (19c).
c solid particles volume fraction in Eq. (ISb); volume % in Eq. (21-27).
C drag coefficient, see Eq, (19c).
d line inside diameter, inch.
dp average solid particle diameter, m (meter).
dpx average solid particle diameter, em; used in Eq. (28a).
dx line inside diameter, em; used in Eq. (21-27).
fL friction factor of slurry line without sold particles, dimensionless.
fs slurry line friction factor, dimensionless; used in Eq. (24-27).
126
g gravity acceleration, 980 cmlsec2; used in Eq. (21-28).
m total fractions of solid particles; used in Eq. (18c).
n hindered settling velocity exponent, dimensionless; see Figure 6.
R01, R12, R23 parameters used to identify slurry flow region; calculated by Eq. (21-23).
Rep solid particle Reynolds number, dimensionless; see Eq. (19a).
Rex a modified Reynolds number, dimensionless; see Eq. (20b).
v slurry line velocity, cmlsec; used in Eq. (21-27).
vp solid particle settling velocity in quiescent liquid, mls (meter/sec).
V LD slurry line limit deposit velocity, ft/sec,
s density ratio of solid particle to liquid.
x fraction of turbulent eddies with velocity exceeding vp; used in Eq. (20a).
xi weight or volume fraction solid particles in ith fraction; used in Eq. (l8c).

liquid viscosity, cp.

4. For optimum single phase line size, section IV: see section IV.

Greek letters:
e line roughness, inch.
p density, Ib/ft3.
J.I. fluid viscosity, cp (centipoise).

Subscripts:
a air,
L liquid.
mIXorm mixed vapor and liquid.
s solid.
v vapor.
w water.

127
References:

1. API RP 14E, Offshore Production Platform Piping Systems, 2004, P. 23.

2. Churchill, S. W~ Frictioo-fector equation spans all fluid-flow regimes, Chern. Eng., 91, Nov. 7, 1m, p. 91-
92.
3. Flow of Fluids, Crane Technical Paper No. 410. 25'" printing, 1991; 1988.
4. Engineering Data Book, 12'" edition, 2004, Section 17, Fluid Flow and Piping, Gas Processors Suppliers
Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
5. R. J. Andersen, and T. w. F. Russell, Designing for two-phase flow- part I,Chem. Eng., Dec. 6,1965,
pp.139-144.
6. L L. Simpson, Sizing piping for process plants, Chern. Eng., June 17, 1968, p, 192-214.
7. P. Doroo and D. Sames, A three-layer model for solid-liquid flow in bOOzontal pipes, Int. J. Multipbase
Flow, vol 19,no. 6, p. 1029-1043, 1993.
8. P. Doron and D. Bamea, Pressure drop and limit deposit velocity for solid-liquid flow in pipes, Chern. Eng.
Science, vol 50, no. 10, p, 1595-1604, 1995.
9. J. T. Davis, Calculation of critical velocities to maintain solids in suspension in horizontal pipes, Chern. Eng.
Science, vol. 42, no. 7, p. 1667-1670,1987.
10. A. R. Oroskar and R. M Turian, The critical velocity in pipeline flow of slurries. AICHE Journal, vol. 26,
no. 4, p, 550-558, 1980.
II. R. Turian and T. Yuan, Flow of slurries in pipelines, A1CHE Journal, vol 23, no. 3, p, 232-243, 1977.
12. R. Darby, Correlate pressure drops through fittings, Chern. Eng., July. 1999. p, 101-103.
13. N. Lindley, J. Floyd, Piping systems: how installation costs stack up, Chern. Eag; January, 1993, p, 94-100.
14. F. Yu, How to ca1culate optimum pipe size for liquids, Hydrocarbon Processing, June, 1993, p, 67-74.
15. F. Yu, Ca1cuIateoptimum pipe size for vapor, Hydrocarbon Processing, May, 1994, p, 99-106.
16. Mandhane, J.M, G.A. Gregory, and K. Aziz, A flow panem map for gas-liquid flow in horizontal pipes, Int.
t. Multiphase Flow, Pergamon Press, Vol. I, 1974, p. 537-553.
17. Aziz, K., G.W. Govier, and M. Fogarasi, Pressure drop in wells producing oil and gas, Journal of Canadian
Petroleum Technology, July-Sept 1972, p. 38-48.
18. 3-K table from Professor Ron Darby.
19. A. D. Maude, and R. L. Whitmore, Hindered settling, Brit. J. Appl Phys., 9, 1958, p.4n-482.
20. A. E. Dulder, M Wicks, m, and R. G. Cleveland, Frictional pressure drop in two-phase flow: A. A
comparison of existing correlations for pressure loss and holdup, A1CHE Jouma1, vol. 10, no. I, J~ 1964, p,
38-43, B. An approach through similarity analysis, A1CHE Journal, \'01. 10, DO. I. Jan., 1964, p. 44-51.
21. G. A. Hughmark, Holdup in gas-liquid flow, Chemical Engineering Progress, vol. 58, no. 4, p. 62-65, April,
1962.
22. A. E. DeGance, R. w. Atherton, Chemical engineering aspects of two phase flow, Part 4, Horizontal-flow
com:lations, Chemical Engineering, vol. n, July 13, 1970, p. 95-103.
23. A.E DeGance and R. W. Atherton, Chemical engineering aspects of two phase flow, Part 5, Mechanical
energy balance, Chemical Engineering. vol n. August 1970, p. 119-126.
24. A. E. DeGance, R. W. Alherton, Chemical engineering aspects of two phase flow. Part 7, Pressure drop
sample calculations, Chemical Engineering. vol 77, Nov. 2,1970, p. 101-132.

128
Chapter 7 Control valve
I. Introduction

Each plant has many control loops. They are used to control process variables, such as flow, pressure,
temperature, or liquid level, to a certain level, so that plant will be operated in design conditions. A control loop
consists a sensor, a transmitter, a controller, a transducer, and a control valve. The sensor is used to measure a
process parameter (at operating condition), such as flow rate, pressure, temperature, or liquid level. The
transmitter transmits the measured process parameter in electronic signal to the controller in control room by
hardwire, The controller compares the measured process parameter to its design value, and calculates any
required adjustment. This adjustment is sent to a transducer at field as electronic signal using hardwire. At the
transducer, the electronic signal is converted to pneumatic signal. This pneumatic signal is sent to the control
valve to regulate the flow through it to control the flow rate in a line, or the pressure in a vessel, or the
temperature from an equipment, or the liquid level in a vessel. A typical control loop is shown in Figure la, 1b,
I c. Control valve is the last element of a control loop. It is an instrument item.
$' " .... lillnol 4 111- room ~
hI_·..........
i-~----~---~--~---\---
or PC _ .....
-..,0., ..... 10
.,.,....,. oIgnoI.

orPT _

---
_ and

Figure 1a A typical flow or pressure control loop.

-
-
.-..
Figure 1b A typical temperature
--.-
control loop. Figure 1c A typical level control loop.

It is process engineer's responsibility to identify the requirement of a control loop and to provide the process
information for a control valve on a data sheet Based on these information, instrument engineer will select a
proper control valve for plant to install.

This chapter provides basic information of control valve for process engineers to understand the function of
control valve in a control loop, to estimate a preliminary control valve size, and to provide the required process
information to instrument engineer for control valve purchase.

n. Control Valve Type

Control valve type can be classified according to following factors:

Per application: flow control valve, pressure control valve, temperature control valve, level control valve, on-off
control valve, manual control valve, emergency shutdown valve.
Per process fluid: liquid control valve, vapor or gas control valve.

129
Per hardware: globe control valve (single port or double port), rotary control valve (ball, plug, or butterfly),
angle control valve.
In this chapter, we will discuss control valves mainly for automatic process control purpose.

IIIControl Valve Parts

Most control valves used for automatic process control are either globe or rotary control valves. Their parts are
briefly discussed here.

III.I Globe control valve: Globe control valve has following parts See Figure 2 [I J for details.

CMAPHRAGM
PLATE

ACTUATOR SPRIIIO

DIRECT -ACTIIG ACTUA TOIl

REUlIOIIS,. OF
.A.IOII COMPONEHTS

PUSII-OOWM-TC><:LOSE VALVE IIOOY ASSE .. y

Figure 2 Major components of a globe control valve. [Courtesy of Fisher Controls International LLC, Emerson
Process Management.]

130
(I) Valve body assembly: It includes I) a valve body with a flow passage, inlet/outlet flanges, and a connection
for bonnet assembly installation, 2) a bonnet assembly which includes a packing box, 3) a valve plug stem with
one or two valve plugs, 4) a cage, and a valve seat ring. The valve plug is moving up or down to regulate the
flow through the control valve flow passage.

The bonnet assembly is connected to the valve body. It provides a passage for the valve stem to move up or
down. The valve seat ring is for the valve plug to rest on it, The cage is used to guide the valve plug movement.
The packing box is used to prevent fluid leak out from the valve stem.

Some bonnet has a long extension between packing box and bonnet bottom connection. The purpose is to
prevent packing box exposed to the extreme hot or cold process fluid inside the control valve body.

For a globe control valve, valve trim is usually referred to following parts: valve plug, cage, seat ring, and stem.
Valve plug and openings at cage will affect the flow characteristics of a control valve.

(2) Valve actuator assembly: Actuator is used to move valve plug using valve stern to regulate the fluid flow
through a control valve. It is powered by instrument air, hydraulic fluid, or electricity. There are diaphragm type
or piston type actuators.

For diaphragm type actuator assembly (see Figure 2), it includes I) a diaphragm case with a diaphragm, a
diaphragm plate, and an instrument air or hydraulic fluid connection, 2) an actuator stem with spring adjuster, 3)
an actuator spring, and 4) a yoke and a stem travel indicator scale. One end of the actuator stem is connected to
the diaphragm and the diaphragm plate inside the diaphragm case, and the other end is connected to the valve
stem from the bonnet assembly. For pneumatic actuator, instrument air is used to move the diaphragm and valve
stem up or down. The yoke provides a structure to mount the actuator assembly to the bonnet assembly.

For piston type actuator assembly, it includes I) a cylinder case with a piston, 2) an actuator stem, and 3) a yoke
and a stem travel indicator scale. See Figure 3 [I] for details. One end of the actuator stem is connected to the
piston inside the cylinder case, and the other end is connected to the valve stem from the bonnet assembly. Fluid
in the cylinder is used to move the piston and valve stem up or down.

~ __

~-
.....
- ..... --

---4CTUATOR STE.
UlEIf....

c........
----

--
..........
A(:fUATOfil

Cl'UlCit:R HAL
ClO$UA.£ "tAL
RVBetR eOOT --~

Figure 3 A typical piston type actuator with positioner. [Courtesy of Fisher Controls International LLC,
Emerson Process ManagemenL]

131
When actuator power supply is failed, control valve using diaphragm actuator, its plug position is either full
open or close, and for control valve using piston actuator, its plug position can be full open, full close, or fail at
last position. In general, diaphragm actuator is more reliable and last longer than piston actuator, since it doesn't
have moving parts to wear out.

(3) Other accessories:

I) Positioner: Its purpose is to move valve plug to a desired position faster and accurately by boosting the signal
sent to the actuator. The input signal can be pneumatic, analog, or digital. Latest positioner using
microprocessor to provide control valve monitor and diagnostic capabilities to ensure valve performance does
not degrade with time.
2) Handwheel: It used to limit valve plug movement or manually full close or open a control valve.
3) Limit switch: It is a mechanical devise to limit the valve plug from full open or full close position.

