DISCIPLINES AND IDEAS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

Unit I : The Disciplines of Social Sciences

MODULE 1 : Introduction to Social Sciences
MODULE 2 : The Discipline of Anthropology
 The term anthropology comes from the Greek words anthropos (human) and logos (study).
 In order to trace the history of anthropology as a discipline, one must consider two historical
events----the rise of empires and states and the dawn of colonialism and imperialism----that
made a significant impact on the rise of scholars who built the theoretical and methodological
foundations of this field of study.
Important Personalities in Anthropology
 Before there were anthropologists, the earliest individuals who inquired and investigated about
“other” cultures were museum collectors, physicians, and historians. It was only in the late 19th
century that anthropology was recognized as a discipline.
Edward Burnett Tylor
 Tylor (1832-1917) is regarded as the Father of Cultural Anthropology.
 He defined anthropology as the “science of culture” which was the first time that culture had
been declared as an object of study.
 He said that “culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities
and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”
Lewis Henry Morgan
 Morgan (1818-1881) was a lawyer by training and profession, who became fascinated with the
land disputes between the United States government and the American Indian people known
as the Iroquois.
 What defined Morgan’s career as an anthropologist was his success in documenting the
kinship systems of the Iroquois.
 In 1851, he released his classic work League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois.
 His version of social/cultural evolution presents three stages of societal development based on
the progression of their technological capacity. These three stages are savagery, barbarism,
and civilization.
 He characterized savage societies as those chiefly utilizing crude technology like fire, bow, and
poetry. Barbaric societies are defined by the practice of metallurgy, domestication of animals,
and agriculture. On top of this evolutionary hierarchy are civilized societies which are
characterized by development and a system of writing.
Franz Boas
 Boas (1858-1942) was one of the key figures who did not use science to justify racism.
 In his evolutionary stance on societal development, he argued that culture is not by-product of
a human group’s physical characteristics, but of social learning affected by various factors like
environment and history.
 He also pioneered the importance of actual fieldwork as opposed to the armchair anthropology
that was extensively practiced during that period. Armchair anthropology meant research by
sitting and reading the accounts that were already written by travelers, missionaries, and
explorers about other cultures.
 He was later regarded as the Father of American Anthropology.
The Fields of Anthropology
 The fields or subdisciplines of anthropology was divided into four based on the American
School, the biological/physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural
anthropology.
- Biological/Physical anthropology is the field that is engaged in understanding humans and
their nature as an animal species. It examines human variation, evolution, and physical
characteristics.
- Archaeology as a branch of anthropology attempts to reconstruct the cultures of past civilizations
and human groups by dealing with fossils and artifacts. Fossils are the biological remains of plants,
 animals, and human species, while artifacts are the man-made material remains that human
groups left such as clothing and tools.
- Linguistic anthropology examines the relationship of the language and culture of a group of
people. There are three subfields in linguistics anthropology: historical linguistics traces the
development and evolution of languages; descriptive linguistics focuses on understanding the
syntax and grammar of a particular language; and social linguistics identifies how words and their
usage represent the cultural norms of a society.
- Cultural anthropology studies the lifeways and traditions of human groups which may include
their belief system, economic activities, material culture, and even political system. There are two
ways by which anthropologist study culture in depth: ethnography-the holistic study of one culture
and ethnology-allows for a cross-cultural comparison.
Key Concepts in Anthropology
Evolutionism
Cultural Relativism
Culture
Research Methods in Anthropology
 In the field of anthropology, the most definitive method employed by researchers is
ethnography in which the anthropologist describes a culture, or one of its segments, based on
interviews, and through participation and observation of the locals’ lifeways and beliefs.
 The two most used methods in ethnography are key informant interviews and participant
observation.
 Through key informant interview, the researcher collects data from individuals (belonging to a
particular culture or society) who are knowledgeable in the topic. Meanwhile, the participant
observation method entails the process of actual daily encounters with the locals of an
anthropologist’s area of study.
Current Applications of Anthropology
 Using its methods of inquiry and theoretical orientations, the discipline of anthropology can be
put to practical use in the resolution of contemporary issues that the world faces. Specifically,
the subset of anthropology called applied anthropology includes forensic anthropology and
medical anthropology.
 Forensic anthropology is concerned with the identification of unrecognizable remains of
humans that may have been burned, mutilated, or decomposed while medical anthropology
is concerned with the process by which culture (e.g., beliefs, assumptions, material traits, and
customs) influences people’s ways of seeking health care and well-being.
 Public anthropology finds its significance as it allows the general population to access
anthropological explanations to issues that pervade in society.

