Gas-Solid Flows: 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Gas-Solid Flows
1 INTRODUCTION
There is essentially no limit to the capability or a pneumatic conveying system for

the conveying of dry bulk particulate materials. Almost any material can be con-
veyed and high material flow rates can be achieved over long distances. There are,
however, practical limitations and these are mainly imposed by the fact that the
conveying medium, being a gas, is compressible. The limiting parameters are then
mainly the economic ones of scale and power requirements.
Conveying capability depends mainly upon five parameters. These are pipe
bore, conveying distance, pressure available, conveying air velocity and material
properties. The influence of many of these variables is reasonably predictable but
that of the conveyed material is not fully understood at present.
1.1 Pipeline Bore

The major influence on material flow rate is that of pipeline bore. If a greater ma-
terial flow rate is required it can always be achieved by increasing the pipeline
bore, generally regardless of the other parameters. In a larger bore pipeline a larger
cross sectional area is available and this usually equates to the capability of con-
veying more material.
Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

108 Chapter 4
1.2 Conveying Distance

In common with the single phase flow of liquids and gases, conveying line pres-
sure drop is approximately directly proportional to distance. Long distance con-
veying, therefore, tends to equate to high pressure, particularly if a high material
flow rate is required. For the majority of conveying applications, however, it is not
convenient to use high pressures. As a consequence, long distance, with respect to
pneumatic conveying, means about one mile. This limitation, and means of ex-
tending distance capability, are discussed at various points in this handbook. In
this chapter the basic fundamentals are considered.
1.3 Pressure Available

Although air, and other gases, can be compressed to very high pressures, it is not
generally convenient to use air at very high pressure. The reason for this is that air
is compressible and so its volumetric flow rate constantly increases as the pressure
decreases. In hydraulic conveying, pressures in excess of 2000 lbf/in 2 can be used
so that materials can be conveyed over distances of 70 miles and more with a sin-
gle stage. With water being essentially incompressible, changes in the velocity of
the water over this distance are not very significant.
In pneumatic conveying, air at pressures above about 15 lbf/in 2 gauge is
generally considered to be 'high pressure', as mentioned in Chapter 1. With air at
15 lbf/in 2 expanding to atmospheric pressure, for example, the conveying air ve-
locity will double over the length of the pipeline. Although the air expansion can
be accommodated to a certain extent by stepping the pipeline to a larger bore part
way along its length, this is a complex design procedure. As a consequence, air
pressures above 100 lbf/in 2 gauge are rarely used for pneumatic conveying sys-
tems that deliver materials to reception points at atmospheric pressure.
Where pneumatic conveying systems are required to deliver materials into
reactors and vessels that are maintained at pressure, however, high air supply pres-
sures can be used, and 300 lbf/in 2 is not unusual. With a high back pressure the
expansion of the air is significantly limited and relatively few, if any, steps would
be required in the pipeline. It is on this basis that staged pneumatic conveying sys-
tems would be designed for very long distance conveying.
1.4 Conveying Air Velocity

The parameter here is volumetric flow rate, for this has to be quoted, along with
supply pressure, when specifying a blower, compressor or exhauster for a pneu-
matic conveying system. The critical design parameter with respect to pneumatic
conveying, however, is conveying air velocity, and more particularly, conveying
line inlet air velocity or pick-up velocity. Since the air expands along the length of
the pipeline it will always be a minimum at the material feed point at the start of
the pipeline, in a single bore pipeline, regardless of whether it is a positive pres-
sure or a vacuum conveying system.

Gas-Solid Flows 109
In a single bore pipeline the velocity will be a maximum at the end of the
pipeline. It is the value of the minimum velocity of the air that is critical to the
successful operation of a pneumatic conveying system. Volumetric flow rate, of
course, is given simply by multiplying conveying air velocity by pipe section area.
In this process, however, the correct velocity has to be used and this is considered
in detail in the next chapter on 'Air Requirements'.
The minimum value of conveying air velocity depends to a large extent on
the properties of the bulk particulate material to be conveyed and the mode of
conveying. For dilute phase conveying this velocity is typically about 3000 ft/min,
although this does depend upon particle size, shape and density, as will be dis-
cussed.
For dense phase conveying the minimum velocity is about 600 ft/min. For
fine powders that are capable of being conveyed in dense phase the minimum
value of conveying air velocity also depends upon the concentration of the mate-
rial in the air, or the solids loading ratio, and this will be considered in detail in this
chapter.
In dilute phase conveying the particles are conveyed in suspension in the air
and this relatively high value of velocity is due, in part, to the large difference in
density between the particles and the air. In hydraulic conveying typical velocities
for suspension flow are only about 300 ft/min, but the difference in density be-
tween water and particles is very little in comparison. The difference in density
between water and air is about 800:1. Since the difference in conveying medium
velocity is only of the order of about 10:1 it will be seen that the pressure of the
air, and hence its density, will not have a major effect on the value of minimum
conveying air velocity for general pneumatic conveying.
1.5 Material Properties

The properties of the conveyed material have a major influence on the conveying
capability of a pneumatic conveying system. It is the properties of the material that
dictate whether the material can be conveyed in dense phase in a conventional
conveying system, and the minimum value of conveying air velocity required. For
this reason the conveying characteristics of many different materials are presented
and featured in order to illustrate the importance and significance of material
properties.
Although it is the properties of the bulk material, such as particle size and
size distribution, particle shape and shape distribution, and particle density that are
important in this respect, at this point in time it is the measurable properties of
materials in bulk that are more fully understood, These include air-material inter-
actions, such as air retention and permeability, and are more convenient to use. In
general, materials that have either good air retention or good permeability will be
capable of being conveyed in dense phase and at low velocity in a conventional
conveying system. Materials that have neither good air retention nor good perme-
ability will be limited to dilute phase suspension flow.

110 Chapter 4
7.5.7 Dense Phase Conveying

There are two main mechanisms of low velocity, dense phase flow. For materials
that have good air retention, the material tends to be conveyed as a fluidized mass.
In a horizontal pipeline the vast majority of the material will flow along the bot-
tom of the pipeline, rather like water, with air above, but carrying very little mate-
rial. At a solids loading ratio of about 150 the pipeline is approximately half full.
For dense phase flows there is a distinct pulsing of the flow, with the material
flowing smoothly and then suddenly stopping for a second or two and then flow-
ing smoothly again. In vertically upward flow, the flow of material also pulses,
and for the second that the flow halts the material falls momentarily back down the
vertical pipe.
For materials that have good permeability the material tends to be conveyed
in plugs through the pipeline. The plugs fill the full bore of the pipeline and are
separated by short air gaps. As the conveying air velocity is reduced, the air gap
between the plugs gradually fills with material along the bottom of the pipeline
and the plug ultimately moves as a ripple along the top of an almost static bed of
material. As the air flow rate reduces, to give very low conveying air velocities,
the material flow rate also reduces.
Materials composed almost entirely of large mono-sized particles, such as
polyethylene and nylon pellets, peanuts, and certain grains and seeds, convey very
well in plug flow. In dilute phase conveying, nylons and polymers can suffer dam-
age in the formation of angel hairs, and grains and seeds may not germinate as a
consequence of damage caused at the high velocities necessary for conveying.
Because of the very high permeability necessary, air will readily permeate through
the material while it is being conveyed and so maximum values of solids loading
ratios will typically be about 30.
2 MATERIAL CONVEYING CHARACTERISTICS
If a pneumatic conveying system is to be designed to ensure satisfactory operation,

and to achieve maximum efficiency, it is necessary to know the conveying charac-
teristics of the material to be handled. The conveying characteristics will tell a
designer what the minimum conveying velocity is for the material, whether there
is an optimum velocity at which the material can be conveyed, and what pipeline
diameter and air mover rating will be required for a given material flow rate and
conveying distance.
Alternatively, for an existing pneumatic conveying plant, the appropriate
conveying characteristics will tell a designer what flow rate to expect if it is neces-
sary to convey a different material, and whether the air flow rate is satisfactory.
Conveying characteristics can also be used to check and optimize an existing plant
if it is not operating satisfactorily.
In order to be able to specify a pipe size and compressor rating for a re-
quired duty it is necessary to have information on the conveying characteristics of