Ill.2 Rotary control valve

Rotary control valve is another type of control valve. Its major difference from globe control valve is at its valve
body design and shaft movement. Rotary control valve's closing element is a ball (full, partial, or V-notched), a
butterfly disk (conventional, dynamically design, or eccentric), or a plug (eccentric). It relies on rotating the
valve shaft to move the control valve ball or disk. The valve shaft is connected to an actuator. The actuator uses
the valve shaft to rotate the ball or the disk to control the flow through the valve. See Figure 4 for some typical
rotary control valve. The advantage of rotary control valve over globe valve is that it can handle dirty service,
low emission, more flow for the same size globe control valve, and it has high pressure recovery.

Figure 4 Some typical rotary control valves. [Courtesy of Fisher Controls International LLC, Emerson Process
Management.]
IV. Control Valve Performance
The purpose of using a control valve is to control a process parameter to an acceptable range, when the process
is experiencing some disturbances, such as feed rate fluctuation, ambient temperature change, etc. A good
control valve should be able to handle disturbance of 1% or less. There are two types of control valve
performance need to be discussed. One is inherent control valve performance and the other is installed control
valve performance.
132
Inherent control valve performance is referred 10 control valve performance alone without interacting with
process system and control loop elements. Flow through control valve depends on its trim (intemaJ design) and
valve opening. Each control valve has its own inherent characteristic in terms of flow rate and valve opening.
This inherent flow characteristic is measured at constant pressure drop across the control valve. Typical control
valve inherent flow characteristics are quick open, linear, and equal-percentage, see Figure 5 [I], where per cent
of maximum flow through the control valve is plotted against the per cent of control valve rated travel or
opening. The ratio of incremental change of flow rate 10 the corresponding incremental change of valve opening
is defined as valve gain. It is the slope of the control valve inherent flow characteristic curve at a certain valve
opening. Valve gain is a measure of control valve flow variation at certain valve opening .
•• , , ,., "7
- -- V
V· I r
I
~'
I
I/....J. IY I
•I I v II
v
/
Y
j
:
,
J

1/ V ./
JZ • V _--i-!
~'l
•
V
..""'1' ! j
.. - Figure 5 Inherent control valve flow characteristic. (I)
For linear flow control valve, its inherent flow characteristic curve is a straight line. This means for an equal
increment of valve opening will produce an equal increment of flow. For equal percentage flow control valve,
its gain is small at low valve opening and large at large valve opening. For quick open control valve, its gain is
large at low valve opening and low at large valve opening. For globe control valve, its inherent flow
characteristics can be changed by replacing the cage andfor plug. See Figure 6, for different cages. Each cage
provides different inherent flow characteristics due to different shape of openings on it. This is not possible for
a rotary control valve.

Figure 6 Three different cages used in globe control valve. [Courtesy of Fisher Controls International LLC,
Emerson Process Management]
Installed control valve performance is referred to control valve performance including associated process
system and control loop elements. Flow through control valve depends on the control valve selected (such as
valve type, valve trim, actuator, etc.), associated process system (such as equipment/instrument and piping in
the system), and selected control loop elements (such as controller, positioner, etc.). II is the real performance
measurement of a control loop. A good control loop should be able to control the process parameter within an
acceptable range.
133
For 8 control loop, the installed flow cbarac:teristic (mstalled control valve performance) is now through a
control valve veI$US a range of control valve travel or opening. 1De insIaIIed or loop gain is defined as %
change of now divided by the % change of valve opening. It is a slope of the insta1led flow chata:teri.sric curve
al cenain valve opening. 1De goal is to choose the control valve and control loop elements, so that the insta1led
loop gain are fairly linear over the operating range. Normal practice is 10 keep installed loop gain variation from
at 4 10 I ratio with minimnm gain at 0.5 (I]. Figure 7 shows the installed flow characteristic curve and installed
gain curve for a butterfly and globe valve. It can be seen that bunerfly valve bas narrow control range than
globe valve.
11.1 •• d Flow ChaoIocIIwiltlc: Md G8In

,
2 -~ -,
,I
t

I
: ;
;
,
1

-
, i, ~1
---,, "- ~'-~I

•• -r
•
I . i
•
a~.,.
It.
• • • • •
v-.. T,...., f"J
• • • •
Figure 7lns1al1ed flow characteristic curve and installed gain curve for a buttedly and a globe control valve, [I)
Other factors affecting control valve performance:
(I) Dean band: It is a band of controller output, which fails to cause control valve [0 move. 1De controller
output bas 10 be larger than this dead band to cause process parameter 10 change. It is a major contribution to
poor control. Dead band is caused by friction, loose mechanical connection, etc. For globe control valve,
packing friction is a major source for dead band. Actuator also contributes friction. In general, spring/diaphragm
Iype acruator bas less friction than piston Iype, and its friction will not change much with usage. For better
process control, dead band should be 1% or less, prefer to be 0.25%of the controlled process value (IJ.
(2) Valve response time: 11is the sum of dead time and the system time constant. 1De dead time is the time
dumtion which the process pammeler remains 1Ulcbanged, after a disturbance is introduced. 1De system time
constant is the time duration for the process parameter to reach 63% of its final value (excluding dead time),
after 8 step change is introduced to the system. Ingeneral, the dead time should be less than onc-third of valve
response time [l).

V. Control Valve Sizing: Control valve sizing for liquid or vapor service will be discussed in this section.
V.I Liquid control valve sizing
For 8 given liquid flow rate (Q), in gpm, and control valve pressure drop (dp), in psi, control valve sizing
coefficient (Cv) can be calculated by following equation:

ev-Q/(Fp· (dp I sp. gr.) " 0.5 J (I)

dp;pI-p2 (2)
sp, gr. is liquid specific gravity at operating conditions. IIis liquid density at valve inlet conditions divided bY
water density at 60°F. pI is control valve inJet pressure, in psig, and p2 is control valve outlet pressure, also in
psig.

Control valve sizing coefficient (Cv) is a measure of control valve capacity. Larger control valve bas larger Cv
value. For liquid control valve, Cv means the liquid flow in gpm thru a control valve at 1.0 psi control valve
pressure drop.
134
Fp is piping geometry factor. If there is no fitting at control valve inlet and outlet, Fp is equal to 1.0. Otherwise,
it is calculated by following equation:

Fp = (I + Ks • (Cv / d"2),,2 /890)"(-0.5) (3)

Ks = kl + k2 + kbl - kb2 (4a)
kl = 0.5· (1-(dlDl)"2)"2 (4b)
k2 = 1.0 • (I - (dID2)"2}"2 (4c)
kbl = I - (dID 1)"4 (4d)
kb2 = I - (dID2}"4 (4e)

kl is the resistance coefficient of control valve inlet reducer. k2 is the resistance coefficient of control valve
outlet reducer. kbl and kb2 are the control valve inlet and outlet Bernoulli coefficient. d is control valve
nominal size, in inch, and D I and D2 are control valve inlet and outlet piping inside diameter, in inch. Most
fittings at control valve are reducers.

The pressure profile in a control valve is shown in Figure 8 [2]. Pressure inside the valve will drop from its inlet
pressure (PI) to the lowest pressure (pvc) due to the narrow path inside the valve body. Then, the valve pressure
will be recovered to its outlet pressure (P2). pvc is control valve pressure at its vena contracta point, the smallest
cross sectional area in control valve body. Vena contracta is usually located downstream of valve plug. Fluid
velocity at valve vena contracta point is the highest, since at this point, the largest portion of pressure energy is
converted to kinetic energy.

pi ------------------------
(iNII_1

------------ -'-1pv

(-_I
p~-----_.
pY('Apof~1
lcan ij.i..-.icoj

vaMl~ge
Figure 8 Pressure profile inside a control valve.

Ifpvc is less than liquid's vapor pressure (pv, in psia), liquid inside the valve will be vaporized. If valve outlet
pressure (P2) is less than liquid's vapor pressure, control valve outlet will be two phase flow, a mixture of vapor
and liquid. For this case, the control valve is for flashing service. Flashing will cause erosion damage to valve
trim. The eroded surface is usually shown with smooth and polished appearance. See Figure 9a, for a typical
control valve plug damaged by flashing. Ifp2 is greater than liquid's vapor pressure, vaporized vapor in control
valve will be imploded and converted back to liquid again at control valve outlet and downstream piping. This
control valve is for cavitation service. The collapsing of vapor will release lots energy and generating shock
waves. It will produce a sound like gravel flowing inside the valve. It will also damage the valve trim and
piping leaving a rough, cinder-like surface. See Figure 9b, for a typical control valve plug damaged by
cavitation. Control valve damage caused by cavitation is more sever than that caused by flashing.

135
 W2343t.L
Figure 9a Typical control valve plug damage by flashing. Figure 9b Typical control valve plug damage by cavitation.
[Courtesy of Fisher Controls International LLC, Emerson Process Management]

Liquid flow through a control valve will be increased, when the pressure drop (dp) across the valve is increased.
But this flow increase will be stopped, when choke flow through a control valve is reached. Further increase
control valve pressure drop above this minimum choke flow control valve pressure drop (dp choke), flow
through the control valve will not be increased. A liquid control valve flow capacity curve (flow versus square
root of control valve pressure drop) is shown in Figure 10 [2].

~------r: IIWIdmum
Ihru_

full choked flow

(dp choked - min choked flow vallie dp)

(dp)"O,5
Figure 10 Liquid control valve flow capacity curve.

The minimum choke flow control valve pressure drop (dp choke) for a liquid control valve can be estimated by
following equation.

dp choke = FL"2 • (PI - FF • pv) (5)

FL is liquid control valve pressure recovery factor. It can be found in the control valve manufacturer's flow
coefficient (Cv) table. FL varies with valve opening positions (or Cv), valve type, and design. In general, rotary
valve has higher FL than globe valve at full open position. Some valve manufacture's catalog, such as Fisher,
for globe valve, FL value is only available at full open position, but for rotary valve, FL values at different
valve openings are available. PI is control valve inlet pressure, in psia.

FF is the liquid critical pressure ratio factor. It can be estimated by following equation or by the curve in Figure
11 [1]:

FF = 0.96 - 0.28 • (pv / pc)"O.5 (6)

pc is liquid critical pressure, at psia.

The maximum flow (Q max, in gpm) through a liquid control valve is choke flow. It is calculated by following
equation:
136
Q max = Cv • [Fp • (dp choke I sp. gr.)" 0.5 ) (7)

If there is reducer at control valve inlet and outlet, replace FL in Eq. (5) by FLp/Fp. FLp is calculated by
following equation:

FLp=«k1 +kbl) ·(Cv/d"2)"2 I 890 + I/FL"2)"(-0.5) (8)

A saturated liquid flow through a control valve or a control valve with large pressure drop will usually cause
flash or cavitation. Control valve pressure drop is the largest at minimum flow case, and the control valve
should be checked for this case for possible flash or cavitation.