MODULE 3 : The Discipline of Economics

 Economics was first conceived as the study of the allocation of resources within the household
level. Its origin could be traced back to two ancient Greek words: oikos (house) and nomos
(custom or law), referring to the rules implemented in the household to ensure its efficient
management.
 Until the 19th century, the discipline was recognized as “political economy” in reference to its
slant toward an analysis of systematic exchanges that include production rate, labor relations,
and commodity consumptions.
Important Personalities in Economics
Chanakya
 Chanakya (c.350-c.275 BCE) published his treatise titled Arthashastra (The Science of
Wealth). He argued that a state’s well-being is interdependent with the populace’s experience
of being well.
 It is thus the goal of the state to ensure that every member will have access to production and
services.
 St. Thomas Aquinas
 St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), an Italian theologian and philosopher, discussed the
concept of “just price” in his work Summa Theologica.
 He argued that merchants should sell their products at fair or just prices to make them
affordable to the consumers. He further argued that raising the prices of highly demanded
products is immoral.
Thomas Mun
 Thomas Mun (1571-1641), an English economist, was a supporter of the mercantilist
paradigm.
 He proposed in his work A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies (1621) that
England should increase prices in order to gain more profit from its economic activities, which
included importation of raw materials and exportation of products.
Adam Smith
 Adam Smith (1723-1790), a Scottish Philosopher was the most influential and popular classical
economist who produced the first modern work on economics: The Wealth of Nations (1776).
 In his work, he promoted the concept of free market and argued that the self-interests of
individuals promote a healthy competition in the market, which in turn, provides the societal
benefit of having self-regulating prices and availability of goods.
Alfred Marshall
 Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), was one of the major critics of Smith, who argued that Smith’s
theory is problematic due to the following reasons: It focuses too much on wealth without
considering the value of human welfare and ; The invisible hand is only as good as the market
when it is free from monopoly of the upper class.
 In his work Principles of Economics, he highlighted the importance of analyzing the individual’s
action in relation to his or her material environment.
David Ricardo
 David Ricardo (1772-1823), an English economist, proposed in his work On The Principles of
Political Economy and Taxation (1817) that importation of products may be a sustainable and
efficient solution to resolve the growing demand of the public vis-à-vis the incapability of the
production sectors to address those needs.
Fields of Economics
 There are various fields in economics, each promoting a different perspective. There are key
dichotomies and intersections in economic research that allow for the creation off subfields in
the discipline.
- Microeconomics and Macroeconomics. The primary difference between these two
approaches in economics is the scope of their analysis. Microeconomics focuses on small-scale
market interactions that transpire between individuals consisting business firms and households.
Macroeconomics, on the other hand, focuses on analyzing the determinants of national income.
This approach allows for the aggregation of individual responses and behavior within market
systems.
- Mainstream Economics and Heterodox Economics. Another set of economic approaches is
the divide between mainstream and heterodox economics. The difference between the
approaches is their assumptions on economic interplays of variables and agents. Mainstream
economics is focused on understanding interconnection between the concepts of rationality, and
equilibrium. On the other hand, heterodox economics is characterized by the shift from
mainstream economics, arguing that there is no single way of analyzing economic phenomena. It
focuses on the intersection of concepts like institutions, history, and social structure.
- Economic Theory and Applied Economics. Economic theory is an umbrella term that refers to
the explanation and understanding of the processes and interactions related to the production and
consumption of goods within a market system. Applied economics utilizes economic theories and
formulas to real-world scenarios with the goal of predicting possible events and outcomes.
- Positive and Normative Economics. The difference in these two fields lies in their function.
Positive economics is viewed as the descriptive form of economics wherein its chief aim is to
describe and explain economic phenomena or behavior. Normative economics is often associated
 with welfare economics, as it is focused on providing explanations and arguments on how
economic policies should be.
Key Concepts in Economics
Market Specialization
Supply and Demand Production
Research Methods in Economics
Behavioral Economics
 provides an analysis that fuses economic principles with psychological framework
Classical Economics
 derived from the theories of Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo, this approach
maintains that the market must be free from intervention for it to have a dynamic and self-
perpetuating trajectory
Computational Economics
 involves the development of mathematical methods with the aid of computers
Econometrics
 oriented toward the analysis of economic data using mathematical and statistical methods
Evolutionary Economics
 highly influenced by Darwinian concept of the development of organisms from simple to
complex
Experimental Economics
 a branch of economics that utilizes laboratory experiments to analyze the applicability of
theories in real-life situations
Praxeology
 the chief argument of praxeology is that human actions are done based on a calculated
purpose or objective