Gas-Solid Flows 111
the material. If sufficient previous experience with a material is available, such

that the conveying characteristics for the material are already established, it should
be possible to base a design on the known information.
If previous experience with a material is not available, or is not sufficient for
a full investigation, it will be necessary to carry out pneumatic conveying trials
with the material. These should be planned such that they will provide data on the
relationships between material flow rate, air flow rate and conveying line pressure
drop, over as wide a range of conveying conditions as can be achieved with the
material.
The trials should also provide information on the minimum conveying air
velocity for the material and how this is influenced by conveying conditions. This
is particularly important in the case of dense phase conveying, for the differences
in conveying characteristics between materials can be very much greater than
those for dilute phase conveying.
If the investigation is to cover the entire range of conveying modes with the
material, then the previous experience must be available over a similar range of
conveying conditions. Scale up in terms of air supply pressure, pipe bore, convey-
ing distance and pipeline geometry from existing data is reasonably predictable,
provided that the extrapolation is not extended too far. Scale up in terms of mode
of conveying, into regions of much higher solids loading ratios and lower convey-
ing air velocities, however, should not be attempted unless evidence of the poten-
tial of the material for such conveying is available.
2.1 Conveying Mode

With high pressure air, conveying is possible in the dense phase mode, provided
that the material is capable of being conveyed in this mode. It is the influence of
material properties on the possible mode of conveying, as well as differences in
material flow rates achieved for identical conveying conditions, that makes it es-
sential for conveying trials to be carried out with an untried material before de-
signing a pneumatic conveying system. In conveying tests with high pressure air
there is an additional need, therefore, to establish the limits of conveying and this
may be over a very wide range of conveying conditions.
In addition to material properties, conveying distance can have a significant
influence on the solids loading ratio at which a material can be conveyed, and
hence mode of conveying that is possible. The influencing factor here is simply
pressure gradient, and this will limit conveying potential regardless of the capabili-
ties of the material. This aspect of conveying pipeline performance is considered
in more detail in Chapter 8.
2.1,1 The A ir Only Datum

In order to illustrate how conveying characteristics can be used it is necessary to
show first how they are built up and to examine the influence of the main vari-
ables.

112 Chapter 4
30
40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
Figure 4.1 Air only pressure drop data for pipeline shown in figure 4.2.
The simplest starting point is to consider the air only flowing through the
pipeline. If a graph is drawn of pressure drop against air flow rate for a conveying
line the result will be similar to that shown in Figure 4.1.
The data in Figure 4.1 relates to a 165 ft long pipeline of 2 inch nominal
bore which includes nine ninety degree bends. Details of the pipeline are presented
in Figure 4.2. This pipeline was used for conveying many of the materials for
which conveying characteristics are presented in the first part of this chapter, and
several subsequent chapters. As a consequence, both the pipeline in Figure 4.2,
and the air only pressure drop datum in Figure 4.1, will serve as a reference for
much of the data that follows.
The line representing the air only pressure drop on Figure 4.1 is effectively
the lower limit for conveying and will appear on subsequent graphs with a zero to
indicate that this is the datum for conveying and represents a material flow rate of
Olb/h.
It will be seen from Figure 4.1 that the air only pressure drop increases
markedly with increase in air flow rate. When material is added to the air in the
pipeline, at any given value of air flow rate, there will be an increase in pressure.
This is as a consequence of the drag force of the air on the particles to enable them
to be conveyed through the pipeline.
The air, however, has to be at a velocity that is sufficiently high to convey
the material, otherwise the particles will not convey, and a build up of such mate-
rial could cause blockage of the pipeline.

Gas-Solid Flows 113
Pipeline:
165 ft long
2 inch nominal bore
9 * 90° bends
D/d = 24
Figure 4.2 Details of pipeline used for conveying trials.
In some situations, when fine dust is fed into a pipeline, there will be a slight
reduction in pressure drop, and this relates to modification of the boundary layer.
The flow rates of material involved are very small and have no relevance to pneu-
matic conveying. It will be seen from Figure 4.1 that if an air mover having a low
pressure capability is to be employed, the pressure drop available for conveying
material will be very limited, particularly if a high air flow rate is required for di-
lute phase conveying. Pipeline bore, of course, can be increased in order to com-
pensate if the pressure available for conveying is limited.
2.1.1.1 Pressure Drop Evaluation
Figure 4.1 relates to single phase flow and the analysis of such flows is well estab-
lished and quite straightforward. The pressure drop, Ap, for a fluid of density p,
flowing through a pipeline of a given diameter, d, and length, L, can be determined
from Darcy's Equation:
fLpC2
Ap a lbf/in 2 - - (1)
d
where / is the friction factor, which is a function of the Reynolds
number for the flow and the pipe wall roughness,
and C is the mean velocity of the flow - ft/min
It can be seen from this mathematical model, which is presented in more de-
tail in Chapter 6 on 'The Air Only Datum', that pressure drop follows a square law
relationship with respect to velocity. This means that if the velocity is doubled the

114 Chapter 4
pressure drop will increase by a factor of approximately four. Velocity, therefore,

is a very important parameter in this work and so in graphical representations of
experimental results and data, velocity needs to be represented on one of the axes.
2.7.2 Conveying Air Velocity

A major problem with using velocity, however, is that it is not an independent
variable. Gases are compressible and their densities vary with both pressure and
temperature. Since density decreases with decrease in pressure, the velocity of the
conveying gas will gradually increase along the length of a constant bore pipeline.
In Figure 4.1 it will be noticed that free air flow rate has been used instead of ve-
locity. Velocity, however, can be determined quite easily from the volumetric flow
rate by use of the two following equations:
D V\
r\ _ fD
T . V2 _ D V0
^0 .-T*.
T
•M
T
*2
T
-'0
where p = absolute pressure of air - lbf/in 2

V = volumetric flow rate of air - ftVmin
and T = absolute temperature of air - R(°F + 460)
and the subscripts relate to:
1 = conveying line inlet
2 = conveying line exit
0 = free air conditions
and for a circular pipeline:
576 V
C = — ft/min - - - - - . . . . - (3)
where C = conveying air velocity - ft/min

and d = pipeline bore - inch
This shows quite clearly how velocity is influenced by both gas pressure and
temperature, for a given volumetric flow rate of free air, and that for any given set
of conditions the gas velocity can be evaluated quite easily. These equations are
developed further in the next chapter.
In Figure 4.3 a graph is presented that will allow the conveying air velocity
to be evaluated for any given free air flow rate and conveying air pressure for con-
veying data relating to Figures 4.1 and 2. Conveying air velocity values up to
about 6000 ft/min have been considered as this is ideally the maximum value that
should normally be employed in dilute phase conveying.