I•

......... ....._ r--

7
~

- -- -._

MIDWTI: "IN'011t....... pv
MIOUII'I "..~ A 'tee CIIIfICM......... - lit
Figure 11 Liquid critical pressure ratio factor versus (pv/pc). [I)

The above liquid control valve sizing equations are based on flow through valve is turbulent flow. Following
procedures should be used to check whether the flow through control valve is turbulent or not. If the flow
through control valve is not turbulent, different equations should be used to calculate the control valve Cv [2J.
First, use following equation to calculate control valve's Reynolds number (Re):

Re = 17300·Fd·Q·(FL "2·CvI\2 I (890·Dl "4)+1 )"0.25 I [(Ill sp. gr.)·(FL ·Cv)"O.5») (9a)

Il is liquid viscosity, in cp, If Re >= 40,000, flow through control valve is turbulent, Otherwise, it is not
turbulent flow, and following procedures are required to calculate the control valve Cv. Following equations
should be used to check flow through the control valve is laminar or transition flow:
Fr = 1.044 - 0.358·(CvslCv)"O.655 (9b)
Cvs = (Q·1l1(47·dp»"(2/3)I Fs (10)
Fs = (Fd"21FL)"(1I3)·(FLI\2·CvI\21(890·011\4)+1)"(116) (II)
Fr is a control valve's Reynolds number factor. Cvs is laminar flow control valve Cv. Cv is turbulent flow Cv.
Fs is laminar or streamline flow factor. Fd is valve type modifier. Fd equals 1.0 for globe control valve and ball
type rotary control valve. It equals to 0.71 for butterfly type rotary control valve.
If Fr is less than 0.48, flow through control valve is laminar, and the control valve Cv equals Cvs. If Fr greater
than 0.98, flow through control valve is turbulent flow, and previous calculated Cv can be used. If Fr is between
0.48 and 0.98, flow through control valve is transitional flow, and following equation is used to calculate valve
Cv:
Cvt= Cv IFr (12)
Cvt is transitional flow control valve Cv.
For either Cvs or Cvt, correction by piping geometry correction factor (Fp) is not required.
137
V.2 Vapor control valve sizing

For a given vapor flow rate (W), in IbIhr, and control valve pressure drop (dp), in psi, vapor control valve sizing
coefficient (Cv) can be calculated by following equation:

Cv = WI (19.3" Fp " PI " Y" (X " M I (Tl"ZI»)"O.5) (13)

Y=I-X/(3'Fk"XT) (14)
X=dp/PI (ISa) - for subsonic flow
X=Fk "XT (ISb) - for sonic flow
Fk = k 11.4 = [Cp I (Cp- 1.986)J 11.4 (16)

Fp is piping geometry factor, defined by Eq, (3); PI is control valve inlet pressure, in psia; Y is expansion
factor; X is control valve pressure drop ratio, which is the ratio of control valve pressure drop to control valve
inlet pressure (absolute); M is vapor molecular weight; TI is control valve inlet temperature, in OR(Rankine);
ZI is inlet vapor compressibility factor; Fk is ratio of specific heat ratio of vapor to air, see Eq. (16); XT is
control valve pressure drop ratio for air at sonic flow; k is specific heat ratio of vapor at inlet conditions; Cp is
vapor (constant pressure) molar heat capacity at inlet conditions, in btuIIb mole-OF.

The value of XT is available on control valve manufacture's flow coefficient table. It varies with type of control
valve, flow direction, and valve plug or disk position. Ifnot, using following value for preliminary control valve
sizing: For globe control valve use 0.70 for flow to close valve, use 0.75 for flow to open valve; for ball rotary
valve, use 0.30; for butterfly rotary, use 0.36 for 60° open, 0.26 for 90° open. (2J

If there are fittings at control valve inlet and outlet, XT in Eq. (14) should be replaced by XTp as follows:

XTp = XTI [FP"2 " (I + (kl + kbl) • XT 11000 ·(Cv, max I d"2)"2)} (17)

Cv, max is selected control valve Cv at full open position.

Like liquid control valve, there is a flow capacity limitation for vapor control valve. The difference is that for
vapor control valve, its flow capacity is limited by sonic flow. For sonic flow, X is calculated by Eq. (ISb), and
Y equals to 0.667 per Eq, (14). The value of Y will never be less than 0.667. For subsonic flow, the value of Y
is between 0.667 to 1.0. By comparing the value of X and Fk·XT, we can tell whether vapor Dow at control
valve is sonic or not. If X is greater or equal to Fk'XT, sonic flow at control valve is reached. Increasing X
(pressure drop across the control valve) will not cause flow increase through the control valve. Therefore, for
sonic Dow, X is set equal to Fk·XT.

V.3 Control valve pressure drop at other flow conditions [4, 5}

Flow through each control valve usually has three different capacities: maximum, normal, and minimum.
Hydraulic study is usually either based on maximum flow or normal flow. From hydraulic study (without pump
or compressor), available pressure drop of the control valve at either condition (case 0) is calculated. Tbe
available control valve pressure drop at other two Dow conditions (case I or 2) can be estimated by following
equation:

dpx=dpO+dpsO"(I-(Wx/WO)"2) x=I,2 (18a)

dpx is control valve pressure drop for case I or 2. dpO is control valve pressure drop for case 0, which is known
from hydraulic calculation. dpsO is system pressure drop, excluding control valve pressure drop and static
pressure difference, but including all the pressure drops which will vary with flow rate. Wx is Dow rate for case
I or 2, while WOis flow rate for case O.
138
For system with pump or compressor, control valve is usually located at pump or compressor discharge line.
The hydraulic for this system is usually done for maximum flow rate (case 0), and the control valve pressure
drop has to be assigned. It is suggested thai process engineer should assign a minimum control valve pressure
drop to the control valve 81 maximum flow to minimize the energy consumption. For liquid control valve, allow
10 to 15 psi for its pressure drop, and for vapor control valve, allow 5 to 10 psi fur its pressure drop. (These
control valve pressure drops may have to increase for large flow application.) The available control valve
pressure drop at other two flow conditions (case I or 2) can be estimated by following equation:

dpx=dpO + dpsO • (I - (WX I WO)"2) + (dpbx - dphO) r-1,2 (ISb)

dphx is pump or compressor head (in psi) for case I or 2, while dphO is pump or compressor head for case O.

Once control valve pressure drop 81 maximum, normal, and minimum flow cases are known. Required valve
sizing coefficient at each flow cases can be calculated.

Control valve inlet pressure drop of ease I or 2 can be calculated using Eq. (ISe) or Eq. (18<1) below. Eq. (ISe)
is used for system without pump or compressor. while Eq. (18<1) is used for system has pump or compressor.
dpiO in Eq. (ISc) or Eq. (18<1)is the system pressure drop upstream of control valve for case O. Use calcu1ated
dpi 10adjust the ease 0 control valve inlet pressure for the other two cases.

dpi = dpiO • (I - (WX I WO)"2) x=I,2 (ISe)

dpi c dpiO· (I -(Wx IWO)"2) + (dphx -dphO) r-I,2 (18d)

VA Reduce the damages caused by flashing or cavitation

Following are several choices to reduce the damages caused by flashing or cavitation:

- Increase control valve outlet pressure level. This can be achieved by mise control valve downstream
equipment operating pressure, or move control valve to upstream location, or by adding restriction orifice at
control valve outlet.
- Use proper material for valve trim or piping to withstand the damages.
- Use special design valve trim to minimize the damages.

VI. Other Control Valve Information

VI.I Size selection: In some project, process engineer is required to preliminary sizing Or estimate the control
valve size. It is suggested that the control valve size should be selected based on following information [3-5]:
I) Calculate control valve sizing coefficient based on maximum flow mte (Cv, max flow).
2) Determine the maximum allowable valve opening for the selected comrol valve: As a guide, for globe valve,
use 80 to 90% open as maximum allowable valve opening. For rotary valve, use 60 to 90 degree open fur
maximum allowable valve opening. Select a conrrol valve size, so that Cv, max flow is close to the maximum
allowable valve opening.
3) Make sure selected control valve can also handle the minimum flow case. As a guide, for globe valve, use 15
1020"10open as minimum allowable valve opening, For rotary valve, use 20 degree open for minimum
allowable valve opening.
As a general rule, system with large system pressure drop sbould use equal percentage control valve, and
system with little system pressure drop should use linear control valve. (Ifnot sure, common practice is to use
equal percentage control valve, since it is used in most applieations.) For on-off service, quick open control
valve is usually used.
VI.2. Material selection: Per plant experience or metallurgist suggestion.
139
VL3 Fail position: It is process engineer's responsibility to speciJY the control valve position wben energy
supply (insuumenl air, hydraulic fluid, or power) to acruator is lost..The possible choices are: fail-closed (FC),
fail-open (FO), fail drift close. fail drift open, and fail-lock (FL). FL means control val", stays at the last valve
oper.uing position wben energy supply to aauator is lost. The guideline of determining control valve's fail
position is to make sure the process unit will be in safe condition. For example, for a fire beater, fuel gas now
control valve failed position is FC to cut off the beat source, but tube side process now control valve fail
position is FO to allow process fluid to continue now through the heater to avoid overheating tubes in the fire
beater.

VL4 Seat leakage: It is process engineer's responsible to specilY any allowable process fluid IeaIa!ge through •
control valve. There are six leakage classes (I to yo
can be specified for a control valve, according ANSI/FCI
70-2-1991. The allowable leakage rate for class U to IV are 0.50/., 0.1%, and O.OI%ofratod valve capacity
respectively. If process leakage through a control valve is not allowed, tightly shut off (TSO) should be
specified for the valve (class IV, Y, or Vl).

YI.S Noise: Another control valve performance needs to be checked is its noise level. Control valve noise is the
largest noise contributor for a piping system. Noise generated at control valve can be reduced using special
designed trim, silencer, or acoustic insulation.

Vl.6 Process specifications: Process engineer should provide following process spocifications (information) to
insIrument engineer for a control valve on its data sbeet.
For liquid control valve: maximum, normal, and minimum liquid Oow rate (Q), control valve inlet pressure and
allowable pressure drop (pI, dp), liquid density (sp. gr.), vapor pressure (pv), liquid inlet temperature (TI),
liquid critical pressure (PC), and control valve inle:tloutlet pipe inside diameter (01, 02).
For vapor control valve: maximum, nonna!, and minimum vapor flow rare (W), control valve or control valve
inlet pressure and allowable pressure drop (pI, dp), heat capacity ratio (1<), vapor molecular weight (M), vapor
inlet temperature (TI), inlet vapor compressibility factor (ZI), and control valve inle:tloutlet pipe inside
diameter (0 I, 02).
Other information required for either liquid or vapor control valve are: maximum and minimum inlet pressure,
control valve shut off pressure, maximum and minimum inlee temperamre, corrosive nature of the process fluid,
any solids or contaminants present in process fluid, and viscosity of fluid (especially for bigh viscous Iluid).

VL 7 Application and cost: In general, globe control valve will be used for smaller to medium flow application
(valve size less or eqnaJ 8"). For larger now (globe valve size above 8"), rotary control valve will be used. In
general, TO1m)' control valve is cheaper than globe control valve for large flow application. Globe control valve
has the advantage of easily change its Ilow characteristic by changing its trim, but this is not true for rotary
control valve. But the advantage of rotary control valve over globe control valve is !hat it can handle cIirty
service, low emission, and more flow for the same size globe control valve.

Nomenclatures:

Cv liquid or vapor control valve sizing coefficient

Cvs laminar flow liquid control valve sizing coefficient; see Eq. (10).
Cvt transition flow liquid control valve sizing coefficient; see Eq. (12).
d control valve nominal size, inch.
01 control valve inlet piping inside diameter, inch.
02 control valve outlet piping inside diameter, inch.
dp control valve pressure drop, psi.
dpO control valve pressure drop for case 0, psi.