MODULE 4 : The Discipline of Geography

 The word geography comes from the Greek words geo (earth, land, or ground) and graphia (to
write, an art, or a study).
 The combination of the two words provides an elementary definition of geography, which is the
study describing Earth.
Important Personalities in Geography
Al-Khwarizmi (850 CE) and Abu Ali Al-Marakishy (1262 CE)
 developed a system of map making that is still being used today-That is, making maps
rectangular in shape and using grids to divide areas in manageable sizes
Zheng He (1371-1433)
 Chinese were the first to utilize the compass in navigating and charting the seas-a technology
that allowed them to cross vast distances safely and accurately
Marco Polo (1254-1324)
 an Italian merchant, reinvigorated the Westerners’ desire to explore the world; the period is
now known as the Age of Exploration or the Age of Discovery
Dr. John Snow
 geographic studies also made their contribution in the health sciences, and John Snow was
the earliest and prominent example of it based on his cholera map
Anaximander (610-546 BCE)
 a pre-Socratic Greek Philosopher, biologist, and astronomer; he is also considered as one of
the first and earliest geographer
Strabo (64-20 BCE)
 a Greek geographer, coined the term Geographia, which was also the title of his 17-volume
series on geographical studies
Eratosthenes (276-194 BCE)
 became the first to have calculated accurately the circumference of Earth as being 40 233
kilometers
 Ptolemy (100-178)
 compiled and summarized in Geographike Hyphegesis (Guide to Geography)
Battuta (1304-1368 CE)
 was a Moroccan explorer who published his 30-year journey in his book Rihla (Journey)
The Fields of Geography
- Physical Geography is a discipline which studies the changes in the natural patterns and
processes of Earth’s surface over time.
- Human Geography is a discipline which studies the relationship of people, communities, and
cultures across space and place.
- Integrated Geography is a discipline which studies how human activities impact in the
environment through the analysis of the shifts in landforms and cycles of the natural resources.
- Geomatics is a discipline which focuses on the scientific management of geographic data.
- Regional Geography is a discipline which focuses on a particular region on the surface of
Earth.
Key Concepts in Geography
Spatial Pattern
Spatial Interaction
Geographic Process
Research Methods in Geography
 Cartography
- the study of representing Earth’s surface using abstract symbols or through the creation of
maps
 Geographic Information Systems
- the discipline which deals with the proper storage and data retrieval of geographic information
using a computer
 Remote Sensing
- utilizes various instruments to obtain geographic data about Earth’s surface
 Geographic Quantitative Methods or Geostatistics
- the application of statistical methodologies to analyze geographic information
 Geographic Qualitative Methods or Ethnography
- used in human geography, anthropology and sociology when understanding participant
observations on the field and in conducting interviews