Gas-Solid Flows 115
6000 L Conveying Air Pressure

- Ibf/in 2 gauge
c
I
L 4000 Atmospheric Pressure
_o = 14-7 Ibf7in 2 absolute
>
•= 2000
c
o
U Pipeline Bore = 2 in nominal
Air Temperature = 60 F
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min
Figure 4.3 The influence of air flow rate and pressure on conveying air velocity for test
pipeline and data.
2.2 Pneumatic Conveying

If a small quantity of a granular or powdered material is fed into a gas stream at a
steady rate there will be an increase in the conveying line pressure drop, above the
air only value, if the gas flow rate remains constant. For a given material the mag-
nitude of this increase depends upon the concentration of the material in the gas.
As the material flow rate into the conveying line increases, therefore, the convey-
ing line pressure drop will also increase.
In a two phase flow system consisting of a gas and solid particles conveyed
in suspension, part of the pressure drop is due to the gas alone and part is due to
the conveying of the particles in the gas stream. In such a two phase flow the par-
ticles are conveyed at a velocity below that of the conveying gas. There is, there-
fore, a drag force exerted on the particles by the gas.
For dilute phase, suspension flow, this drag force is the main contributor to
the conveying line pressure drop, whether it is accelerating the particles from the
feed point or conveying them through straight pipeline or around bends, and so it
is not surprising that different materials will behave very differently. These differ-
ences will be highlighted in this chapter, and they will be a major theme through
the handbook.
2.2.7 Slip Velocity

The difference in velocity between the conveying gas and the particles is called the
slip velocity. The magnitude of the slip velocity will depend upon the size, shape

116 Chapter 4
and density of the particles. For horizontal conveying, low density 20 micron sized
particles are likely to be conveyed at about 90% of the velocity of the conveying
gas, and for high density 1000 micron sized particles the value will be about 50%.
A typical representative value for the velocity of powdered materials is about 85%
of the gas velocity for horizontal conveying and 75% of the gas velocity for con-
veying vertically up.
2.2.2 Cases Considered

The influence of particle concentration on conveying line pressure drop over a
wide range of conveying air flow rates, and hence velocities, is illustrated with
three very different materials. These are ordinary portland cement, a sandy grade
of alumina and polyethylene pellets. They are representative of materials capable
of the range of conveying modes discussed above and so are used to illustrate the
conveying characteristics typical of these three groups of material.
Identical sets of axes have been used for presenting the conveying data for
each of the three materials so that direct visual comparisons can be made between
the conveying capabilities of the three materials. Each of the three materials con-
sidered was conveyed through the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2. 200 ftVmin of
free air was available at a pressure of 100 Ibf/in 2 gauge, although the maximum
value of pressure employed for conveying any of the materials was limited to
about 40 Ibf/in" gauge. A top discharge blow tank was used to feed each of the
materials into the pipeline.
It should be emphasized that the data presented here for the various materi-
als relates only to the materials tested and to this particular pipeline. This aspect of
the problem is considered in more detail in Chapters 7 and 8 where scaling pa-
rameters are presented, which will allow the conveying data presented here to be
scaled to any other pipeline required.
2.3 The Conveying of Cement

Pressure drop data for the cement is presented in Figure 4.4. This is a graph of
conveying line pressure drop plotted against free air flow rate, and lines of con-
stant cement flow rate have been drawn as the family of curves. Within the limit of
the 30 Ibf/in2 pressure drop the cement was conveyed at flow rates up to about
35,000 Ib/h through this two inch nominal bore pipeline.
2.3.1 Conveying Limits

The zero line at the bottom of the graph is the curve representing the variation of
conveying line pressure drop with air flow rate for air only, which comes from
Figure 4.1 for the pipeline used. This, therefore, represents the lower limit with
respect to the material conveying capacity for the given system. Apart from the
lower limit of zero for material conveying capacity, there are three other limita-
tions on the plot in Figure 4.4.

Gas-Solid Flows 117
Material Flow Rate

- I b / h * 1000 30
30
20
Q
0.
o
10
c
o
U
0
0 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ItVmin
Figure 4.4 Pressure drop data for cement.
The first is the limit on the right hand side of the graph, but this is set only
by the volumetric capacity of the compressor or blower used. This was 200
ftVmin, and by reference to Figure 4.3 it will be seen that conveying air velocities
are up to about 8000 ft/min at the end of the pipeline. For the majority of pneu-
matic conveying systems this is considered to be the upper limit.
This upper limit is partly influenced by problems of material degradation
and bend erosion in the conveying line, but it is mainly due to the adverse effect
on the conveying line pressure drop and hence material flow rate. This aspect of
the problem is considered in more detail in the next section. In terms of the overall
conveying characteristics, the shape of the curves is quite clearly established
within this maximum limit.
The second limit is that at the top of the graph and this is set by the pressure
rating of the compressor or blower used. Once again this is not a physical limit, for
if air is available at a higher pressure, it can be used for conveying, but it would
normally be recommended that the pipeline be stepped to a larger bore in order to
limit the very high values of conveying air velocity. This aspect of system design
is considered in Chapter 9.
The third is the limit on the left hand side of the graph and this represents
the approximate safe minimum conditions for successful conveying with the mate-
rial. The lines actually terminate and conveying is not possible in the area to the
left at lower air flow rates. This limit is governed by a complex combination of
material properties, material concentration and conveying distance, and is consid-
ered in more detail later in this section.

118 Chapter 4
Any attempt to convey with a lower air flow rate would result in blockage of
the pipeline, in a conventional conveying system. This is because the air flow rate
would be below the minimum required to convey the material. The terminology
employed for these situations is choking, when conveying vertically up, and salta-
tion when conveying horizontally.
2.3.2 Conveying Air Velocity Effects

An alternative way of presenting the conveying data on Figure 4.4 is to plot the
material flow rate against the air flow rate and to have a series of curves at a con-
stant value of the conveying line pressure drop. Such a plot is presented in Figure
4.5a. Although the air only datum is lost, this alternative plot shows the influence
of excessively high conveying air velocities very well.
The lines of constant pressure drop can be seen to slope quite steeply to the
air flow rate axis, and hence to zero material flow rate at very high air flow rates,
and hence velocities. This is because of the square law relationship of pressure
drop with respect to velocity, presented in Equation 1 for air only, but which ap-
proximately applies to suspension flow for high velocity dilute phase conveying.
Conveying Line Solids Loading

Pressure Drop Ratio
- Ibt7in2
60 60
\
35 Conveying
,50 o 50
o
o
40 30
> 40
<u
CS -AREA
30
_0 _o
20 I 20
O
a "o3
S
10 10
Conveying
Pressure Dri
- Ibf/iiv
0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
3
Free Air Flow Rate - fVVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ft /min
(a) (b)
Figure 4.5 Performance data for cement conveyed through the pipeline shown in Fig-
ure 4.2. (a) Material flow rate data and (b) conveying characteristics.

Gas-Solid Flows 119
If the conveying system has a compressor or blower with a maximum rating

in terms of delivery pressure, a considerable amount of this available pressure will
be taken up by moving the air through the line if the air flow rate, and hence ve-
locity, is too high.
Part of the pressure drop is due to the material being conveyed and the
greater the concentration of the material in the air, the greater the pressure drop. If
the conveying air velocity is too high, therefore, the concentration of the material
in the air will have to be reduced in order to match the available pressure drop, and
so the resulting material flow rate will be much lower.
2.3.3 Solids Loading Ratio

Solids loading ratio is the term generally used by pneumatic conveying engineers
to describe the conveyed gas-solids suspension flow. Solids loading ratio is the
ratio of the mass flow rate of the solids conveyed to the mass flow rate of the air
used. The particular advantages over particle concentration are that it is a dimen-
sionless quantity and its value does not vary with the conveying gas pressure. With
the graph in Figure 4.5a being a plot of material flow rate against air flow rate,
lines of constant solids loading ratio can be superimposed quite easily as they will
be straight lines through the origin. Such a plot is shown in Figure 4.5b.
The plot presented in Figure 4.5b is referred to as the conveying characteris-
tics for the material and is, in effect, a performance map for the material in the
given pipeline. A conveying limit for the material is also identified on this plot.
From Figure 4.5b it will be seen that solids loading ratios up to about 140 have
been achieved and this is quite clearly dense phase conveying. With a low air
pressure and a high air flow rate, however, the cement is conveyed at solids load-
ing ratios below ten and this is quite clearly dilute phase, suspension flow. It will
be seen that there is no transition between dilute and dense phase flow and so the
dividing line between the two modes of flow is not clearly defined.
2.3.4 Minimum Conveying Air Velocity

