Manufacturing Science and Technology

(ME361A)

Welding Process

Prof. J. Ramkumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
jrkumar@iitk.ac.in
 Introduction to Welding
❖Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced at
their contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure.
❖In some welding processes a filler material is added to facilitate coalescence. The
assemblage of parts that are joined by welding is called a weldment.

✓Welding provides a permanent joint.

✓The welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a filler metal is used
that has strength/properties superior to those of the parents.
✓Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in terms of
material usage and fabrication costs.
✓Welding is not restricted to the factory environment. It can be accomplished “in the
field.
Classification of Joining Processes

Ghosh & Mallik

 Types of Welding Process

1. Fusion Welding
Fusion-welding processes use heat to melt the base metals. In many fusion welding
operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide
bulk and strength to the welded joint.
❖Arc welding (AW):Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes in which heating
of the metals is accomplished by an electric arc
❖Resistance welding (RW):Resistance welding achieves coalescence using heat from
electrical resistance to the flow of a current passing between the faying surfaces of two
parts held together under pressure.
❖Oxy fuel gas welding (OFW):These joining processes use an oxy fuel gas, such as a
mixture of oxygen and acetylene, to produce a hot flame for melting.
 Types of Welding Process
2. Solid-State Welding:
Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which coalescence results from application of
pressure alone or a combination of heat (below melting point) and pressure.
❖Diffusion welding: Two surfaces are held together under pressure at an elevated
temperature and the parts coalesce by solid-state diffusion.

❖Friction welding: Coalescence is achieved by the heat of friction between two surfaces.

❖Ultrasonic welding: Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an
oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the
contacting surfaces.
Schematic of a Typical Welding Process
 Type of Weld Joints

Five basic types of joints: (a) butt, (b) corner, (c) lap, (d) tee, and (e) edge.

Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint;
(c) double fillet lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee joint.
 Principle of Solid Phase Welding
❖Carried out at room or at an elevated temperature without melting any part of the
joining surfaces.
❖A defect free crystal fails by a cleavage along a crystallographic plane where the
interatomic force is weakest. Therefore two new surfaces are produced.
❖The strength of a single crystal is defined as:
𝐸ϒ 1/2
σ𝑐 =
𝐷
Where E is the modulus of elasticity, ϒ is the surface energy and d is the lattice spacing
in the cleavage plane. However, in brittle material the failure takes place by extension of
cracks already present. In this case the bulk strength is defined as:
𝐸ϒ 1/2
σ𝑏 =
𝑙
𝑙 >>d is the length of crack
 Principles of Fusion Welding
In a fusion welding process, the material around the joint is melted in both the parts to be
joined. A filler material can also added, if necessary.
The most important factors governing a fusion welding process are:
a. Characteristics of the heat source
b. The nature of deposition of the filler material in the weld pool
c. The heat flow characteristics in the joint
d. The gas metal or slag metal reactions
e. The cooling in the fusion zone, residual stresses and metallurgical changes.
 Heat Source
A heat source, suitable for welding, should release the heat in a sharply defined isolated
zone.
The most common sources of heat include
❖The electric arc
❖The chemical flame
❖An exothermic chemical reaction
❖An electric resistance heating
 Arc Initiation in Welding
Two most commonly used methods to initiate an electric arc in welding:
1. Touch start :
❖The electrode is brought in contact with the work piece and then pulled apart to create
a very small gap.
❖Touching of the electrode to the workpiece causes short-circuiting resulting in flow of
heavy current which in turn leads to heating, partial melting and even slight
evaporation
2. Field start:
❖High strength electric field (107 V) is applied between electrode and work piece so that
electrons are released from cathode electro-magnetic field Emission.
❖Once the free electrons are available in arc gap, normal potential difference between electrode
and work piece ensures flow of charged particles to maintain a welding arc.
 Mechanism of arc initiation by touch start
method (a) when circuit closed by touching electrode with work piece (b) emission of Field-start method of arc initiation
electrode on putting them apart
 Emission and Ionization of Electric Arc
❖Initially a good contact is made between
cathode and anode and then electrode is
withdrawn.
❖Metallic bridges start breaking, thus increasing
the current density.
❖Current density rises to such a high value that
bridges start boiling.
❖Electrons are released from the cathode by a
process known as Thermionic emission.
❖The rate of electrons emission is given by:
2
−β
𝐼 = 𝐶θ exp( )
θ
Where 𝐼 is in amp/cm2, θ is the absolute
temperature, C is a constant. Schematic of arc welding process
𝛽 is given by
𝜙𝑒
β=
𝑘𝜃
e is the charge of an electron, k is the Boltzmann’s constant and 𝜙 is the thermionic
work function. In fact it is the amount of energy necessary to emit an electron.
𝜙 for some common materials
S. No. Metal Ionization 𝜙 (eV)
potential (V)
1 Aluminium 6 4.1
2 Copper 7.9 4.4
3 Iron 7.83 4.4
4 Tungsten 8.1 4.5
5 Sodium 5.1 2.3
6 Potassium 4.3 2.2

The total current in the arc is carried by two sets of electrons.