MODULE 5 : The Discipline of History

 The word history came from the Greek word historia which means “finding out,” “inquiry,” and
“narrative.” In some interpretations, historia means “knowledge acquired by investigation.”
Important Personalities in History
Herodotus (484-425 BCE)
 a Greek historian, is known to be the Father of History
Thucydides (460-400 BCE)
 a Greek philosopher, historian and general who is known as the Father of Scientific History
Ban Gu (32-92 CE)
 a Chinese historian and poet who became famous for compiling the Book of Han, which
contained the history of the Han dynasty
Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886)
 a German historian and founder of the modern study of history
Karl Marx
 among others, a German philosopher, economist and sociologist. He is often referred as the
Father of Communism.
Jacob Burckhardt (1818-1897)
 a Swiss historian known as one of the fathers of cultural history
Arnold J. Toynbee (1889-1975)
 a British historian and philosopher known for his monumental 12-volume work titled A Study of
History
The Fields of History
- Using a multidisciplinary approach, cultural history, focuses on the study of belief systems,
customs, social forms, political systems, material traits, and economic activities of a group or
community usually for the purpose of cross comparison with others.
- Social History is concerned with the study of particular kinds of phenomena such as family and
marriage, adolescence and mass media, human rights and equality, industrialization and
development, and work and leisure through the use of sociological theories and approaches.
- Intellectual History looks into the history of ideas and theories.
Key Concepts in History
Significance Continuity and Change
Cause and Effect Perspective
Research Methods in History
 Oral Tradition
- traditions are passed on through stories handed down from one generation to the next
 External Criticism
- a method wherein the historian checks the validity and originality of the evidence used for the
reconstruction of a historical event or figure
 Internal Criticism
- a method where the historian checks the validity of the content of a historical document or
artifact by comparing it with existing historical evidence related to the same event or figure

MODULE 6 : The Discipline of Linguistics

 The term linguistics was derived from the Latin word lingua, which refers to the language.
 Language allows us to express and understand each other’s thoughts, ideas, and feelings.
Important Personalities in Linguistics
Ferdinand de Saussure
 a Swiss linguist and semiotician credited as the father of both structural and modern linguistics
Sapir and Whorf
 pioneered the linguistic determinism, or the idea that language influences the way people think
and shapes the way people perceive the world
Noam Chomsky
 an American linguist, philosopher, and social justice activist. For him, human beings have the
ability to understand their language system not only through imitation or repetition, but most
importantly through abstraction.
The Fields of Linguistics
- Historical Linguistics, otherwise known as diachronic linguistics, studies how a particular
language changed over time.
- Sociolinguistics examines how language is used in relation to a peoples’ sociocultural
environment.
- Developmental Linguistics analyzes the development of language acquisition, language
retention, and language loss and bilingualism.
- Neurolinguistics studies the physiological mechanism by which the brain processes information
in relation to language.
Key Concepts in Linguistics
Cohesion Coherence
Critical discourse analysis Dialect
Discourse Etymology
Functionalism Grammar
Grapheme Lexicon
Research Methods in Linguistics
 Corpus Linguistics
- a method of studying a language baeed on “real-world” text
  Content Analysis
- a method used not just in linguistics but also in most forms of qualitative research in social
science disciplines

MODULE 7 : The Discipline of Political Science

 Political science is the study of political power relations, behavior, and activities as well as
systems of government from a domestic, international, and comparative perspective.
 The term politics is derived from the Greek word politikos which means “of, for, or relating to
citizens,” or in Aristotelian terms, “affairs of the cities.”
Important Personalities in Political Science
Classical Political Thinkers
Hammurabi
- the King of Babylon, provided a set of laws which has been preserved in life-sized clay and steel
slabs
Confucius
- an ancient Chinese philosopher whose principle of zhengming or rectification of names had been
the core of Confucius’s political philosophy. It states that there will be a just and orderly society
when roles are fulfilled, and corruption shall prevail when someone acts contrary to his or her role.
Plato
- an ancient Greek philosopher. His political philosophy was influenced by the idea of a just state
or society.
Aristotle
- an ancient Greek philosopher and a student of Plato. Aristotelian political philosophy focused on
interest.
St. Augustine of Hippo
- an early Christian theologian and philosopher. His approach in politics was directly influenced by
his theological ideas.
St. Thomas Aquinas
- also known as the “Doctor Angelicus,” was the most influential scholar and theologian of the
scholastic tradition.
Niccolo Machiavelli
- an Italian Historian, politician, and philosopher. Unlike other thinkers of his time, Machiavelli
developed his treatise not through the interpretation and study of classical or Christian
philosophies, but by the use of historical and contemporary information.
Political Thinkers in the Age of Enlightenment
Thomas Hobbes
– developed the idea that absolute monarchies are essential to enforce the will of the people, but
argued that the monarchs’ power came from the people and not from divine right
John Locke
– also known as the Father of Classical Liberalism argued that the power of the state to govern is
a power given by the people for the protection of their inalienable rights
Montesquieu
– argued for the decentralization of state power in The Spirit of the Laws and developed the idea
of the government having a system of checks and balances, and called for the separation of
government powers into the executive, legislative, and judicial branches
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
– attempted to explain that a social contract exists which enable a society to function toward a
general will or a common good
The Fields of Political Science
- Comparative Politics studies the differences and similarities of the political systems of the world
in an empirical manner.
- Political Philosophy is the root from which political science sprouted from. It covers theories
from the ancient past to post modern thoughts on politics.
 - Public Law is a field in political science which focuses on the legal concerns between the state
and the people such as constitutional law and administrative law.
Key Concepts in Political Science
Power
Politics
State
Research Methods in Political Science
 Case Study
- aims to produce a viable public policy by examining how political actors interact with the
political system
 Comparative Approach
- compares political systems using selected variables such as the type of regime, type of
political values implemented, and political events, among others