The conveying limit represented on Figure 4.5b appears a little strange at first
sight. If reference is made to Figure 4.3, or if conveying air velocities are other-
wise calculated, it will be seen that at the upper part of the conveying limit curve
the conveying air velocity is about 600 ft/min. This is where the solids loading
ratio is about 140 and so a minimum conveying air velocity of 600 ft/min is con-
sistent with that appropriate for dense phase conveying. At very low values of
conveying air pressure, and hence low values of solids loading ratio, the minimum
conveying air velocity is about 2000 ft/min and this is consistent with that neces-
sary for the dilute phase conveying of this type of material.
The slope of the conveying limit curve is positive in both of these extreme
areas of dilute and dense phase conveying. This is due to the compressibility effect
of the air. In these two regions the conveying air velocity is reasonably uniform,
being about 2000 ft/min for the dilute phase conveying of the cement, and 600

120 Chapter 4
ft/min for the dense phase conveying. As the pressure of the conveying air in-
creases, a greater volumetric flow rate of air is required to maintain the same value
of conveying air velocity, and hence the positive slope to the conveying limit
curve in these areas.
Between these two regions two opposing effects come into play. One is the
problem of compressibility, which means that a greater air flow rate is required as
the air supply pressure increases. The other relates to the considerable increase in
solids loading ratio that is possible with an increase in conveying line pressure
drop. This means that the cement can be conveyed at a lower velocity, which in
turn means that a lower air flow rate is required. The combination of these two
effects dictates the shape of the transition between the dilute phase and the very
dense phase portions of the conveying limit curve.
2.3.4.1 Solids Loading Ratio Influence
The relationship between the minimum conveying air velocity and the solids load-
ing ratio at which a material is conveyed can be determined experimentally with
the material in a pipeline. This is typically derived during the conveying trials car-
ried out with a material in order to determine the conveying characteristics for the
material, since the determination of conveying limits is generally an integral part
of the test work.
Pneumatic conveying trials with bulk particulate materials are considered in
Chapter 23. The approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum
conveying air velocity for the cement is presented in Figure 4.6.
3000
• 2000
1000
en
c
c
o
U
20 40 60 80 100
Solids Loading Ratio
Figure 4.6 Approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum value of
conveying air velocity for the pneumatic conveying of ordinary portland cement.

Gas-Solid Flows 121
This curve is typical of the relationship between minimum conveying air ve-
locity and solids loading ratio for air retentive materials that are capable of being
conveyed in the sliding bed mode of dense phase flow. This relationship has a
major influence on the operation and pneumatic conveying capability of this type
of material and will feature at many points throughout this Handbook. Possibly the
greatest effect is the change that occurs with increase in conveying distance, which
is considered in Chapter 7.
Since high solids loading ratios can only be achieved with a high value of
pressure gradient, an increase in conveying distance will mean that the value of
solids loading ratio must be reduced if there is no increase in the air supply pres-
sure. A reduction in solids loading ratio, as will be seen from Figure 4.6, will re-
quire an increase in conveying air velocity and this will consequently require an
increase in air flow rate.
In the extreme the solids loading ratio will reduce to a value at which the
material can only be conveyed in dilute phase. This relationship is introduced later
in this Chapter.
2.4 The Conveying of Alumina

The grade of alumina used and reported here is one that is generally referred to as
being sandy or coarse. The alumina was conveyed through the pipeline shown in
Figure 4.2 and the pressure drop data for the material is presented in Figure 4.7.
This is a graph of conveying line pressure drop plotted against free air flow rate,
and lines of constant alumina flow rate have been drawn as the family of curves.
30
Material Flow Rate

- l b / h x 1000
D.
Q
e
u 20
I
OJ
OH
DO 10
C
C
o
U
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - fr/min
Figure 4.7 Pressure drop data for sandy alumina.

122 Chapter 4
Within the limit of the 30 Ibf7in2 pressure drop the alumina was conveyed at
flow rates up to about 25,000 Ib/h through this two inch nominal bore pipeline. If
this is compared with the corresponding data for the cement in Figure 4.4 it will be
seen that the maximum value of flow rate for the alumina is very much lower and
that the air flow rate required to achieve 25,000 Ib/h is significantly greater than
that required to convey the cement at 35,000 Ib/h.
The same conveying limits, as discussed in relation to the conveying of ce-
ment, apply to the alumina. It is the same pipeline and so the air only pressure
drop relationship is the same. It is the same air supply and so the air flow rate and
pressure considered are also the same. It is the conveying limit for the material that
differs. Conveying capability and conveying limits, however, do differ widely
from one material to another, and this is why conveying data is so essential.
2.4.1 Conveying A ir Velocity Effects

An alternative presentation of the data, in terms of material flow rate plotted
against air flow rate, with lines of constant conveying line pressure drop superim-
posed, is presented in Figure 4.8a. Once again this graph is drawn with the same
axes as that for the cement in Figure 4.5a so that a direct visual comparison of the
two materials can be made.
60 60
50 50
Conveying Line o NO
Pressure Drop * 40
40 Solids Loading
- lbf/in2 GO
.o Ratio
I30
AREA
Conveying
g30 Limit
o •5
25
320
20 Conveying Line 20
od Pressure Drop
- lbf/in 2
10
10
50 100 150 200 50 100 150 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8 Performance data for sandy alumina conveyed through the pipeline shown
in figure 4.2. (a) Material flow rate data and (b) conveying characteristics.

Gas-Solid Flows 123
The comparison is striking in terms of the small area of the graph in which
the data for the sandy alumina appears. It will be noted in Figure 4.8a that the lines
of constant conveying line pressure drop terminate at progressively higher air
mass flow rates as the material flow rate increases. This does not mean that the
minimum conveying air velocity increases. This is entirely due to the influence of
air pressure and the compressibility of the air. By reference to Figure 4.3, it will be
seen that the minimum conveying air velocity for this material is about 2600
ft/min and that it changes little over this range of material concentration.
This slope of the minimum conveying limit on Figure 4.8b is a characteristic
feature of all materials conveyed in dilute phase and will be seen on the conveying
characteristics for most of the materials presented here. It applies equally to mate-
rials capable of being conveyed in dense phase, if the pressure gradient is low, as
will be seen in the very low pressure area on Figure 4.5b for the cement.
With the cement it was possible to convey the material with higher air sup-
ply pressures. From Figure 4.5a it will be seen that within the limit of 60,000 Ib/h
of material, conveying line pressure drop values up to 40 Ibf/in2 were employed.
From Figure 4.8a for the alumina it will be seen that 25 Ibf/in 2 is close to the maxi-
mum pressure that could be employed. Although the air pressure with the test fa-
cility was available at 100 Ibf/in 2 gauge, a pressure higher than 25 Ibf/in 2 could not
be used because the volumetric flow rate of the air was limited to 200 ftVmin.
The locus of the conveying limit line is included on Figure 4.8b and it will
be seen that this passes through the 200 ftVmin air flow rate limit with an air sup-
ply pressure of about 30 Ibf/in2. At these air supply pressures the minimum con-
veying air velocity for the alumina is about 2600 ft/min compared with only 600
ft/min for the cement, and so for a given air supply pressure the air flow rate is
more than four times greater.

The conveying capability for the alumina is clearly illustrated with the conveying
characteristics presented in Figure 4.8b. The maximum value of solids loading
ratio achieved is only just over 25 and this, together with the minimum conveying
air velocity of 2600 ft/min, equates to dilute phase, suspension flow for the mate-
rial. Despite the fact that a high air supply pressure was available, the material is
only conveyed in dilute phase. It must be stressed, therefore, that high pressure is
not synonymous with dense phase conveying.
Solids loading ratios for dilute phase conveying are generally much lower
than 25. The fact that a solids loading ratio as high as 25 was achieved in this case
is due to the fact that the pipeline was relatively short at 165 ft and the air supply
pressure was relatively high at 25 Ibf/in2. To complete the picture for the alumina a
plot of the minimum conveying air velocity versus solids loading ratio is presented
in Figure 4.9. This is simply a horizontal line at a value of 2600 ft/min over a lim-
ited range of solids loading ratios. This is typical of materials that can not be con-
veyed in dense phase, and there is generally little change in the value of the mini-
mum conveying air velocity value over the range of solids loading ratios.