140
dp choke the minimum choke flow control valve pressure drop for liquid control valve, psi.
dphO pump or compressor bead for case 0, psi.
dphx pump or compressor bead for case I or 2, psi.
dpiO control valve inlet system pressure drop for case 0, psi.
dpi control valve inlet system pressure drop for case Ior 2, psi.
dpsO system pressure drop, psi.
dpx control valve pressure drop for case Ior 2, psi; see Eq. (18a).
Fd control valve type modifier; see description below Eq, (11).
FF liquid critical pressure ratio factor.
Fk ratio of speci fie beat ratio of vapor to air.
FL liquid control valve pressure recovery factor.
FLp liquid control valve pressure recovery factor - correction for control valve fittings; see Eq. (8).
Fp piping geometry factor; see Eq. (3).
Fr control valve's Reynolds number factor, see Eq. (9b).
Fs laminar or streamline flow factor; see Eq. (II).
k vapor specific ratio at inlet conditions, dimensionless.
kl the resistance coefficient of control valve inlet reducer; see Eq. (4b).
k2 the resistance coefficient of control valve outlet reducer; see Eq. (4c).
kbl the control valve inlet Bernoulli coefficient, see Eq. (4d).
kb2 the control valve outlet Bernoulli coefficient, see Eq. (4e).
Ks defined in Eq. (4a); it is used to calculate Fp in Eq. (3).
M vapor molecular weight
pI control valve inlet pressure, psig.
p2 control valve outlet pressure, psig.
PI control valve inlet pressure, psia
pc liquid critical pressure, psia,
pv liquid vapor pressure, psia,
pvc control valve pressure at its vena contracta point, psia
Q liquid flow rate, gpm.
Qmax maximum liquid flow thru a control valve, gpm; see Eq. (7).
Re control valve's Reynolds number; see Eq. (9a).
sp. gr. liquid specific gravity.
TI control valve inlet temperature, OR(Rankine).
W vapor flow rate, IbIhr.
WO flow rate for case 0; for liquid, use gpm; for vapor, use IbIhr.
Wx flow rate for case I or 2; for liquid, use gpm; for vapor, use IbIhr.
X pressure drop ratio.
XT pressure drop ratio for air at sonic flow.
XTp pressure drop ratio for air at sonic flow - correction for control valve fittings; see Eq. (17).
Y expansion factor.
ZI inlet vapor compressibility factor.

Reference:

1. Control valve handbook, 3'd edition, 2001, 4thedition, 2005, Fisher Controls International, LLC, Emerson
Process Management.
2. Automatic control valve sizing & selection manual, 1996, Valtek Incorporation
3. Frank YII, Easy way to estimate realistic control valve pressure drops, Hydrocarbon Processing, August,
2006, p. 45-48.
4. Frank Yu, Allowable liquid control valve pressure drops, Hydrocarbon Processing, July, 2007, p. 107-113.
5. Frank Yu, Allowable vapor control valve pressure drops, Hydrocarbon Processing, March, 2008, p. 59-67.
141
Chapter 8 Pressure Relief Device

l. Introduction

Pressure relief device (PRD) is a safety device to protect equipment or piping from damage due to overpressure
or vacuum, but in this chapter, we will discuss PRD to prevent overpressure only. Commonly used pressure
relief devices are spring-loaded and pilot-operated pressure relief valve (PRY), rupture disk, or pin-actuated
pressure relief device. For equipment, it is installed either directly on the equipment or at its inlet/outlet piping.
When the equipment or piping pressure reaches the pressure relief device set pressure, it will open to relieve
fluid inside the equipment or piping to avoid overpressure. The relief fluid can be vapor, liquid, or two phase
mixture. The relieved fluid is either sent to flare system to be disposed or relieved to atmosphere.

Among the relief devices mentioned above, spring-loaded and pilot-operated pressure relief valve (PRV) are the
ones used most frequently. PRY is a reclosing pressure relief device, since after it is opened and relieved, it will
be reclosed, when equipment or piping pressure is dropped below PRY set pressure. Once it is closed, it will
continue to protect the equipment or piping from overpressure. Rupture disk or pin-actuated relief device is the
non-reclosing pressure relief device, since it cannot be reused after it is ruptured or actuated - irs rupture disk or
pin needs to be replaced.

In this chapter, foUowing topics will be discussed: type of pressure relief devices, their characteristics, ASME
code PRD set pressure, maximum operating pressure, contingency analysis, pressure relief valve and rupture
disk sizing, pressure relief valve inlet/outlet piping sizing, and PRD selection.

It is usually process engineer's responsibility to identify the necessity of a PRO on equipment or piping, what
type PRD should be used, and to provide process information for it on its data sheet. lnstrwnent engineer will
take over the PRO data sheet and does the remaining work, such as confirm the required size, add more
information per project PRD specification, send data sheets to vendors for bid, compare bids and recommend a
vendor, purchase PRD, and do maintenance work (in an operating company). In an engineering company,
instrument engineers will not involving in maintenance work.

There are other PRD, such as pressure and vacuum vents and emergency pressure relief vents for storage tanks,
and safety instrumented system (SIS). They are not discussed in this chapter.

II. Type of Pressure Relief Device: Commonly used PRD are explained in this section.

11.1Pressure relief valve

Before discuss the type ofPRV, some terminologies ofPRV are explained below:
• Backpressure is the pressure at PRY outlet
• Superimposed backpressure is PRY's backpressure, when the PRY is not relieving. This pressure can be
constant or variable, depending on the relieving system downstream of the PRY.
• Buildup backpressure is PRY's additional backpressure due to the reliefJoad from the PRY. During relieving,
the total backpressure of the PRY equals its superimposed backpressure plus itS buildup backpressure.
142
• Set pressure: The PRY is set at this pressure to open and relieve. It is usually the design pressure of the
equipment or piping, but less than or equal to the maximum allowable working pressure (MA WP) of the
equipment or piping.
• Specified burst pressure of rupture disk: It is the same as the set pressure of the rupture disk. It is usually the
design pressure of the equipment or piping, but less than or equal to the maximum allowable working pressure
(MA WP) of the equipment or piping.
• Marked burst pressure of rupture disk: It should not exceed the specified burst pressure. The maximum
marked burst pressure should equal to equipment's MA WP. The minimum marked burst pressure should be the
maximum marked burst pressure minus the pressure range of the rupture disk.
Il.Ll Spring-loaded pressure relief valve

This type PRY is relied on a spring to close or open its orifice. During normal operation, its spring will hold
down the relief valve disk at its orifice to avoid process fluid leaving the system, but when the pressure of the
equipment/piping reaches PRY's set pressure, its spring will be compressed to open the disk at its orifice and
relieving the process fluid.

Spring-loaded PRY is further classified into following two types depending on whether it is designed to avoid
backpressure influence or not.

IL 1.1.1 Conventional pressure relief valve

A typical this type PRY is shown in Figure I. This type ofPRV is not designed to avoid backpressure influence.
From Figure I, it shows that disk holder area exposed to PRY backpressure is greater than its nozzle (orifice)
area. Therefore, PRY's backpressure tends to hold the disk down. IfPRV's backpressure is constant, PRY's set
pressure should be set at the target relieving pressure minus a correction pressure due to its backpressure. If
PRY's backpressure is variable, there is possibility that PRY doesn't open, when it should. Therefore,
conventional PRY should be used when relief load is relieving to atmosphere or a system with constant
pressure.
501_
-.-
-.-

-__ -----.::;:::
1M 011<

-
=---H--q
....
_.
=
Figure 1 A typical conventional PRY. [Courtesy ofTyco Valves and Controls LP]
143
11.1.1.2 Balanced-bellows pressure relief valve
A typical this type PRY is shown in Figure 2. This type ofPRV is designed to avoid backpressure influence by
using bellows to control the disk holder area exposed to backpressure. From Figure 2, it shows that the bellow
covered disk holder area is about the sarne as the nozzle (orifice) area. This way, the PRY's backpressure will
have no influence on PRY's disk. Due to manufacture's tolerance, most manufacturers will make bellow
covered disk holder area slightly greater than the nozzle area to ensure PRY will open when equipment or
piping pressure is at PRY's set pressure.

r--
/

_-
-
Figure 2 A typical balanced-bellows PRY. (Courtesy ofTyco Valves and Controls LP]
Besides reduce the backpressure influence on PRY's disk, bellows has another usage. It sometimes is used to
isolate the guide, spring, and bonnet from the relieving fluid. It is important that balanced-bellows PRY's
bonnet be vented to atmosphere, since it is part of valve's design basis.
11.2Pilot-operated pressure relief valve
A typical this type PRY is shown in Figure 3. This type ofPRV is designed to use a pilot valve to open or close
the PRY. A pressure sensing line, usually sense the pressure at PRY inlet or other suitable location, will deliver
the pressure signal to the pilot valve. The sensing line also provides fluid to the PRY to hold its piston in close
position. The PRY piston is designed so that it has more area on the pilot valve side than process system side.
When the equipment or piping pressure reaches the set pressure, the pilot valve will open to vent the fluid at
pilot valve side and cause the PRY piston moving to open position and PRY relieving. When the equipment or
piping pressure is reduced below set pressure to a certain pressure, the pi lot valve will be closed to stop venting,
and the PR V piston will be closed to stop PRY relieving.
Because the PRY piston has larger area on the pilot valve side than its area on the process side, the PRY piston
will be closed even tighter as process pressure approaching its set pressure. This is quite a different feature
comparing to the spring-loaded PRY.
Some pilot-operated PRY uses diaphragm instead of piston to control the PRY open or close. This kind pilot
PRY is usually used for low pressure service (3 inch water column 10 50 psig).

144
Figure 3 A typical pilot-operated PRY. [Courtesy ofTyco Valves and Controls LP]
II.3 Rupture disk
Rupture disk is used for overpressure and/or vacuum protection. It is a simple, less expensive device to provide
a fast pressure relief. Per ASME code, it can be used at PRY inlet to protect PRY from corrosive fluid, to reduce
emission or PRY maintenance. Sometimes, it is used as a redundant relief device. Its burst pressure is
temperature sensitive. Therefore, both temperature and pressure should be specified for its bursting service.
'There are three major types of rupture disk: I) forward-acting, tension loaded, 2) reverse-acting, compression
loaded, and 3) graphite, shear loaded. The first two types are made of metal, and the third one is of graphite. A
typical forward-acting and reverse-acting rupture disks are shown in Figure 4. The rupture disk is clamped by a
rupture disk holder, and the whole assembly is installed between its inlet and outlet flanges.
The forward-acting rupture disk is a domed solid metal disk, except its dome is facing the outlet It is designed
to burst at rated pressure applied to its concave side. Types of forward-acting rupture disk are solid metal disk,
solid metal disk with scored lines, or composite metal disks. The reverse-acting rupture disk is also a domed
solid metal disk with dome facing the inlet. It is designed to reverse and burst at rated pressure applied to its
convex side. Besides USingknife blades, tooth rings or scored lines can also be used. The reverse-acting rupture
disk is usually thicker than the forward-acting disk.
For rupture disk used at PRY inlet, it should be non-fragmenting design to avoid damaging PRY. Rupture disks,
such as forward-acting solid metal disk and graphite rupture disk are of fragmenting design, should not be used
at PRY inlet,

--
For some very corrosive service, two rupture disks installed in series may be required.

(a) (b)
- t

145
Rupture disk manufacturer usually bas a pressure range for each lot of rupture disks made for a specified burst
pressure. Some manufacture pressure range covers positive and negative ranges, some covers a negative range,
and some bas zero range.

Besides the rupture disk manufacturer's pressure range for the rupture disks it made, it also bas tolerance for the
upper and lower pressure limit API 520 (Figure 26, note 3, p. 39) mentioned this tolerance is 01,5%for rupture
disk set pressure above 40 psi, or 01,2psi for rupture disk set pressure below 40 psi.

n.4 Pin-actuated pressure relief device:

This device consists a moving piston (or disk) exposed to an equipment or piping, and a pin connected with the
piston. When the equipment or piping is over pressured, the pin will fail and the piston will open to relieve the
fluid. The pin is either loaded in compression (rupture or buclding pin) or loaded in tension (breaking pin).
Rupture pin pressure relief device is the most commonly used pin-actuated pressure relief device. The breaking
pin pressure relief device is usually used upstream of a PRY. A typical rupture pin pressure relief device is
shown in Figure 5a and Figure 5b. Figure 5a shows a rupture pin PRD designed for constant backpressure.
Figure 5b shows a rupture pin PRD designed for variable baclcpressure.