1. Primary electrons: Emitted by cathode
2. Secondary electrons: Produced due to ionization
 Arc Structure Characteristics and Power
Three zones in an electric arc:
I. Cathode spot: This is a relatively very small area
on the cathode surface, emitting the electrons.
II. Cathode space: It is a gaseous region adjacent to
the cathode and has a thickness of the order of 10-3
cm.
III. Arc column: This is the visible portion of the arc
consisting of plasma (hot ionized gas) where the
voltage drop is not sharp.
IV. Anode space: This, again, is a gaseous region
(thickness ≈10-3 cm) and is adjacent to the anode
surface where a sharp drop in the voltage takes
place.
V. Anode spot: This is the area on the anode surface
where the electrons are absorbed. This area is Potential drop across the arc
larger than the cathode spot.
Ghosh & Mallik
 Current-voltage Characteristics of an Arc

❖ For a given electrodes material voltage

reduces up to 50 amps (Ohmic law for
constant resistance)
❖ The shape of arc is almost cylindrical
up to 50 amps. S/V of a cylinder
decreases with increasing radius.
❖ A thick, high current arc loses less heat.
This results in a higher conductivity as
compared to thin, low current arc.
❖ However, beyond 50 amp of current,
the arc bulges out and the current path
becomes more than the arc gap which
again increases the resistance of the arc Current voltage characteristics of an arc
Ghosh & Mallik
 Arc length vs Arc Current Characteristics

Constant current power source characteristic

Constant voltage power source characteristic
Drooping or constant current power source static
As the arc length and hence the voltage changes there
characteristics, such as would be used for the
is a large change in the welding current – as the arc
MMA(Manual metal arc) or TIG process,
lengthens the welding current falls, as the arc shortens
superimposed on the arc characteristic curves
the current increases.

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Arc length Characteristics

When V=V0, I=0

and
I=Isc, V=0
Thus we have
Equation(1)
Arc Power vs Arc Current
 Variation of Current with Plate Thickness
I

I= a+ b×t
a and b are constants. I is the current
and t is the thickness of workpiece.
Workpiece below 4 mm thickness can
not weld using arc welding as current
Minimum t
becomes negative (Practical difficulty). thickness of
a(-ve)
sheet which can
be welded
 Modes of Metal Transfer in Arc Welding

❖ The depth of penetration, the stability of the weld pool, and the amount of spatter
loss depend, to a large extent, on the mode of metal transfer from the consumable
electrodes.
❖ Various forces cause the transfer of metal into the weld pool.
❖ The mode of transfer depends on the intersection of these forces and governs the
ability of welding in various positions.
The major forces which take part in this process are those due to:
(i) gravity, (ii) surface tension, (iii) electromagnetic interaction, and (iv) hydrodynamic
action of plasma.
 Modes of Metal Transfer in Arc Welding

❖ Gravity force: May be retaining or detaching. Depends on

the electrode motion upward or downward.
❖ Surface tension always retain the drop at the tip of
electrode.
❖ Lorentz force due to flow of current and its own magnetic
field. Acts in the direction of current.

Separation of droplet

Ghosh & Mallik

 Free Flight Transfer
❖ Gravitational: Gravity force dominates. Vertical fall of molten
drop.
❖ Repelled: If the electromagnetic force, the gas jet and the
hydrostatic pressure are predominant, then the drop is given an
initial acceleration towards the weld pool and projected into it.
If the resulting force directs the drop away from the weld pool
repelled transfer occurs.
❖ Projected: Seen in oxide coated carbon steel electrodes where
a strong arc jet is set up.
Types of free flight metal transfer
Short Circuit Transfer
❖ In short circuit transfer, the liquid drop
at the tip gets in contact with the weld
pool before being detected from the
electrode. Thus the arc is momentarily
short circuited.
❖ However, due to surface tension and the
electromagnetic force the drop is pulled
into the weld pool.
Short circuiting transfer
Heat Flow in Welds
Heat Transfer in Arc Welding

Taken from Dr.