124 Chapter 4
^ 3000
2000
<5
.S 1000
oo
c
o
O
20 40 60 80 100
Solids loading ratio
Figure 4.9 Approximate influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum value of
conveying air velocity for the pneumatic conveying of sandy alumina.
2.5 Comparison of Materials

To illustrate the influence of the material on conveying capability further, the con-
veying characteristics for two more materials conveyed through the Figure 4.2
pipeline are presented in Figures 4.10a and 4.1 Ob. The first of these is a fine grade
of pulverized fuel ash, obtained from the electrostatic precipitators of a boiler
plant, and had a mean particle size of about 25 micron.
The second is a silica sand, obtained from a quarry, and air classified to give
a mean particle size of about 70 micron. It will be seen that this pair of materials
are very similar to the cement and alumina in terms of overall characteristics, par-
ticularly with regard to minimum conveying limits.
The conveying line pressure drop curves for the pulverized fuel ash, how-
ever, are very much steeper than those of the cement and so very much higher
material flow rates were achieved at low values of air flow rate. As a consequence
very much higher values of solids loading ratio were achieved.
Apart from differences in density, the shape of the particles are also very
different, with the cement coming from a grinding process and fly ash being de-
rived from a combustion process. It is not surprising, therefore, that the conveying
characteristics are very different. Values of minimum conveying air velocity,
however, are very similar.
The differences between the alumina and the sand are not so pronounced, al-
though the sand has a slightly lower value of minimum conveying air velocity, but
a much lower material flow rate was achieved for a given pressure drop.

Gas-Solid Flows 125
60 60
300200 120 100 80
50
NO
40 40 GO Solids Loading
Ratio
AREA
Conveying
ai
Limit
o
20 .320 \ 35 V.20
Conveying Line
Pressure Drop 25 15
S 10 10 10
0
50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
(a) Free Air Flow Rate - frYmin (b) Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
Figure 4.10 Conveying characteristics for materials conveyed through the pipeline
shown in figure 4.2. (a) A fine grade of pulverized fuel ash and (b) silica sand.
2.6 The Conveying of Polyethylene Pellets

Polyethylene pellets were also conveyed through the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2
and the pressure drop data for the material is presented in Figure 4.11. This is a
graph of conveying line pressure drop plotted against free air flow rate, and lines
of constant material flow rate have been drawn as the family of curves. The axes
used are the same as those employed for the cement in Figure 4.4 and the alumina
in Figure 4.8 and so a direct visual comparison can be made.
Within the limit of the 30 lbf/in 2 pressure drop the pellets were conveyed at
flow rates up to about 30,000 Ib/h through this two inch nominal bore pipeline.
This compares with 35,000 Ib/h for the cement and 25,000 Ib/h for the alumina but
the main point is that the overall conveying data is very different once again. Con-
veying is possible at very low values of air flow rate, like the cement, but the
maximum value of material flow rate was achieved at the highest value of air flow
rate, like the alumina.
The same conveying limits, as discussed in relation to the conveying of both
the cement and alumina, apply to the polyethylene pellets. It is the same pipeline
and so the air only pressure drop relationship is the same. It is the same air supply
and so the air flow rate and pressure considered are also the same. In this case it is
the conveying limit for the material that differs and the behavior of the material at
low values of conveying air velocity.

126 Chapter 4
Material 30
Flow Rate
Ib/h x 1000
80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
Figure 4.11 Pressure drop data for polyethylene pellets.
2.6.1 Conveying Air Velocity Effects

An alternative presentation of the data, in terms of material flow rate plotted
against air flow rate, with lines of constant conveying line pressure drop superim-
posed, is presented in Figure 4.12a. Once again this graph is drawn with the same
axes as those for the cement in Figure 4.5a and the alumina in Figure 4.8a so that a
direct visual comparison of the three materials can be made. Once again the pat-
tern of the data is totally different from that of the previous two materials.
With this material a distinct pressure minimum point is observed. The lines
of constant conveying line pressure drop on Figure 4.12a change slope at the point
where the material flow rate is a maximum. The term 'pressure minimum' is actu-
ally derived from Figure 4.11 where a minimum value of conveying line pressure
drop can be seen for each of the lines of constant material flow rate.
With the pressure drop lines changing slope below the pressure minimum
point, material flow rates reduce considerably with further decrease in air flow
rate. Although conveying is possible at lower air flow rates, unlike the alumina,
material flow rates are significantly lower than those achieved with the cement. It
will be seen that the pressure drop lines all merge below the pressure minimum
points and this is why the curves on Figure 4.11 rise vertically below the pressure
minimum point.
The material flow rate, however, was reasonably uniform over the entire
range of conveying conditions, although this is not always the case with this type
of material. With the pipeline being of relatively small bore it was not possible to
separate the lines of constant pressure in this area.

Gas-Solid Flows 127
60 60
50 50 NO
o
o
Solids Loading
o GO Ratio
Conveying Line
40 Pressure Drop
AREA
- lbf/in 2
« 30
cd
as \ Conveying Line
Pressure Drop
FT 20 - lbf/in%
10
0 50 100 150 200 50 100 150 200

(a) (b)
Figure 4.12 Performance data for polyethylene pellets conveyed through the pipeline
shown in figure 4.2. (a) Material flow rate data and (b) conveying characteristics.

The conveying characteristics for the polyethylene pellets are presented in Figure
4.12b and from this it will be seen that the maximum value of solids loading ratio
at which the material was conveyed is no different from that of the sandy alumina,
at about 25. The polyethylene pellets, however, were successfully conveyed with
conveying air velocities down to about 600 ft/min and so this is clearly dense
phase flow at low values of air flow rate.
The material, having a relatively large particle size, and being mono-sized,
means that it is very permeable. As a consequence the air will pass through a
packed bed of the material relatively easily. It is as a result of the material being
very permeable that it will naturally convey in dense phase in a plug flow mode.
With the material being so permeable it is possible that the material could be con-
veyed with very much lower air velocities than 600 ft/min without blocking the
pipeline. As the material flow rate decreases with decrease in air flow rate, below
the optimum point, however, the benefits of ultra low velocity conveying need to
be carefully considered.
As with the cement, a natural transition from dilute phase conveying to
dense phase conveying occurs, but the value of the solids loading ratio provides no
guidance in this case. It can, however, be determined by the value of the convey-
ing line inlet air velocity and this is considered further in Chapter 7.

128 Chapter 4
3 THE INFLUENCE OF MATERIALS
The conveying characteristics for different materials can vary significantly, as

illustrated with the representative group of materials considered above. This is
particularly so for materials that are capable of being conveyed in dense phase. At
low values of air flow rate the lines of constant conveying line pressure drop can
have a wide variety of slopes. There is also the added complexity of different ma-
terials having different minimum conveying limits. Thus for a given air flow rate
and conveying line pressure drop, material flow rates for different materials can
vary considerably, and the air flow rate necessary to convey different materials can
also vary considerably.
Some of these differences were illustrated earlier with the materials used to
show how conveying characteristics are determined. These differences, however,
are not just a feature of conveying with high pressure air but will be found in low
pressure systems also.
3.1 Low Pressure Conveying

If only low pressure air is available for conveying a material through a pipeline,
such as that from a positive displacement blower or any vacuum conveying sys-
tem, and with a pressure drop below about 15 lbf/in 2 , a material will only be con-
veyed in dilute phase through a pipeline, unless the conveying distance is very
short. Conveying at high values of solids loading ratio typically requires high val-
ues of conveying line pressure drop.
The influence of solids loading ratio on pressure drop is illustrated in Figure
4.13. This is an extension of the data presented in Figures 4.4 to 4.6 for the cement
and is a plot of conveying line pressure drop against free air flow rate, with lines
of constant solids loading ratio superimposed.
For the pipeline shown in Figure 4.2, for which the data relates, a conveying
line pressure drop in excess of 10 lbf/in" is required before the material can be
conveyed in true dense phase and at low velocity. It will be seen that the volumet-
ric flow rate of the air has a significant effect in this respect and helps to illustrate
why high values of solids loading ratio are not possible for materials that can not
be conveyed in dense phase.
If the pipeline is very much shorter, and with fewer bends, however, the air
only curve and the pressure drop axis on Figure 4.13 will be significantly reduced
and low velocity dense phase conveying will be possible at much lower values of
pressure drop.
By positioning the reception vessel on the quayside close to bulk container
ships, conveying distances can be kept very short and materials such as cement
can be off-loaded in dense phase, and at very high flow rates, with a vacuum con-
veying system. Fly ash can similarly be transferred from electrostatic precipitators
on boiler plants to intermediate reception vessels in dense phase by vacuum con-
veying systems.