Rupture pin technology is patented in 1987-1990. Commercial production is started from 1990. Basically there
are two types of products. One is rupture pin relief valve, which is like rupture disk, that its pin will buckle at
set pressure to open the valve to relieve fluid. The other is buclding pin relief valve, which is like an emergency
shutdown valve, that its pin will buckle at set pressure to close the valve to stop fluid flow. This chapter will
discuss the rupture pin valve only.

The advantages of rupture pin relief valve over rupture disk are: I) Rupture pin will buckle at 01,5%set pressure
by standard. Actually, most times it buckles at %2% of set pressure. 2) Pin is external, not contacting process
fluid. Therefore, it will not experience fatigue and is a good candidate for corrosive service. 3) No temperature
correction is required. 4) It will buckle in millisecond, since it buckles at elastic point, not rupture point like
rupture disk. 5) It is easy to replace buckled pin. Only one person can do the job in less than 30 minutes. 6)
Operating pressure can be 95% of set pressure. 7) Unlike rupture disk installation, there is no possibility of
mistakes in rupture pin installation. [6]

----
- -
(a) (b) <=-+--,:;:;I
Figure 5 A typical rupture pin pressure relief device (a) for constant backpressure, (b) fOTvariable backpressure.
[Courtesy of Rupture Pin Technology, Inc.}
146
Ill. Characteristics of Pressure Relief Devices: Characteristics of different PRO mentioned in Section n are
explained in this section.

In.1 Characteristics of pressure relief valves

Before discuss the characteristics ofPRV, more terminologies ofPRV are explained below:
• Accumulation or accumulated pressure: the pressure increase over the MA WP of the protected system. It is
expressed as psi or % of MA WP or design pressure.
• Blowdown: The difference in pressure between the set pressure and the closing pressure of a PRV. It is
expressed as psi or % of set pressure.
• Design pressure of a protected system: It is the pressure the protected system is designed. Usually, a design
temperature is also specified with it. Design pressure is less or equal to MA WP.
• MA WP (maximum allowable working pressure) of a protected system: Equipment manufacturer makes an
equipment per specified design pressure at design temperature. The maximum pressure at the design
temperature, which the final product can stand, is the MA WP.
• Overpressure: The pressure increase over the PRY set pressure is overpressure. It is expressed as psi or % of
set pressure.
• Operating ratio of rupture disk: For marked burst pressures above 40 psi, the operating ratio is the ratio of
maximum system operating pressure to the disk marked burst pressure. For marked burst pressures between 15
to 40 psi, the operating ratio is the ratio of maximum system operating pressure to the disk marked burst
pressure minus 2 psi. For marked burst pressures less than 15 psi, consult the manufacturer about the operating
ratio.

Ill.Ll Characteristics of spring-loaded pressure relief valves: Spring-loaded PRY behaves differently
depending on the relieving fluid.
For vapor relief when pressure of the protected system approaches PRY set pressure (about 98% to IOOO/., of
PRY set pressure), a small portion of vapor will start escaping from the orifice of the PRY. This is simmer. As
system pressure continue rising, PRY disk will be lifted little bit, relieving vapor will expand under the disk
holder and provide more force to Iift the disc. This phenomena will accelerate as disk lift hip and more vapor
is relieving. Finally, the disk will pop to its maximum lift position. A typical vapor relief path in terms of disk
lift and system pressure is shown in Figure 6. As system pressure is reduced, PRY disk will close gradually,
until fully closed (at about 92.5% of set pressure). The pressure difference between PRY set pressure and the
PRY fully closed pressure is the blowdown of the PRY.
~IA

tOO

10 tOO 110 ,. ...

Figure 6 A typical spring-loaded PRY disk lift path versus system pressure during vapor relief. [Courtesy of
Tyco Valves and Controls LP]
147
In general, before disk is lifted about 25% of the orifice diameter, the critical relief path is the gap between the
disk holder and relief nozzle. After disk is lifted 25% of the orifice diameter, the critical relief path is the
orifice. [I}

For liquid relief, PRY disk lift is gradually to its full lift, as shown in Figure 7. Its closing is gradually as well.
There is no pop lift of disk as vapor relief. There is no (or very little) simmer or blowdown. Earlier liquid relief
is not very stable. API 520 reports that at 2-4% overpressure, PRY disk move is little, but at 2-6% overpressure,
it will suddenly lift to 50-100%. [I} However, this suddenly lift of disk is not as steep as the vapor relief. Figure
7 is drawn based on this report, using two straight lines to represent the liquid relief. However, the intersection
point of these two lines is arbitrarily chosen, since there is no information available.

If vapor pressure relief valve is used in liquid pressure relief service, it may take 25% overpressure to achieve
full lift of disk (full PRY open position). For ASME code certified liquid PRV, it is required that PRY full open
at 10% overpressure.

The different behavior of vapor and liquid relief for spring-loaded PRY is because of the different nature of
vapor and liquid. Vapor is light, will expand, and move fast, but liquid is heavy, will not expand, and move
slowly.

"PRVIift
100 PIIV 11ftpath

75

50 PRVclose path

15

100 102 104 106 108 110 "set pressure

Figure 7 A typical spring-loaded PRY disk lift and close path versus system pressure during liquid relief.

Some spring-loaded PRY may have soft seat (nonmetallic) at its orifice to prevent disk and nozzle (metallic)
damage. This may pose some temperature limitation on the relief service.

U1.1.2 Characteristics of pilot-operated pressure relief valves

Unlike spring-loaded PRY, the open or close of pilot -operated PRY is not affected by its backpressure. This
means it can be used to protect equipment with higher pressure in relief valve discharge manifolds.

Pilot vent is either vent to atmosphere or to the PRY outlet line. Pilot valve in actual is similar to a spring-
loaded PRY. If its backpressure varies, a bellow type pilot valve should be used.

There are two types of pilot valves used for pilot-operated PRV. One type will allow piston pop open at set
pressure, and the other will allow piston open just enough to relieve fluid to prevent the system pressure to
exceed the maximum allowed accumulation. The pop open pilot PRY is used for vapor service, while the
148
modulating pilot PRY is used for vapor, liquid, or two phase service. A piston lift path versus system pressure
drawing for either pilot PRY is shown in Figure 8. The advantage of modulated pilot PRY is that it will relieve
less process fluid.

%Uft
-- Adicn
100 -
1/ I
- J
7S
50 -
! 1 'I' Ii
1/
1/
1/
25 -
I ,
I I
, I
go 95 100 105 110 % Set
Figure 8 Typical pilot-operated PRY piston lift path versus system pressure for (a) pop open pilot PRY, (b)
modulating pilot PRY. [Courtesy ofTyco Valves and Controls LP]

There are two types of sensing line for a pilot-operated PRV. Some is flowing type, which means when PRY is
relieving, flow through the sensing line continues. The other type is non-flowing type, which means when PRY
is relieving, flow through the sensing line will be stopped. The recommended choice is non-flowing type
sensing line, especially when the fluid has solids or may form hydrate at reduced pressure.

If the process fluid has solids or dirts, a filter is required at the sensing line to prevent it be plugged.

Sometimes, nonmetallic parts will be used at main or pilot valve. In these cases, there may be temperature
limitation for the relief service.

Pilot-operated PRY's set pressure may be checked at field, but a field test connection should be provided.

IfPRV discharge pressure may be higher than system pressure, a backflow preventer should be added to the
PRY.

III.2 Characteristics of rupture disk and pin-actuated pressure relief device: They are either close or open,
depending on the system pressure is below or above its set pressure.

IV. PRD's Set Pressure and Overpressure per ASME Code

Some system uses one pressure relief device for overpressure protection, but some uses more than one. Some
relief contingency is non-fire, but some is caused by fire. ASME Section VIII (ASME code) has some guideline
for PRD set pressure and accumulated pressure for different cases, see Table 1.

149
Table I Set pressure and accumulated pressure limits for pressure relief devices.
max. set max. max. set max.
pressure, % accumulation, pressure, % accumulation,
MAWP %MAWP MAWP %MAWP
nonfire case:
first PRO 100 110 100 116
additional PRO - - 105 116

fire case:
first PRO 100 121 100 121
additional PRO - - 105 121
SUpplemental
device - - 110 121

Per ASME code, Table I non-fire case is for equipment MAWP > 30 psig. For equipment MA WP is between
15 to 30 psig, the allowable accumulated pressure for single PRO case is 3 psi, and for multiple PRO case is 4
psi.

PRD maximum set pressure per ASME code is based on MA WP, but MA WP is available only after the
equipment is made. During design stage, many times, process engineer has to use equipment's design pressure
as PRD's set pressure, since MA WP is not available. Fortunately, in most cases, equipment's design pressure is
very close (equal or less) to MAWP.

Supplement PRD is an additional PRD used to protect system from fire or other externaJ heat source. It is an
additional PRD to the PRO for the non-fire cases.

V. Maximum Operating Pressure

As mentioned in Section IV, because of unavailable of MA WP during earlier design stage of project, most
times, PRO set pressure is selected to be the same as equipment design pressure.

For spring-loaded PRY, its maximum operating pressure is usually 90"10of the equipment design pressure. For
pilot-operated PRY, its maximum operating pressure can be higher than 90010.However, it is not a good practice
to operate equipment very close to PR V's set pressure. Therefore, the maximum operating pressure should be
95% design pressure or less for equipment protected by pilot-operated PRY.

For equipment protected by rupture disk, the maximum operating pressure equals to the minimum burst
pressure times the operating ratio of the rupture disk. The minimum bust pressure is calculated by following
rule: For marked bust pressure above 40 psig, it equals to the minimum marked burst pressure minus 5%
tolerance. For marked bust pressure less than or equal to 40 psig, it equals to the minimum marked burst
pressure minus 2 psi tolerance.

Depending on the type of rupture disk, its operating ratio is different For example, reverse-acting rupture disk
has the highest operating ratio 90-95%, and forward-acting solid metal rupture disk has the lowest operating
150
ratio 70%. Operating ratios of other rupture disk are as follows: Forward-acting scored rupture disk: 85-90%;
forward-acting composite rupture disk: 80"/0;graphite rupture disk: 80%. Consult manufacturer for the
operating ratio of their rupture disk.

For pin-actuated pressure relief device, maximum operating pressure can be 95% of set pressure.

VI. Contingency Analysis

Contingency analysis studies the causes of overpressure in equipment or piping, and how much the reliefload
will be for each cause. Only one cause will be examined, unless this cause will trip another cause. The reason is
that two different causes happened at the same time is unlikely. This analysis is process engineer's
responsibility.

Most causes for system to be overpressure are listed below:

I) Blocked outlet; 2) inadvertent valve open; 3) control valve failure (full open or close); 4) loss cooling stream;
5) instrument air failure; 6) power failure; 7) abnormal heat input; 8) equipment failure; 9) heat exchanger tube
rupture; 10) thermal expansion; 11) fire; 12) chemical reaction; 13) steam out, 14) operator error, etc.

Tools to do this analysis are: P&ID drawings, equipment data sheets, instrument/control valve data sheets,
piping isometric drawings, hydraulic spreadsheets, process simulation computer software, and sound
engineering judgment, .

Since the relief condition is at 10"/0overpressure for non-fire case, and 21 % overpressure for fire case, it is
necessary to use computer (process simulator) or other means to calculare the physical properties of process
fluid at these pressures. These properties will be different from the simulation at normal operation.