Mohit Law’s PPTs
 Transformation of Transient to Steady-state 3D Heat
Transfer

❖This is a transient 3D heat transfer. Taken from Dr.

❖To make life simpler, lets transform this to a steady-state case Mohit Law’s PPTs

❖Assume a quarter-infinite block (infinite in +𝑍,+𝑋,+𝑌,−𝑌), with a

point heat source at A(an idealized concentrated arc with infinite
intensity) moving along the 𝑋 axis with a velocity 𝑣
❖A point 𝑃(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) undergoes a variation of temperature as the arc is
approaching, passing and moving away
 Steady-state 3D Heat Transfer

❖If the initial part of the arc motion that is close to 𝑥 = 0 origin is neglected, and the origin of the
coordinates is located in the arc, the filed measured in the new coordinates 𝜉, 𝑦, 𝑧 becomes
stationary (think of a waves on the surface of a lake produced by a moving boat)
❖Moving the origin of coordinates from O to A (the arc), the 𝑥 coordinate transforms from 𝜉 to 𝑥:

Taken from Dr.

Mohit Law’s PPTs
Solution to the Steady-state Equation (thick plate)
Steady-state solution, neglecting convection from the surface, for welding a thick plate:

wherein 𝑇𝑜 is the initial temperature of the plate, 𝑞′ is the arc power input, and
 Heat Flow Characteristics
❖In the fusion welding processes, the heat source is moving, except in spot welding where the
source is stationary. Once the steady state is reached, even with a moving heat source, the
temperature distribution relative to the source becomes stationary.
Assume the source to be stationary and the workpiece is moving with the same velocity in opposite direction.

❖For a three-dimensional heat source, the heat input is given by:

5 2 𝑣𝑤
𝑄 = π𝑤𝑘θ𝑚 +
4 5 4α
Q= Rate of heat input (W) (used in heat transfer analysis)
w= Width of the weld (m)
k= Thermal conductivity of the work material (W/m-K)
θ𝑚 = Melting point ow work material (ºC)
v = Welding speed (m/sec)
α= Thermal diffusivity (𝑚2 /s)

Ghosh & Mallik

 Heat Flow Characteristics
For a two-dimensional heat source (heat is liberated along a
line and the heat source is idealized as a line source), this is
given as:
1 𝑣𝑤
𝑄 = 8𝑘θ𝑚 ℎ +
5 4α
Q= Rate of heat input (W)
k= Thermal conductivity of the work material (W/m-K)
θ𝑚 = Melting point of work material (ºC)
v = Welding speed (m/sec)
α= Thermal diffusivity (𝑚2 /s)
h = Plate thickness
𝑣𝑤
Important parameters in both heat sources:
α Ghosh & Mallik
 Heat Input Rate
In arc welding with short circuit metal transfer, the
heat input rate is easily seen to be :
Q= CVI
Where,
V = Arc voltage (V),
I= Arc current (A)
C= Fraction of total time during which the arc is on
(Pulse mode power supply)
Variation of temperature with time at different
Increasing distance from the source, the maximum temperature distances from the source
is lower and the temperature lags behind the source as shown in
Fig.
 Various Joining Processes
Arc Welding
❖Arc welding (AW) is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence of the metals
is achieved by the heat of an electric arc between an electrode and the work.
❖An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit. It is
sustained by the presence of a thermally ionized column of gas (called a plasma)
through which current flows.
❖The electric energy from the arc thus formed produces temperatures of 5500°C
(10,000°F) or higher, sufficiently hot to melt any metal.
❖Filler metal is added during the operation to increase the volume and strength of
the weld joint.
 Schematic Diagram
Electrodes consumable or non-
consumable.
Consumable electrodes provide the source
of the filler metal in arc welding.
Available in two principal forms: rods (also
called sticks) and wire.
Arc Shielding: argon and helium, both of
which are inert.
A flux is a substance used to prevent the
formation of oxides and other unwanted
contaminants, or to dissolve them and
facilitate removal.
Arc welding with coated electrodes:
The coating serves following purposes:
Flux provides ❖ Shields the melt pool from the
(1) A protective atmosphere for welding, (2) stabilize the arc, and atmosphere contamination
(3) reduce spattering. ❖ It acts as a carrier for alloying elements,
Power Source in Arc Welding Both direct current (DC) and deoxidants, etc.
alternating current (AC) are used

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 Polarity in Arc Welding

66.67% heat to
anode and
33.33% heat to
cathode.