Gas-Solid Flows 129
Solids Loading 120 100 80 60 50 40

30 30
Ratio
o,
e 20
D
NO
20
GO
AREA
g'lO
c Conveyin:
o
U Limit
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin
Figure 4.13 Solids loading ratio data for cement.
Conveying data for four different materials is presented in Figure 4.14. Each
material was conveyed in a positive pressure conveying system up to a limit of 8
lbf/in2 in terms of conveying line pressure drop. All four materials were conveyed
through the same pipeline, a sketch of which is given in Figure 4.15. Although
each material could only be conveyed in dilute phase, because of the limit on pres-
sure available, it will be seen that there are significant differences in their convey-
ing capabilities.
The differences between materials are mainly in terms of the material flow
rates achieved, varying from 8500 Ib/h for the pearlite to 3500 Ib/h for the iron
powder, for a pressure drop of 8 lbf/in 2 . Since all the materials were conveyed in
dilute phase, and they were all either powders or fine granular materials, such
marked differences would not be expected in terms of minimum conveying air
velocities. With a 3 lbf/in 2 pressure drop, these varied between 2400 ft/min for the
pearlite and 3200 ft/min for the iron powder.
Although the iron powder achieved the lowest flow rate of the four materials
presented, it should be noted that the iron powder conveyed very well, regardless
of the fact that particle density was 355 lb/ft3 and the bulk density about 150 lb/ft3.
Metal powders can be conveyed pneumatically; the main problem is that many of
them are potentially explosive and so require to be conveyed with nitrogen.
Uranium with even higher density values is regularly conveyed in pneu-
matic systems because of the safety aspects of the conveying system. At the other
extreme the pearlite had a bulk density of only 6 !b/ft' and a particle density of 50
lb/ft'. With a higher pressure gradient available both the iron powder and pearlite
have dense phase conveying potential.

130 Chapter 4
Solids Loading
Conveying Line Ratio Solids Loading
Pressure Drop 8 Conveying Line Ra(io
- lbf/in 2 Pressure Drop
- lbf/in 2
o7
x
6
X3
~T 5
^
<L>
"8
o
x,
2
3
u
!2
i
0 40 60 80 100 120
40 60 80 100 120
Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin
(a) (b)
Conveying Line
Pressure Drop
o o - lbf/in 2
o Solids Loading
2
Solids Loading
6 Ratio Ratio
X
_c
£ 5
.Conveying Line
- Pressure Drop
4 - lbf/in 2
8.
3
B 2
40 60 80 100 120 0 40 60 80 100 120

(c) (d)
Figure 4.14 Conveying characteristics for low pressure conveying of materials, (a)
Pearlite, (b) sodium chloride (salt), (c) iron powder, and (d) sodium carbonate (soda ash).

Gas-Solid Flows 131
Pipeline:
length 115ft
bore 2 in
bends 8 x 90°
D/d = 5
Figure 4.15 Details of pipeline used for low pressure conveying trials.
Many different materials have been tested in the pipeline presented in Figure
4.15. To illustrate how the conveying characteristics of different materials can
vary in such a low pressure system, the 8 lbf/in 2 constant conveying line pressure
drop curves from a number of such materials are compared on Figure 4.16.
With additional materials it will be seen that the conveying performance, in
terms of material flow rate achieved, does not correlate with material density.
Soda ash is little better than iron powder and pulverized fuel ash is better than
pearlite in terms of material flow rate achieved. Lump coal is better than fine
granular salt, although a slightly higher value of conveying line inlet air velocity is
required, and so performance does not correlate with particle size either.
Pulverized Fuel Ash

(fine grade)
Pearlite
(U
^ . Soda Ash
oi 4
Silica Sand
•g2
Iron Powder
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Free Air Flow Rate - fr/min
Figure 4.16 Comparison of performance of different materials conveyed through the

pipeline shown in figure 4.15 with a conveying line pressure drop of 8 lbf/in 2 .

132 Chapter 4
Different conveying capabilities and air requirements mean that particular

care must be taken if an existing system is to be used to convey another material,
or if one system is required to convey a number of different materials. If the capa-
bility of a system is dictated by the pressure rating of the air mover, then different
material flow rates must be expected, and the feeding device must be capable of
meeting the needs of any other material. A different air flow rate may also be re-
quired, as shown by the different minimum values for conveying line inlet air ve-
locity.
3.2 High Pressure Conveying

If high pressure air is available for conveying a material, and the pipeline is not too
long, then the material could be conveyed in dense phase if the material is capable
of being conveyed in dense phase. Conveying data for a further four materials is
presented in Figure 4.17. All four materials were conveyed through the same
pipeline once again, so that direct comparisons of performance can be made. The
pipeline is the same as that used for the earlier high pressure conveying trials, a
sketch of which was given in Figure 4.2. The compressor used for this high pres-
sure work was capable of delivering 200 frVmin of free air at 100 lbf/in 2 gauge.
The four materials presented include two food products and two metal prod-
ucts, and from each group, one material could not be conveyed in dense phase and
one could. The materials that could be conveyed in dense phase were conveyed at
solids loading ratios of well over 100 and were conveyed in the sliding bed mode
of dense phase flow. These were wheat flour and iron powder and the conveying
characteristics for these materials are very similar in form to those for the cement
in Figure 4.5b and the fly ash in Figure 4.10a presented earlier. With high pressure
conveying air, and at high values of solids loading ratios, all four of these materi-
als could be conveyed with conveying line inlet air velocities as low as 600 ft/min.
That high pressure is not synonymous with dense phase conveying is clearly
shown with the granulated sugar. A minimum conveying air velocity of 3200
ft/min had to be maintained and, as a result, the maximum pressure that could be
used was only 25 lbf/in 2 , because of the limit of 200 ftVmin on air flow rate avail-
able. As a consequence the maximum solids loading ratio achieved was well be-
low 20. Granulated sugar has both poor air retention properties and poor perme-
ability.
Flour and sugar are often materials that are required to be conveyed with a
common system and often through the same pipeline. It will be seen that there are
significant differences between the conveying capabilities of these two materials.
The specification of air requirements represents a particular problem, apart from
choice of feeder and controls.
Many different materials have been conveyed in the pipeline shown in Fig-
ure 4.2. To show how the conveying characteristics of different materials can vary
in such a high pressure system, the 20 lbf/in 2 constant conveying line pressure drop
curves from a number of such materials are compared on Figure 4.18.