Other comments: (I) Although the reasons of some overpressure causes are different, but the relief is the same.
For example, blocked a vessel's vapor outlet block valve will have the same relief as vessel vapor outlet
pressure control valve failed close. (2) For shell and tube heat exchanger, if low pressure side design pressure is
77"" of the high pressure side design pressure or less and relief pressure is more than 1000 psig for vapor or
flashing relief. tube rupture analysis is required. Otherwise. tube rupture analysis can be ignored. (3) In general,
we assume a control system will not act to reduce relief load for conservative relief load estimation. (4)
Operator's response time to an incident is usually 10 to 30 minutes, depending on plant's policy. It can be used
to eliminate some relief cases, but for conservative reason, we should assume operator has no time to response.
(5) Sometimes, CSO (car sealed open) or CLO (chain locked open) at a block valve is used to avoid instaJling a
PRV on the upstream or downstream equipment (6) Sometimes, operation procedures, such as to drain a vessel
after it is shutdown or isolated, are used to eliminate some relief cases. (7) Sometimes, an orifice or a short thick
wall piping are used to restrict the relief load or to reduce the relief pressure, (8) During power failure, in
general, it is assumed that an air cooler is still able to provide 30"10of the design cooling duty due to naturaJ
draft.

More information about contingency analysis can be found in API 521. [2]

151
VI.I fire relief: It is important to note that PRD is used to relieve pressure during fire case. To put out fire, it
will rely on firefighting equipment If fire prolongs, equipment may not able to stand the fire, and PRD is not
going to save the equipment

Equipment wetted surface will absorb the heat from fire. The amount of heat absorption from fire can be
calculated by following equations, Eq. (Ia) assumes there is good drainage and Eq. (1b) assumes there is no
good drainage.

Q = 21,000 '" F '" Aw"0.82 (Ia)

Q = 34,500'" F '" Aw"O.82 (I b)

Q is heat absorption rate from fire, in btulhr; F is environment factor; Aw is wetted surface area, in ft2.

For bare vessel, F=I. Most equipment insulation has aluminum jacket with stainless steel bands, but it is not
able to stand the fire. In order for the insulation to stand the fire, it should be able to stand the fire impingement,
assuming at I 660°F up to two hours, and able to stand the high pressure water from the water hose. Insulation
with stainless steel jacket and stainless steel bands will satisfy this requirement Besides this, insulation material
should be able to stand high temperature up to 1600°F. [2] Then, insulation credit can be taken and F can be
calculated as follows:

F = ki (1660 - T) / (21,000 '" t) (Ic)

ki is thermal conductivity of insulation at mean temperature, in btu-in/hr-ft2_oF (assume ambient fire

temperature is 1660 F or higher); T is relief fluid bubble point temperature at 21% overpressure, in OF;t is
insulation thickness, in inch.

Vapor relief from fire case is calculated by following equation:

W=Q/'J... (2)

W is vapor relief load, in lb/hr; 'J...is latent heat, in btu/lb. Latent heat can be calculated using a process
simulator. But if relief conditions are close to critical point, process simulator may have difficult to estimate the
latent heat Most time, 50 btuIIb will be used as a conservative latent heat for this situation.

If equipment elevation is 25 ft above fire source, it is assumed that it will not be exposed to fire.

Fire may breakout during normal operation, Once fire is breakout, it is assumed that all fluid flow will be
stopped ..Fire can also happen during plant shutdown. In this case, it is assumed the equipment is isolated.

VI.2 Liquid full vessel exposed to fire

For liquid full equipment, such as filter, exposed to fire, four stages of relief need to be studied The I Sl stage is
the liquid relief due to thermal expansion from absorbing the heat from fire at 21% overpressure. The 2ndstage

152
is the liquid relief due to vapor generated at 21 % overpressure. The 3 rd stage is to check two phase relief due to
vapor and liquid relief together. The 4th stage is to check vapor relief only due to fire. This analysis is tedious,
and PRO may not save the equipment from fire, since it may be damaged by fire, not by overpressure. The
equation used to check two phase relief load is as follows, which is developed by DIERS (Design Institute for
Emergency Relief Systems):

W2 = [Q 1 (CpL * 6T)] • [Ln «Q *vfg) 1 (W2 * vo * k» - I] + (vo Ivfg) * (W2 *?:ol (CpL * 6T) (3a)
vfg=vg-vf (3b)
vo=I/[(l-a)/vf+a/vg] (3c)
~=m-w (3~

W2 is the total vapor and liquid relief rate, in IbIhr; W is vapor relief rate, in lblhr (see Eq. (2»; Q is heat
absorbed from fire, in btulhr; CpL is liquid heat capacity at set pressure, in btullb-°F; 6T is bubble point
temperature rise from set pressure to 21 % overpressure; vf is liquid specific volume at set pressure, in ft3llb; vg
is vapor specific volume at set pressure, in ft3llb; vfg is defined by Eq. (3b), in ft3llb; vo is defined by Eq. (3c);
a is vapor volume fraction; Wl, is liquid relief rate, in lblhr.

To solve Eq. (3a) for W2, trial and error is required. Assume a a, then, solve Eq. (3a) tor W2. Adjust a, until a
W2 satisfying Eq. (3a) is found. There may be multiple solutions (W2) exists. Use the one which is larger than
W, the vapor relief rate.

Check the relief valve size for each stage, and use the largest one for PRY selection. There is an article [7],
reporting that the above two phase relief calculation is not necessary. Interested reader should study this article.

VI.3 Thermal expansion

VI.3.1 Liquid relief: This happens when liquid line is blocked-in in cold condition, such as in evening, and
trapped liquid will be expanded when it is exposed to suo. Another example is heat exchanger cold side fluid is
blocked-in.

Liquid reliefload from thermal expansion of liquid is calculated by following equation:

QL = B • Q 1 (500 • sp. gr. • CpL) (4a)

QL is liquid relief rate, in gpm; Q is total heat transfer rate, in btulhr; sp. gr. is specific gravity of the relief
liquid; CpL is heat capacity of the relief liquid, in btullb-°F.

Q should be calculated. For heat exchanger, its design duty can be used for conservative liquid relief estimation.
B is cubical expansion coefficient per degree Fahrenheit It can be calculated by following equation:

B = (1/p2 -lIpl) 1 [(l/pavg) (6T)] (4b)

pavg = (PI + p2) 12 (4c)
6T=T2-Tl (4d)

153
p is liquid density, in Iblft3; T is liquid temperature, in of; subscript 1 is liquid properties at PRV set pressure,
subscript 2 is liquid properties at relief conditions, such as 10%, 16%, or 21% overpressure.

Vl,3.2 Vapor relief: This happens when vapor knock-out drum is blocked-in and exposed to fire, or some fluid
become supercritical fluid during fire.

The vapor relief is calculated by following equation, per API 521:

W = 0.1406 F • (M· PI)"(0.5) (As· (Tw - TI)"1.251 (TI" 1. 1506)] (5a)

TI = (PI 1 Pn) • Tn (5b)

W is vapor relief, in lblhr; F is environmental factor; M is vapor molecular weight; PI is vapor relief pressure,
in psia; TI is vapor relief temperature, in OR;As is vessel surface area exposed to fire, in ft2; Tw is vessel wall
temperature, in OR;Tn and Pn are normal operating temperature and pressure, in ORand pisa. For carbon steel,
Tw= 1560°R.

VII. Pressure Relief Device Sizing

PRD sizing equations are derived based on isentropic flow of ideal gas or liquid through a nozzle and corrected
by using various correction factors. Interested reader should read reference I, appendix B.

Rupture pin PRY sizing should be the same as PRY sizing. Consult vendor to confirm.

vn.l Vapor pressure relief device sizing: There are two types vapor relief depending on whether the vapor
relief is sonic or not. Following equation can be used to check whether the relief is sonic flow or not:

Pc 1 PI = (21 (k+ I»" (k 1(k-I) (6a)

k .. Cp I (Cp - 1.986) (6b)

Pc is critical pressure at PRD outlet, in psia; PI is PRD inlet pressure, in psia; k is heat capacity ratio or
isentropic expansion coefficient for ideal gas; Cp is ideal gas (not the real gas per API 520 section 5.6.2.4)
vapor heat capacity at relief temperature, btullb mole-oF.

PclPl is the critical pressure ratio for sonic flow. IfP2/PI is below the critical pressure ratio, flow through PRD
is sonic flow. Otherwise, the flow through PRD is subsonic flow.

For preliminary calculation, PI can be assumed to be equipment relieving pressure at 100,1,overpressure for
non-fire case or 21% overpressure at fire case. After PRD inlet and outlet piping are designed, an updated PI
and P2 based on hydraulic calculation should be used to recheck the vapor relief is sonic or not,

154
Vll.I.l Vapor pressure relief device sizing at sonic flow: Calculate required PRY orifice area or rupture disk
area by follow equation:

A = W • «T'Z) I M)"0.51 (C Kd Kb Kc PI) (7a)

C=520(k(2/(k+I»"«k+I)/(k-I» )"0.5 (7b)

A is required effective PRY orifice area or rupture disk area, in incb2; W is vapor relief load, in IbIbr; T is relief
temperature, in OR; Z is vapor compressibility factor at relief conditions. Let Z=I.O for ideal gas. (see note 5 at
end of this section); M is relief vapor molecular weight; C is a coefficient calculated by Eq. (7b) or let it be
315; Kd is effective discharge coefficient; Kb is backpressure correction factor; Kc is a correction factor for
install a rupture disk at PRY inlet, set kc to 1.0 for rupture disk sizing only; PI is PRO inlet pressure, in psia,

Kd equals 0.975 for PRY sizing, ifmanufacturer's Kd is not available. It equals 0.62 for rupture disk sizing.
Kc equals to 1.0 for a PRY without a rupture disk. Kc equals to 0.9 for a PRY with a rupture disk at its inlet (0.9
is uncertified Kc; certified Kc available from the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessellnspectors).

For back pressure correction factor (Kb), estimate the backpressure at PRY outlet Then, find Kb from
manufacturer'S catalog. Kb depends on the type ofPRV (conventional or balanced-bellows) used. For piloted-
operated PRY and rupture disk, Kb equals to 1.0. Kb oeeds to be rechecked once the PRY outlet piping is
designed, and its backpressure for rated flow case is calculated by a hydraulic analysis.

VII.I.2 Vapor pressure relief device sizing at subsonic flow

For preliminary sizing, using follow equations to calculate the required PRY orifice area or rupture disk area:

A = W • «T'Z) I (M. PI • (PI - P2»)"O.51 (735 F2 Kd Kc) (8a)

r=P21 PI (8b)
F2 = [(kI(k-I)' r"(2/k)' (l-r"«k-I)/k» I (l-r)]"O.5 (8c)

P2 is PRO outlet pressure, in psia; r is the ratio PRO outlet pressure to inlet pressure, defined in Eq. (8b); F2 is
coefficient of subcritical vapor relief, defined in Eq. (8c); A, W, T, Z. M, PI, Kd, and Kc are the same as Eq.
(7a).

VII.2 Liquid pressure relief device sizing: There are two different type of sizing depending on whether the PRO
to be certified or not (by ASME code).

VII.2.1 Certified liquid pressure relief device sizing: ASME code requires that PRY used for liquid relief should
have capacity certification, guaranty PRY full open at lOOIaoverpressure. Following equations should be used
for liquid PRO sizing:

A = QL • (sp. gr./(p I - p2»"O.51 (38 Kd Kw Kc Kv) (9a)

Kv = II (0.9935+2.878IRe"O.5+342.75IReAI.5) (9b)
Re = 2800 QL (sp. gr.) I (~(N'O.5» (9c)

155
A is required PRY orifice area or rupture disk area, in inch2; QL is liquid relief rate, in gpm; sp. gr. is relief
liquid specific gravity; pi is relief liquid pressure at PRD inlet, psig; p2 is relief liquid pressure at PRD outlet,
in psig; Kd is effective discharge coefficient; Kw is backpressure correction factor; Kc is a correction factor for
install a rupture disk at PRY inlet, set kc to 1.0 for rupture disk sizing only; Kv is viscosity correction factor,
whicb is defined in Eq. (9b); Re is Reynolds number; sp. gr. is liquid specific gravity; 14is liquid viscosity, in
centipose.