1. In straight polarity or direct-current electrode negative

(DCEN): DCEN generally
Produces welds that are narrow and deep.
2. In reverse polarity or direct-current electrode positive
(DCEP):
Weld penetration is less, and the weld zone is shallower and
Wider.
The effect of polarity and current type on weld beads:
3. In AC current method, the arc pulsates rapidly. (a) DC current with straight polarity (b) DC current
This method is suitable for welding thick sections and for with reverse polarity (c) AC current.
using large-diameter electrodes at maximum currents
Kalpakjian
 Arc Welding Process: Non Consumable Electrodes
Tungsten-Inert Gas Welding
❖ In gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW),
formerly known as TIG welding, the filler
metal is supplied from a filler wire. Because
the tungsten electrode is not consumed in
this operation.
❖ A constant and stable arc gap is maintained
at a constant current level.
❖ The shielding gas is usually argon or helium.
❖ The GTAW process is used for a wide
variety of applications and metals,
particularly aluminium, magnesium,
titanium, and the refractory metals.
❖ The power supply is either DC at 200 A or
AC at 500 A.
❖ AC is preferred for Al and Mg, because the
cleaning action of AC removes oxides and
improves weld quality.
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 Arc welding process: Consumable Electrodes
Metal-Inert Gas Welding

❖ Also known as gas metal-arc welding (GMAW)

❖ The weld area is shielded by an effectively inert atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon dioxide, or
various other gas mixtures.
❖ The consumable bare wire is fed automatically through a nozzle into the weld arc by a wire-feed drive motor
❖ Deoxidizers are present in the electrode metal itself in order to prevent oxidation of the molten-weld puddle.
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 Oxyfuel-gas Welding

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 Oxyfuel–gas Welding

❖Oxyfuel–gas welding (OFW) is a general term used to describe any welding process
that uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame. The flame is the
source of the heat that is used to melt the metals at the joint. The most common gas
welding process uses acetylene; the process is known as oxyacetylene–gas welding
(OAW).
❖The primary combustion process, which occurs in the inner core of the flame,
involves the following reaction
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + Heat
❖The secondary combustion process is
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + Heat
 Flame Types
1. At a ratio of 1:1 (i.e., when there is no excess oxygen), the flame is considered to be
neutral.
2. With a greater oxygen supply, the flame can be harmful (especially for steels),
because it oxidizes the metal. For this reason, a flame with excess oxygen is known
as an oxidizing flame.
3. If the oxygen is insufficient for full combustion, the flame is known as a reducing,
or carburizing, flame (a flame having excess acetylene).
Gas Welding of Aluminium
 Solid-State Welding Processes
❖If two clean surfaces are brought into close contact with each other under sufficient
pressure, they form bonds and produce a joint.
❖To form a strong bond, it is essential that the interface be free of oxide films, residues,
metalworking fluids, other contaminants, and even adsorbed layers of gas.
Solid-state bonding involves one or more of the following phenomena:
1. Diffusion: The transfer of atoms across an interface; thus, applying external heat
improves the strength of the bond between the two surfaces being joined, as occurs in
diffusion bonding.
2. Pressure: The higher the pressure, the stronger is the interface (as in roll bonding and
explosion welding), where plastic deformation also occurs.
3. Relative interfacial movements: When movements of the contacting surfaces occur
(as in ultrasonic welding), even very small amplitudes.
 1. Ultrasonic Welding

❖ Two components are subjected

to a static normal force and
oscillating shearing (tangential)
stresses provided by transducer.
❖ Frequency of oscillation is
generally in the range from 10
to 75 kHz.
❖ The shearing stresses cause
plastic deformation at the
interface of the two
components.
❖ The temperature generated in
the weld zone is usually in the Components of an ultrasonic-welding machine for making lap welds
range from one-third to one-half
of the melting point (absolute
scale) of the metals joined.
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 2. Friction Welding
❖In friction welding (FRW), the heat required for welding is generated through (as the name implies)
friction at the interface of the two components being joined.

The principle of the friction-stir-welding process. Aluminium alloy plates

up to 75 mm (3 in.) thick have been welded by this process

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Sequence of operations in the friction-welding process

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 2. Resistance Welding
The category of resistance welding (RW) covers a number of processes in which the heat required for
welding is produced by means of electrical resistance across the two components to be joined. These
processes have major advantages, such as not requiring consumable electrodes, shielding gases, or flux.