Gas-Solid Flows 133
Conveying
Limit
50
Solids Loading 50
Ratio
NO
I40 Conveying Line >40
GO Solids Loading
I I Ratio
30 730
AREA
Conveying
Bi Limit
° 20
fcu
.220
~
is
'C
is
0) <B Conveying Line
'S 10
JS10 Pressure Drop -
- lbf/in 2
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ft3/min Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(a) (b)
60 60 -
Conveying
Conveying Line Limit
50 " Pressure Drop 0 50
o Solids Loading
: NO
o
o
Ratio X
• GO
^40 =5 4Q " Solids
£ : AREA Re
u
£ 30 (S30 ; cConvey!
s
_o
Limit
_o E
• Conveying Line
i 2° |20
.5 Pressure Drop
; - lbf/in 2 \
'8 1
S 10 10 ; 15
AREA 5 r=-j .
^^
: .^
50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ft/min Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
(C) (d)
Figure 4.17 Conveying characteristics for high pressure conveying of materials, (a)
Wheat flour, (b) granulated sugar, (c) iron powder, and (d) zircon sand.

134 Chapter 4
Pulverized Fuel Ash - fine

50
o
o
o 40
Barite
Sugar
Granulated
30
Iron Powder
FT 20 Cement
Wheat Flour
10 PVC Powder
Magnesium/
Sulfate
50 100 ^ 150 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min
Figure 4.18 Comparison of performance of different materials conveyed through the

pipeline shown in figure 4.2 with a conveying line pressure drop of 20 !bf/in2.
It will be noted that at the extreme right of Figure 4.18, at high air flow
rates, all the materials are conveyed in dilute phase and the degree of scatter in
material flow rates is similar to that shown in Figure 4.16. All the pressure drop
curves have a negative slope in this area and each one will probably reach the air
flow rate axis at a value of about 600 ft3/min.
As a result of the different slopes of the pressure drop curves, at low values
of air flow rate, for the different materials, quite remarkable differences in material
flow rate can be obtained. This is for materials conveyed through exactly the same
pipeline and under exactly the same conveying conditions. Differences in mini-
mum conveying air velocities, for materials that will not convey in dense phase,
significantly add to the problems of reliable system design, particularly for a new
or unknown material.
3.2.7 Conveying L im its

Conveying limits in terms of minimum conveying air velocities and maxi-
mum solids loading ratios vary widely for different materials. This point is clearly
illustrated in Figure 4.19 with the limits for three materials presented. Each mate-
rial was conveyed through the 165 ft long pipeline shown in Figure 4.2. Although
the fine grade of fly ash could be conveyed at solids loading ratios in excess of
200 and with minimum conveying air velocities close to 600 ft/min the copper
concentrate could not be conveyed above a solids loading ratio of about 55.

Gas-Solid Flows 135
Limit for Copper Concentrate
50 '100 /80
§40
o20 20
.3
j§
10 10
Solids Loading Ratio
50 100 150 200

Free Air Flow Rate - fr'/min
Figure 4.19 Comparison of material conveying limits for conveying under identical
conveying conditions.
The minimum conveying air velocity for the copper concentrate was about
1600 ft/min. With the granulated sugar, however, conveying at a solids loading
ratio of 20 could not be achieved and the minimum value of conveying air velocity
was about 3200 ft/min.
4 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
Certain material characteristics can be used to predict the potential behavior of a

material when pneumatically conveyed. These are mostly based on bulk properties
of the material that relate to material-air interactions, such as fluidization, air re-
tention and permeability.
The air retention capabilities of a bulk material are a good indicator of
whether a material will convey in dense phase or not. Powdered materials such as
fly ash, cement, and flour have very good air retention properties and are generally
capable of being conveyed at low velocities in a sliding bed mode of dense phase
flow. Large mono-sized particles having very good permeability, such as polyeth-
ylene pellets are generally capable of being conveyed at low velocities in a plug
mode of dense phase flow.
Coarse granular materials such as sand and alumina, that have very poor air
retention and permeability are generally only capable of being conveyed in dilute

136 Chapter 4
phase suspension flow in conventional pneumatic conveying systems, particularly

if they have a wide particle size distribution.
4.1 The Geldart Classification

The Geldart classification of materials is essentially in terms of two material prop-
erties [1J. One is the difference in densities between the material particles and the
fluidizing medium. For air this can simply be taken as the particle density, since
the density of air is negligible in comparison.
The other property is the mean particle size of the material. This classifica-
tion is shown here in Figure 4.20. It includes four broad areas that identify the
behavior of bulk materials when fluidized. It has often been considered that this
form of classification could be used to assess the suitability of materials for dense
phase conveying.
Group A materials retain air and the fluid bed collapses very slowly when
the gas is turned off. These materials are generally capable of being conveyed in
dense phase. Group B materials do not retain air and the fluid bed collapses almost
instantaneously when the gas supply is turned off. These materials are not gener-
ally capable of being conveyed in dense phase in a conventional conveying system
and so are restricted to dilute phase, suspension flow.
Group C materials are essentially cohesive and will behave in a similar
manner to Group A materials but are more difficult to handle. They will generally
convey in dense phase but the main problem is often one of feeding them into the
pipeline. Group D materials are likewise an extension of Group B in terms of
pneumatic conveying.
500
100
50
"o
I
10
10 50 100 500 1000 5000

Mean Particle Size - micron
Figure 4.20 Geldart's classification of fluidization behavior for fluidization with ambi-
ent air.

Gas-Solid Flows 137
This Group D classification, however, being in terms of mean particle size,

is not capable of identifying materials that are capable of being conveyed in dense
phase in plug flow mode, for this is only appropriate to essentially mono-sized
particles.
By the same reasoning the line separating Groups A and B is not particularly
reliable in identifying the division between dilute and dense phase conveying ca-
pability.
4.2 Dixon's Slugging Diagram

Dixon [2], realized the importance of material type on the mode of conveying and
devised a classification known as the Slugging Diagram, which is shown in Figure
4.21. The axes are the same as those for the Geldart classification and the same
divisions are identified. This classification, however, clearly identifies the capabil-
ity of large mono-sized particles for conveying in the plug mode of dense phase
flow.
An understanding of the role of particle properties such as size, and size dis-
tribution, shape or fractal properties and density will probably provide the ultimate
solution to the problem. It is, however, very difficult to quantify properties such as
particle shape and size distribution, and so measurable bulk properties relating to
gas-particle interactions offer the best short-term means of using property values
to predict pneumatic conveying performance. Air retention, permeability and spe-
cific surface are probably the best properties to consider for this purpose, although
the first two are probably the easiest to measure and determine.
500
Group D
100
Strong
t 50 Axisymmetric
g Slugs
Q
Group C
10
10 50 100 500 1000 5000
Mean Particle Size - micron
Figure 4.21 Dixon's slugging diagram.

138 Chapter 4
4.3 Aeration Property Classification

Jones and Mills [3, 4] used a vibrated de-aeration constant and permeability factor
to produce an empirical material classification for conventional pneumatic con-
veying systems. The correlation that they produced is presented in Figure 4.22.
For convenience the de-aeration rate was determined by vibrating the material
from the 'as poured' condition rather than measuring it from the fluidized state.
This clearly identifies the three main modes of conveying. Dense phase,
moving bed flow, will naturally occur with materials that have very poor perme-
ability and very low values of de-aeration. Dense phase, plug type flow, will natu-
rally occur with materials that have very good permeability and a very rapid rate
of de-aeration. The center grouping represents materials that are generally re-
stricted to dilute phase flow in a conventional conveying system.
Materials that have very good air retention, and hence a low vibrated de-
aeration rate value, such as cement, flour and fly ash, fall into the Group 1 cate-
gory, and will convey very well in a conventional conveying system. A simple test
to apply is to half fill a glass jar, preferably having a screw top lid, with a sample
of the material to be conveyed. Invert the jar a few times to aerate the material,
place it on a surface, remove the lid, and drop a ball bearing or similar object into
the jar. If the ball bearing falls through the material and hits the bottom of the jar,
the material is likely to have good air retention properties and be a potential candi-
date for dense phase conveying.
With a material such as cement, the ball bearing will hit the bottom of the
jar, even if it is dropped in the jar several minutes after the material has been aer-
ated and left standing, as it has such good air retention properties.
S GROUP 3
10
PLUG TYPE
GROUP 2 FLOW
DILUTE PHASE
GROUP 1 \ (SusPension Flow)
Q
T3
& 0-5 MOVING BED
TYPE FLOW
0-1 1 10 100
Permeability Factor - ft3 in/lb x l(r6
Figure 4.22 Bulk material property classification for pneumatic conveying.