Kd equals 0.74 for PRY sizing, ifmanuJacturer's Kd is not available. Kd equals 0.62 for rupture disk sizing.
Kwequals 1.0 for conventional, pilot PRY, and rupture disk sizing. For balanced-bellows PRY, use Figure 9 to
estimate its value.
Kc equals 1.0, if there is no rupture disk at PRY inlet. Kc equals 0.9, if there is a rupture disk at PRY inlet. (0.9
is uncertified Kc; certified Kc is available from the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors).
Kv is viscosity correction factor. At initial orifice area calculation (Eq. (9a», let Kv equal to 1.0. Based on
calculated orifice area, select a PRY orifice. Based on this orifice area, recalculate Re, lev, and A using Eq. (9c),
Eq. (9b), and Eq. (9a). Repeat these calculations until selected PRY orifice doesn't change anymore.

t.'.-
t•

••
••
<I t ..
~
."
••
t.
t•

••• .. • •
---
Figure 9 Typical backpressure correction factor Kw for balanced-bellows PRY liquid relief [Courtesy ofTyco
Valves and Controls LP)

vn.2.2 Non-certified liquid pressure relief device sizing: This applies to liquid PRY before ASME code set
capacity certification requirement. Interested reader can find its sizing requirement in API 520, section 5.9. [I)

VII.3 Two phase pressure relief valve sizing: This sizing method is based on an equation of mass flux through a
one dimensional isentropic nozzle, see Eq. (10). It is derived based on the fluid is homogeneous (HEM model),
which means no slip and no heat transfer between vapor and liquid, and its density is radially uniform. (4)

G2-4633 (f(-2(x • vg+(I-x)· vf) dp)/(x· vg+(I-x)· vf)"2 (10)

G is mass flux of fluid, in Iblsec-ft2; x is weight fraction of vapor; vg is vapor specific volume, in ft3l1b; vfis
liquid specific volume, in ft3l1b;J is integration (from PI (PRV inlet pressure, in psia) to P2 (PRV outlet
pressure, in psiaj); dp is differential of pressure, in psi.

156
G2 will be the maximum, if P2 is the pressure at orifice (the throat pressure) and the denominator is evaluated at
the throat pressure as well Eq. (10) can be solved numerically by breaking the pressure from PRY inlet (PI) to
PRY outlet pressure (P2) to m 6p steps as follows, assuming vapor weight fraction, vapor density, and liquid
density at P I and P2 are known.

G2 = 9266 (L [(xi • vgi + (l-xi) vfi].vg 6p) / (xi • vgi + (l-xi) vfi)1\2 i= I to m (lOa)
6p = (PI - P2) / m (lOb)
x =a + b • P (lOc)
b = (xl - x2) / (PI - P2); a = xl - b • PI
1/ vg = c P"{l/n) (IOd)
n = In(pIIP2) / In(vg2/vgl); c = (1/ vgl) / PI "(I/n)
l/vf=d+e·P (IOe)
e = (IIvfl-IIv£2) / (PI - P2); d = I/vfl - e • PI
[(xi • vgi + (I -xi) • vfi)ovg = ([(xi-I • vgi- I + (I-xi- I) • vfi-I] + [(xi • vgi + (l-xi) • vfi)) / 2 for ith 6p (lOt)

Subscript i means ith 6p step of the total m steps; PIIP2 is PRY inlet/outlet pressure, in psia; a, b, c, n, d, and e
are constants.

Eq. (IDe), Eq, (IOd), and Eq, (lOe) are proposed equations to calculate x, lIvg, and l/vf at a specific pressure
along the path inside the nozzle. They are simple equations, but they achieve the same purpose as other
complicated methods. [4]

From Eq. (10 a-f), we are able to calculate d at different Pi (i=l to m). If the relief fluid is saturated liquid,
vapor, or two-phase (vapor/liquid) mixture, the value of G2 will increase to a maximum value and then,
decrease. This G2max is the mass flux at the orifice. For subcooled liquid, the G2max is at P2, the last 6p
division.

Once G2max is found, we can calculate the orifice area as follows:

A = W / (25 kd (G2max)"O.5) (I I)

kd is effective discharge coefficient; use manufacturer's kd, if available. Otherwise, let kd = 0.975 for vapor
relief, kd = 0.74 for liquid relief. For two phase relief, it is up to user to decide. If the two phase relief is close to
vapor, use kd = 0.975, or use kd = 0.74, ifit is close to liquid.

The advantages of this method are: I) simple, 2) need few information (vapor weight fraction, vapor and liquid
density at PI and P2), and they are easily available, 3) it can be used for relief fluid which is subcooled liquid,
saturated liquid, vapor, or two-phase vapor/liquid mixture, 4) good accuracy. Per reference 4, error is typically
less than 1%, rarely exceed 4%, even for relief fluid at critical point. [4)

157
VTI.4 Actual PRY size selection

When preliminary PRY sizes are calculated for various relief cases, select the largest one as the required PRY
orifice area. From Manufacturer's catalog or API 526, we will be able to select which relief valve to use, and
what are its inlet and outlet nozzle sizes. Ingeneral, PRY is designated with a letter to indicate its size.
Commonly used PRY and its effective orifice area are as follows:

D orifice, 0.11 in2; E orifice, 0.196 in2; F orifice, 0.307 i02; G orifice, 0.503 in2; H orifice, 0.785 in2;
J orifice, 1.287 io2; K orifice, 1.838 in2; L orifice, 2.853 in2; M orifice, 3.600 in2; N orifice, 4.340 in2;
P orifice, 6.380 io2; Q orifice, I 1.050 in2; R orifice, 16.000 in2; T orifice, 26.000 in2.

Note: I. All coefficients mentioned in this PRO sizing section are for preliminary sizing. For more accurate and
final sizing, coefficients recommended by manufacturer should be used.
2. ASME code stamp relief rate is based on actual PRY orifice area and rated discharge coefficient (={).9 •
effective discharge coefficient).
3. Most equipment is hydrotested at ) 50% or )30010design pressure or MA WP. 130010hydrotest pressure is new
code requirement, but some companies still use 150010hydrotes! pressure for conservative reason. These
hydrotest pressures show that ASME code required system overpressure (l00/., 16%, or 21%) is on the
conservative side.
4. ASMFlANSI B31.3, Process Piping Guide, states that piping pressure can exceed 20% design pressure or
allowable stress for 50 hours at anyone time and for less than 500 hours per year; or it can exceed 33% design
pressure or a1Jowable stress for) 0 hours at anyone time and for less than 100 hours per year.
5. In Sq. (7a) and Sq. (8a), if real gas compressibility factor (Z) is used, calculated orifice size will be under
estimated. For conservative, let Z=I.O.
6. For real gas, its isentropic expansion coefficient (n) is different from its ideal gas isentropic expansion
coefficient (k). Most hydrocarbon vapor at high pressure, its heat capacity (Cp) is equal to its ideal gas Cp plus
some correction.
7. For liquid relief, which will flash into two phase, it is recommended using two phase relief valve sizing
method to size PRO.

VID. Pressure Relief Valve Inlet and Outlet Piping Sizing

PRY's inlet and outlet piping are integral parts of the PRY system.Improper design will cause PRY
malfunction, such as chatter or fail to open. Following discussion is assumed that PRY inlet and outlet piping
isometric drawings are available for hydraulic study. Before these drawings are available, a convenient way to
select PRY inlet and outlet piping size is to use one size piping larger than the inlet and outlet PRY nozzles.

VID.I Rated relief rate: Inorder to size the PRV inlet and outlet headers, a maximum relief rate or the rated
relief rate has to be calculated. For vapor,liquid, and two phase PRY, the rated vapor and liquid relief rate are
calculated as follows:

Wr=W(Aa/ A) (l3a)
QLr= QL (Aa/ A) (Bb)

158
Wr is rated vapor relief rate, in lblhr; W is estimated vapor relief rate, in lblhr; QLr is rated liquid relief rate, in
gpm; QL is estimated liquid relief rate, in gpm; Aa is actual PRY orifice area, in inl; A is required PRY orifice
area (correspond to W), in inl.

VIll.2 PRY inlet piping sizing criteria

For new piping and vapor relief, PRY inlet piping should be sized to be S 3% Ps (PRV set pressure, in psig),
This is based on spring-loaded PRY blowdown at about 7.5% Ps. Consult PRY manufacturer about PRY's
blowdown to allow proper pressure drop for inlet piping. (3% Ps is about half of7.5% Ps.) If the PRY inlet
piping pressure drop is too high, during relief, PRY inlet pressure may be dropped below PRY reseat pressure
and PRY will start to close. But high system pressure will reopen the PRY again. This will make PRY rapidly
open and close. This phenomenon is called PRY chatter, and it will damage PRY.

For existing PRY, following guideline can be used to check the adequacy of PRY inlet piping. For non-fire
case, allow 4% Ps, and for fire case, allow 5% Ps for PRY inlet line pressure loss.

The inlet pressure of relief fluid to PR V inlet piping is the system pressure at relief condition. This pressure for
non-fire case is 110% Ps, and for fire case, it is 121% Ps.

VITI.3 PRY outlet piping sizing criteria

For new piping and vapor relief, size PRY outlet piping so that total PRY outlet pressure will not reduce the Kb
used for the PRY sizing. If PRY outlet piping pressure drop is too high, it will cause PRY chatter during relief
as well. PRY manufacturer's Kb versus P21P1 chart is required for this task.

Another criterion for PRY outlet piping size is that max. vapor line velocity should be less than 50-75% of sonic
velocity, depending on the project requirement. Sonic or critical velocity of vapor (V c, in ftlsec) is calculated by
following equation:

Vc = 223 (n Z TIM) "0.5 (14a)

n = Cp I (Cp - Z • R) (I4b)

n is isentropic expansion coefficient for real gas; T is temperature, in OR;M is vapor molecular weight; Cp is
real gas vapor heat capacity at constant pressure, in btuIIb mole-OF; Z is vapor compressibility factor; R is gas
constant, 1.986 btuIIb mole-OF. Eq. (14b) is derived assuming Z and Cp are constant from one condition to
another.

PRY outlet piping sometimes is long, since it has to be piped to a location above flare header. Then, it is
dropped at 45° angle to the flare header. Flare header is usually located on top level of piping rack.

159
IX. Pressure Relief Device Selection

1. Conventional spring-loaded PRY is restricted to be used for PRY has constant or no superimposed
backpressure, and very low buildup backpressure service.
2. Balanced-bellows spring-loaded PRY can tolerate higher backpressure. Check manufacturer's catalog for the
limit
3. Pilot-operated PRY has no backpressure limit.
4. The best choice is modulating pilot-operated PRY, since it relieves what is necessary. Therefore, total relief
is minimized.
5. For service required large orifice area, spring-loaded PRY may be too heavy to install. Pilot-operated PRY
may be a better choice. For medium or small size orifice, an economic comparison may be required to see
which type of PRY is a better choice.
6. For service required to handle several different relief cases and required different relief sizes, it may be better
to use two or more relief valves instead ofa big relief valve. This may avoid relief valve chattering at small
relief case.
7. Among rupture disk and rupture pin relief valve, the advantages of rupture pin reJiefvalve are 1) it has
narrower pressure range to be activated, 2) it is external to process fluid. Therefore, good for corrosive service,
3) temperature will not affect its performance, 4) it will be activated faster and earlier,S) it is easier to be
replaced, and 6) it tolerates higher operating pressure.