The heat generated in resistance welding is given by the general expression

𝐻 = 𝐼 2 Rt

H: Heat generated in joules (watt-seconds)

I: Current (in amperes)
R: Resistance (in ohms)
t: Time of current flow (in seconds)

The total resistance is the sum of the following properties :

a. Resistances of the electrodes
b. Electrode–workpiece contact resistance
c. Resistances of the individual parts to be welded
❖ The magnitude of the current in
resistance-welding operations
may be as high as 100,000 A,
but the voltage is typically only
0.5 to 10 V.
❖ The strength of the bond
depends on surface roughness
and on the cleanliness of the
mating surfaces.
❖ This is one of the most
commonly used processes in
sheet-metal fabrication and in
automotive body assembly

(a) Sequence of events in resistance spot welding (b) Cross section of a spot
weld, showing the weld nugget and the indentation of the electrode on the sheet surfaces.

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 Resistance Spot Welding
❖In resistance spot welding (RSW), the tips of two opposing solid, cylindrical electrodes
touch a lap joint of two sheet metals, and resistance heating produces a spot weld.
❖In order to obtain a strong bond in the weld nugget, pressure is applied until the current is
turned off and the weld has solidified.

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Two electrode designs for easy access to the components to be welded
 Resistance Seam Welding
❖Resistance seam welding (RSEW) is a modification of spot welding wherein the
electrodes are replaced by rotating wheels or rollers. Using a continuous AC power
supply, the electrically conducting rollers produce a spot weld when the current reaches a
sufficiently high level.

(a) Seam-welding process in which rotating rolls act as electrodes

(b) Overlapping spots in a seam weld. (c) Roll spot welds and (d) Mash seam welding Kalpakjian
 Cooling of Fusion Weld
Three distinct zones can be identified in a typical weld joint, as
shown in Fig.
1. Base metal
2. Heat-affected zone
3. Weld metal

The three important effects intimately connected

with the cooling of a fusion weld are:
(i) Contraction,
(ii) Residual stress, and
(iii) Metallurgical phase transformation.

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 (i) Contraction

During the freezing of the weld pool, a

decrease in the volume takes place.
Moreover, the direction of freezing, and
thus the effect of contraction, depends on
the type of joint, as explained in Figure.

Solidification of a groove weld

Ghosh & Mallik

 (ii)Residual Stress

❖ During the fusion welding of plates,

as the weld pool contracts on cooling,
this contraction is resisted by the rest
of the plates (which have not melted).
As such, a tensile stress is generated
in the weld, and this is balanced by
the compressive stress in the parent
metal.
❖ This residual stress may result in the
cracking of a brittle material and is
not important as far as a ductile
material is concerned.
Stress distribution in plate weld
Ghosh & Mallik
 (iii)Metallurgical Changes

❖ These changes are due to the heating and subsequent cooling of the weld and the
heat affected zones of the parent materials.
❖ Such changes significantly affect the quality of the weld.

The wide variety of changes that may take place depend on various factors:

(a) The nature of the material, i.e., single-phase, two-phase,

(b) The nature of the prior heat treatment, if any, and

(c) The nature of the prior cold working

 Metallurgical Changes
❖ These changes are due to heating and subsequent cooling of the weld and HAZ of the parent material.
❖ Strength within the melt boundary is low.

Characteristics of welded joint in pure metal Characteristics of welded joint an alloy

Ghosh & Mallik

 Grain structure in (a) a deep weld and (b) a shallow weld. Note that the
grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular to their interface with the base metal.
(c) Weld bead on a cold-rolled nickel strip produced by a laser beam. (d) Microhardness (HV)
profile across a weld bead
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 Weld Quality/Defects
The major discontinuities that affect weld quality are following:
1. Porosity:
Porosity in welds may be caused by
❖ Gases released during melting of the weld area, but trapped during solidification
❖ Chemical reactions during welding
❖Contaminants.

2. Slag Inclusions:
❖Slag inclusions are compounds such as oxides, fluxes, and electrode coating materials
that are trapped in the weld zone.
❖If shielding gases are not effective during welding, contamination from the
environment also may contribute to such inclusions.
3. Incomplete Fusion and Penetration:

Various discontinuities in fusion welds

Various defects in fusion welds Kalpakjian

 Cracks

Types of cracks developed in welded joints. The cracks are caused by

thermal stresses, similar to the development of hot tears in castings
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 Weld Inspection

(a) Specimens for longitudinal tension-shear testing and for transfer tension shear
testing. (b) Wraparound bend-test method. (c) Three-point transverse bending of
welded specimens
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Thank You