Gas-Solid Flows 139
If the material is granular, the ball bearing is unlikely to penetrate the mate-
rial and will simply come to rest on the top of the surface. In this case the material
is unlikely to have sufficient air retention to allow it to be conveyed in dense phase
in a conventional conveying system.
If the material has good permeability, however, such that it falls into Group
3, it is possible that the material will convey at low velocity in the plug type dense
phase mode of flow. Pelletized materials, such as polyethylene and nylon, are
ideal candidates and will convey very well in a conventional conveying system.
Coarse granular materials having a wide particle size distribution, however, do not
generally have sufficient permeability to be capable of dense phase conveying in
the plug phase mode.
5 CONVEYING SYSTEM CAPABILITY
For a given material a particular problem with pneumatic conveying systems is the
evaluation of their conveying potential. The capability of a pneumatic conveying
system in terms of achieving a given material mass flow rate, depends essentially
on the following three parameters:
D the diameter of the pipeline,

D the distance to be conveyed, and
D the conveying line pressure drop available.
Within normal limits, and for a given material, air flow rate is a secondary
function, being primarily dependent upon the pipeline bore and air pressure. It is,
however, important with respect to achieving optimum conveying conditions in a
given pipeline. The properties of the material to be conveyed are also of para-
mount importance. Their main influence, however, in terms of material mass flow
rate, is in placing an upper limit on the solids loading ratio at which the material
can be conveyed under particular conditions, as shown in Figure 4.19.
5.1 Solids Loading Ratio - </>

The solids loading ratio of a conveyed material is the dimensionless ratio of the
mass flow rate of the material being conveyed to the mass flow rate of the air used
for conveying.
m
<t> = — (4)
ma
where mp = mass flow rate of material - Ib/h

and ma = mass flow rate of air - Ib/h

140 Chapter 4
Since air is a compressible fluid its density changes with pressure and so the
volumetric flow rate, and hence velocity, of the conveying air can increase quite
significantly along the length of a pipeline. Solids loading ratio, therefore, is a
particularly useful parameter for describing the concentration of the material in the
air in pneumatic conveying system pipelines, for it is a dimensionless quantity and
its value remains essentially constant. This applies to stepped bore pipelines as
well as single bore lines.
5.2 The Influence of Pipe Bore

The mass flow rate of a material can be expressed in terms of the solids loading
ratio at which the material is conveyed, by:
m = m Ib/h (5)
Note:
To convert free air flow rate, in ftVmin, to a mass flow rate, in Ib/h,
multiply by the density of the air, in lb/ff, and by 60 min/h:
x
0-0765 x 60 Ib/h (6)
where F0 = volumetric flow rate of free air - ftVmin

Thus
ma cc
and for a circular pipeline
n d2
V = x C ft7min (7)
576
where d = pipeline bore - in
and C = conveying air velocity - ft/min
Therefore
m,. oc Ccf (8)
As a first order approximation, for simplicity, conveying air velocity, C, can
be considered as being constant, so that:
m cf (9)
For a given system, therefore, throughput capability can be increased quite
considerably by increasing the pipe bore and so enable high material flow rates to
be achieved. The air requirements, of course, also have to be increased in the same
proportion in order to maintain an equivalent air velocity.

Gas-Solid Flows 141
In terms of achieving a given material flow rate over a specified distance,

pipeline bore is probably the main variable. Pressure drop is also important, but an
increase in air supply pressure is not always possible. Pipeline bore also has a sig-
nificant effect on the air only pressure drop value, and this is particularly important
if a low pressure air supply is to be used. A significant proportion of the available
pressure could be used in getting the air through the pipeline. This aspect of sys-
tem design is considered in Chapter 6.
5.3 The Influence of Pressure and Distance

The inter-relating effects of conveying line pressure drop and conveying distance
are illustrated for low pressure systems in Figure 4.23, and for high pressure sys-
tems in Figure 4.24. The data is in terms of an approximate value of solids loading
ratio that might be achieved for typical combinations of air supply pressure and
conveying distance. It must be stressed that these figures are only approximations
for the purpose of illustration and should not be used for design purposes. Pipe
bore, conveying air velocity and, more particularly, material type, all have an in-
fluence on the overall relationship.
For very short distances it is quite possible to convey a material at high val-
ues of solids loading ratio, even with the limited pressure drop available with
negative pressure systems, as will be seen in Figure 4.23, provided that the mate-
rial is capable of being conveyed in this mode. Pressure gradient, therefore, is the
parameter that will dictate the potential mode of conveying for a material that is
capable of being conveyed in dense phase.
150 100 80 60 40
15
o
00
3
10
£ 5
200 „ 300 400 500

Conveying Distance"^ 5
.
D.
3
t/3 -10
< -10
100 80 60 40 30
Figure 4.23 Influence of air supply pressure and conveying distance on solids loading
ratio for low pressure systems.

142 Chapter 4
60
30
50
40
3 30
cn
a
0-
20
., ,0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Conveying Distance - ft
Figure 4.24 Influence of air supply pressure and conveying distance on solids loading
ratio for high pressure systems.
Figure 4.24 shows that if very long conveying distances are required, the
solids loading ratio will be relatively low, even with a high pressure system. With
a low pressure system the maximum value of solids loading ratio that can be
achieved will be very low, and then only with a large bore pipeline. It must be
stressed once again that the high values of solids loading ratio are only applicable
if the material being considered is capable of being conveyed in dense phase.
REFERENCES
1. D. Geldart. Types of gas fluidization. Powder Technology. Vol 7. pp 285-292. 1973.

2. G. Dixon. The impact of powder properties on dense phase flow. Proc Int Conf on
Pneumatic Conveying. London. Jan. 1979.
3. M.G. Jones and D. Mills. Product classification for pneumatic conveying. Powder
Handling and Processing. Vol 2. No 2. June 1990.
4. D. Mills. Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide. Butterworth-Heinemann. 1990.

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Gas-Solid Flows

There is essentially no limit to the capability or a pneumatic conveying system for

1.1 Pipeline Bore

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1.2 Conveying Distance

1.3 Pressure Available

1.4 Conveying Air Velocity

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1.5 Material Properties

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

7.5.7 Dense Phase Conveying

2 MATERIAL CONVEYING CHARACTERISTICS

If a pneumatic conveying system is to be designed to ensure satisfactory operation,

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

the material. If sufficient previous experience with a material is available, such

2.1 Conveying Mode

2.1,1 The A ir Only Datum

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 4.2 Details of pipeline used for conveying trials.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

pressure drop will increase by a factor of approximately four. Velocity, therefore,

2.7.2 Conveying Air Velocity

where p = absolute pressure of air - lbf/in 2

and for a circular pipeline:

where C = conveying air velocity - ft/min

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

6000 L Conveying Air Pressure

40 80 120 160 200

2.2 Pneumatic Conveying

2.2.7 Slip Velocity

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.2.2 Cases Considered

2.3 The Conveying of Cement

2.3.1 Conveying Limits

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Material Flow Rate

Figure 4.4 Pressure drop data for cement.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.3.2 Conveying Air Velocity Effects

Conveying Line Solids Loading

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

If the conveying system has a compressor or blower with a maximum rating

2.3.3 Solids Loading Ratio

2.3.4 Minimum Conveying Air Velocity

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.4 The Conveying of Alumina

Material Flow Rate

40 80 120 160 200

Figure 4.7 Pressure drop data for sandy alumina.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.4.1 Conveying A ir Velocity Effects

50 100 150 200 50 100 150 200

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2.4.2 Solids Loading Ratio

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2.5 Comparison of Materials

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2.6 The Conveying of Polyethylene Pellets

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.