X. Pressure Relief Device Process Specification

Process engineer should provide following PRO process specification (information) to instrument engineer on a
data sheet:
1. PRO type, number of PRO to be used, and PRO set pressure (in psig).
2. A list of cases which will cause system overpressure, and PRO to open and rei ieve.
3. For each relief case, list following information: relief load (vapor in IbIhr, liquid in gpm), relief conditions
(pressure and temperature), relief fluid physical properties (for vapor, provide molecular weight (M),
compressibility factor (Z), ideal gas heat capacity ratio (k); for liquid, provide specific gravity, viscosity (in
centipoise»
4. Calculate required relief orifice or area, in inch square, for each relief case, for instrument engineer or vendor
to check.
5. PRO outlet pressure for critical relief case, in psig.
6. Recommendation material of construction.
7. Others: Equipment or piping normal operating conditions (pressure and temperature), corrosive nature of the
relief fluid, etc.

160
Nomenclature:

A required PRD area, inch2.

AIl. actual PRD area, inch2•
As vessel surface area exposed to fire, ft2; used in Eq. (Sa).
Aw equipment wetted surface area, ft2.
a, b, c, n, d, e constants used in Eq. (lOc, 10d, 10e).
B cubical expansion coefficient; see Eq. (4b).
C coefficient used in sonic vapor relief orifice calculation; see Eq. (7b).
Cp vapor heat capacity at constant pressure, btullb mol~oF.
CpL liquid heat capacity, btullb-°F; used in Eq, (3a) and Eq. (4a).
F environmental factor, see Eq. (Ie).
F2 coefficient for subcritical vapor relief, see Eq. (8c).
G mass flux inside PRY, Iblsec-ft2; see Eq. (lOa) and Eq. (11).
k isentropic expansion coefficient for ideal gas or heat capacity ratio, see Eq (6b).
kb backpressure correction factor; used in Eq. (7a).
ke correction for install rupture disk at PRY inlet; used in Eq. (7a), Eq. (8a), and Eq. (9a).
kd effective discharge coefficient; used in Eq. (7a), Eq. (8a), and Eq. (9a).
lei thermal conductivity of insulation, btu-in/hr-ft2_oF.
kv viscosity correction factor for liquid relief; see Eq. (9b).
kw backpressure correction factor for liquid relief; used in Eq. (9a).
m m incremental pressure steps; used in Eq. (lOb).
M vapor molecular weight.
n isentropic expansion coefficient for real gas; see Eq. (14b).
P pressure, psia.
Pc critical pressure for vapor relief, psia; see Eq. (6a).
p pressure, psig.
Q heat absorption rate from fire (Eq. (la-b» or heat transfer rate (Eq. (4a», btu/hr.
QL liquid relief rate, gpm; see Eq. (4a).
QLr rated liquid relief rate, gpm; see Eq. (13b).
r pressure ratio, P2IPI; see Eq. (8b).
Re Reynolds number for liquid relief; see Eq. (9c).
sp. gr. liquid specific gravity.
T relief fluid temperature, OF(Eq. (Ic), OR(other equations).
Tw vessel wall temperature, OR;used in Eq. (Sa).
t insulation thickness, inch.
Vc vapor sonic or critical velocity, ft/sec; see Eq. (14a).
vf liquid specific volume, ft3/lb; for Eq. (3b-3c) at set pressure; for Eq. (10), Eq. (IOd) inside PRY.
vfg vapor specific volume minus liquid specific volume at set pressure, ft3llb; see Eq. (3b).
vg vapor specific volume, ft3llb; for Eq. (3b-3c) at set pressure; for Eq. (10), Eq. (10e) inside PRY.
vo defined by Eq. (3c), ft3llb.
W vapor relief rate, lhlhr.
W2 total vapor and liquid relief rate, lb/hr; see Eq. (3a).

161
WL liquid relief rate, lb/hr; see Eq. (3d).
Wr rated vapor relief rate, lblhr; see Eq. (13a).
x weight fraction of vapor; used in Eq. (10).
Z vapor compressibility factor.
p liquid density, Iblft3.
a vapor volume fraction; used in Eq. (3c).
~ latent heat, btu/lb.
J.l relief liquid viscosity, centipoise; used in Eq. (9c).
~p incremental pressure step, psi; see in Eq. (lOb).
~T bubble point temperature rise from set pressure to 21% overpressure, of.

subscript:
1 at PRY inlet (Eq. (6a to 9a», at PRY set pressure (Eq. (4b-d), at relief condition (Eq. (Sa-b),
2 at PRY outlet (Eq. (6a to 9a», at PRY overpressure (Eq. (4b-d»,.
avg average value.
ith pressure incremental step, i = 1 to m; used in Eq. (10a).
n normal operation, used in Eq. (5b).
max maximum value, used in Eq. (11).

References:

1. API Standard 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-relieving Devices in Refineries, Part 1-
Sizing and Selection, 8thedition, Dec. 2008.
2. API Recommended Practice 521, Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems, 4thedition, March
1997; API Standard 521, Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems, 5th edition, May 2008.
3. API Standard 526, Flanged Steel Pressure Relief Valves, 6th edition, May 2009.
4. L. L. Simpson, Estimate two-phase flow in safety devices, Chemical Engineering, August, 1991, p. 98-102.
5.2001 Tyco Valves and Controls: Anderson Greenwood Crosby - Technical Seminar Manual at website:
http://www.tycovalves-usacomlldlTech%20Sem%20Manual.pdf
6. Rupture Pin Technology, Inc. brochure, p. 1-37.
7. L. L. Simpson, Fir exposure of liquid-filled vessels, Process Safety Progress, Vol. 22, No.1, March 2003, p.
27-32.

162
Subject Index
Subjects are indexed by chapter, instead of the whole book. This is done, so that user can locate the
subject in this book easier.

Chapter 1 Process Design

economic study 14 (page number)

equipment data sheets 12, 13
detailed Engineering Design 12
feasibility study 9
front-end engineering design (FEED) 10
hazardous analysis 14
instrwnent data sheets 13
line list 14
main Process Design Tasks 9
material balance 11
material selection diagrams 12
piping and instrument diagrams (P&ID) 12
process flow diagrams (PFD) 10
process relief device study and data sheets 14
(project) phases 9

Chapter 2 Pump

Calculation 34
Head 34
Horsepower 34
NPSHAlNPSHR 23, 34, 37
temperature rise 35
centrifugal pump 35
affinity law 36
pump head 35
specific speed 36
suction specific speed 36
reciprocating pump 37
acceleration head 37
capacity 37
speed 35
centrifugal pump 17
ANSI/API pump 25
casing 19

163
 cavitation 23
classification 17
driver 25
efficiency 24
impeller 18
mechanical details 17
mechanical seal/packing 19
operating point 22
pump curve 21
pump performance correction for viscous fluid 37
recirculation/minimum pumping rate 25
sealless pump 26
viscosity limitation 26
positive displacement pump 26
capabilities and limitations 33
operating point 33
pulsation 28
process specification 16
reciprocating pump 27
characteristics 28
classification 27
power pump 27
single-acting/double-acting 27
direct-acting pump 27
diaphragm pump 27
simplex/duplex/triplex 28
cylinder 29
mechanical details 29
piston/plunger 29
rotary pump 29
characteristic 32
classification 29
flexible impeller pump 31
gear pump 29
lobe pump 30
peristaltic tube pump 31
screw pump 31
sliding vane pump 30
selection 38
capacity and head 38

164
 viscosity 26,38
cost 38
type 16

Chapter 3 Compressor

axial compressor 52
calculation 61
affinity laws of centrifugal compressor 61
brake horsepower 61
number of stages 64
volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor 64
centrifugal compressor 44
discharge temperature 51
driver and control 51
head and power requirement 50
interstage cooling 51
lubrication oil system and seal oil system 48
mechanical details 44
number of stages 50
operating speed 49
performance curve 48
process specification 41
reciprocating compressor 54
compression ratio 56
cooling 56
control 56
discharge temperature 55
head and power requirement 57
mechanical details 54
performance curve 57
pulsation 57
rod loading 55
spare 57
speed 56
volumetric efficiency 55
rotary compressor 57
selection 60
type 42
based on the principle of gas compression 42

165
 based on application 42

Chapter 4 Heat Exchanger

basic features 68
codes 71
corrosion allowance 73
flow pattern 69
fouling 72
guideline for selecting tube or shell side fluid 73
heat transfer medium 69
heating or cooling curves 68
logarithmic mean temperature difference and correction factor 71
overall heat transfer coefficient 70
process specification 67
type 68
double-pipe or multi-tube hairpin heat exchanger 74
shell and tube heat exchanger 74
design or rating 83
inefficiency 83
other components 78
selection 83
type of front end stationary head 76
type of rear end head 77
type of shells 76
air cooler 84
components of air cooler 85
design or rating 89
environment 89
piping to air cooler 89

Chapter 5 Vessel

basic features 92
code 92
corrosion allowance 93
design pressure and temperature 93
intema193
nozzle 93
support 93
wall thickness 94

166
 weight 94
comments of vessel sizing 105
common practice 106
inlet diverter 93, 103
process specification 92
Sizing 94
liquid surge drum 94
vapor/liquid separator 95
gravity settling method 96
with mist eliminator 98
liquid/liquid separator 103
sizing with coalescer pad 104
surge volume method 103

Chapter 6 Line Sizing

Archimedes number 118

drag coefficient 118
factors of line sizing 108
final line sizing 120
friction factor 110. 115. 119
gravity flow line 116
line list 125
optimum single phase line size 121
optimum liquid line size 123
optimum vapor line size 124
pressure drop of pipe fittings 120
Reynolds number 110. 114, 118
single phase line 108
preliminary line sizing 108
pressure drop calculation 110
slurry line 116
limit deposit velocity 117
pressure drop calculation 119
two phase line 111
preliminary line sizing 111
pressure drop calculation 111
tool for line sizing 121

167
Chapter 7 Control valve

application and cost 140

cavitation 135, 139
fail position 140
flashing 135, 139
globe control valve 130
material selection 139
noise 140
performance 132
pressure drop at other flow conditions 138
process specifications 140
rotary control valve 132
seat leakage 140
size selection 139
sizing 134
liquid control valve sizing 134
vapor control valve sizing 138
type 129

Chapter 8 Pressure Relief Device

characteristics of Pressure Relief Devices 147

pressure relief valves 147
spring-loaded pressure relief valves 147
pilot-operated pressure relief valves 148
rupture disk and pin-actuated pressure relief device 145
contingency analysis 151
fire relief 152
liquid full vessel exposed to fire 152
thermal expansion 153
liquid relief 153
vapor relief 154
inlet and outlet piping sizing 158
inlet piping sizing criteria 159
outlet piping sizing criteria 159
maximwn operating pressure 150
overpressure 147, 149
pressure relief valve size selection 158
pin-actuated pressure relief device 146

168
pilot-operated pressure relief valve 144
pressure relief valve 142
rated relief rate 158
rupture disk 145
selection 160
set pressure 142, 149
sizing 154
vapor relief device sizing at sonic flow 155
vapor relief device sizing at subsonic flow 155
liquid relief device sizing 155
certified liquid relief device sizing 155
non-certified liquid relief device sizing 156
two phase relief valve sizing 156
spring-loaded pressure relief valve 143
conventional pressure relief valve 143
balanced-bellows pressure relief valve 144
type 142

169