1. Why was beer the first alcohol to be made in large quantities?

Beer was not the first alcohol, there was also wine and mead. However, it was more popular since it can
be made in large quantities. It is derived from wheat grains, which often came in surplus. "An
archeologist used a flint-bladed sickle to see how efficiently a prehistoric family could have harvested
wild grains... In one hour he gathered more than two pounds of grain, which suggested that a family
that worked eight-hour days for three weeks would have been able to gather enough to provide each
family member with a pound of grain a day for a year." (13) Also, these grains could be stored for long
periods of time. "Unlike other foodstuffs, they could be stored for consumption months or even years
later, if kept dry and safe." (13) On the other hand, wine and mead could not be produced in large
quantities because "… fruit is seasonal and perishes easily, wild honey was only available in large
quantities, and neither wine nor mead could be stored for very long without pottery." (15)

2. Explain how beer was thought to have magical properties.

To drinkers of the Neolithic Era, the effect of alcohol (being drunk) was magic. "To Neolithic drinkers,
beer's ability to intoxicate and induce a state of altered consciousness seemed magical." (19) The
process of fermentation, necessary to create beer, also seemed magical. (Science was not around to
explain this)

3. Explain how farming became more deliberate over time. How did this relate to beer?

Farming became more deliberate to create more surplus of food and more job specialists not tied to
farming. "Farming paved the way for the emergence of civilization by creating food surpluses, freeing
some members of society from the need to produce food and enabling them to specialize in particular
activities and crafts..." (20) When beer was discovered, the demand for wheat grain surplus further
increased.

4. How did society, art and literature reflect the significance of beer?

Beer had a major effect on society. For example, a Mesopotamian pictogram discovered showed "...two
figures drinking beer through straws from a large pottery jar." (11) In addition, wheat surplus demand
increased for the sake of beer. Also, since beer was a gift of the gods, people wrote stories about how
the gods discovered beer. "The Egyptians, for example, believed that beer was accidentally discovered
by Osiris..." (19) In other writings, it is seen that beer is the most frequently mentioned food/beverage.
"One survey of Egyptian literature found that beer, the Egyptian word for which was hekt, was
mentioned more times than any other foodstuff." (28) Beer also intertwined itself into culture. Common
phrases directly referenced beer, even though the meaning of the phrase was more general. "Similarly,
'bread and beer' was used by Mesopotamians to mean 'food and drink,' and one Sumerian word for
banquet literally means 'the place of beer and bread.' " (37) Also, a piece of Egyptian literature describes
how beer saved humanity from utter destruction by the goddess Hathor. This shows how important
beer was.

5. Compare and contrast how the Egyptians and Sumerians viewed beer.

Both the Egyptians and the Sumerians thought that beer was a godly drink, which had a great impact on
their culture. "Mesopotamians and Egyptians alike saw beer as an ancient, god-given drink that
underpinned their existence, …" (29) On the other hand, these two civilizations had opposite views on
drunkenness. The Sumerians thought intoxication was ok, while Egyptians vehemently opposed it. "In
contrast to the Mesopotamians' relaxed attitude toward intoxication, however, a strong disapproval of
drunkenness was expressed in the practice texts copied out by apprentice scribes in Egypt..." (29)

6. How did beer influence the development of various aspects of civilization? Explain by using evidence
from the reading.

Beer influenced religion due to it's common presence in rituals. "Beer was certainly used in religious
ceremonies, agricultural fertility rites, and funerals..."(19) As previously mentioned, beer caused a
higher demand in deliberate farming. In addition, beer could be used as a form a currency. "This meant
that in both civilizations barley and wheat, and their processed solid and liquid forms, bread and beer,
became more than just staple foodstuffs; they were convenient and widespread forms of payment and
currency." (35) Beer, a liquid, was easy to divide (perhaps not perfectly, but quite accurately
nevertheless), so it was perfect to use as a currency.

7. Analyze changes and continuities of the use of beer throughout civilization.

Beer was consistently used at rituals and always thought to be magical and a gift from the heavens. Over
time, it's use (other than drinking it... of course) has changed to be more useful. For example, beer was a
common form of currency and payment (as previously mentioned). Over time it had other uses, such as
an ingredient in medicine. " 'The Ebers Papyrus,' and Egyptian medical text that dates from around 1550
BCE but is evidently based on far older documents, contains hundreds of recipes for herbal remedies,
many of which involve beer." (38)