MODULE 8 : The Discipline of Psychology

 The root word of psychology comes from the Greek word psyche which means “soul”; hence,
psychology is, in essence, the study of the soul.
 Some psychologists would define it as “the study of behavior and mental processes.”
Important Personalities in Psychology
Hippocrates
- an ancient Greek physician, whose main contribution is known today as the Hippocratic Oath. In
the field of psychology, he formulated the theory of humors in explaining behavior or personality.
Imam Ghazali
- an Islamic philosopher who believed that the self is the essence of man and that the self is the
core from which personality arises
Rene Descartes
- a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who theorized about the dualism of the mind
and body
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt
- a German physician and philosopher, is regarded as the Father of Experimental Psychology
William James
- an American philosopher and psychologist, was the first to have offered an academic course in
psychology in the United States. He is known both as the Father of American Psychology and the
Father of Functional Psychology.
Sigmund Freud
- an American neurologist who became known as the Father of Psychoanalysis.
B. F. Skinner
- an American psychologist and social philosopher, is known as one of the fathers of behavioral
psychology
Fields of Psychology
- Biological psychology studies psychology from a biological perspective. It examines how
thoughts, feelings, and behavior physically affect human beings or animals.
- Behavioral psychology or behaviorism determines psychological processes through the use of
observable data.
- Cognitive psychology analyzes how sensory data are interpreted and are used by the mind to
produce behavior.
- Social psychology interprets the behavior of groups in the presence of others.
- Psychoanalysis is an area of psychology that can be philosophical and practical inquiry, such
that ideas and concepts which are metaphysical in nature can only be theorized but not
experimented on.
- Human psychology is a field that focuses on how a person can better achieve self-actualization
through the development of his or her abilities.
Key Concepts in Psychology
Personality Unconscious mind
Motivation Development
Research Methods in Psychology
 Controlled Experiments
- Controlled experiments in psychological research have the same principles as those done in
market research, social research, and even scientific research. Its weakness is that real-life
actors are mostly included because of the artificial environment developed by the experiment.

 Quantitative and Qualitative Psychological Research

- Quantitative psychological research uses mathematical models, formulas, and statistics to
establish conclusions based on psychological patterns
- Qualitative psychological research is a method that aims to derive at conclusions through a
naturalistic approach.
 Computer Simulation
- Computer simulation uses computer models to determine cognitive functions and
performance, emotion, human attributes, and language. It is used in determining probabilities
and formulating representations of continuous systems.
 Animal Studies
- Animal studies, testing, or research is commonly used by behavioral, cognitive, and biological
psychologists. It focuses on animal behavior and cognition.

MODULE 9 : The Discipline of Sociology

 The term sociology was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte, who is also
considered as the Father of Sociology.
 The term was derived from the Greek words socius, which means “companionship” or
“friendship” and the suffix –ology which means “the study of”. Thus, sociology is simply defined
as “the study of society.”
Important Personalities in Sociology
Emile Durkheim
 a French sociologist, social psychologist, and philosopher, focused his study on the
phenomenon of suicide
Max Weber
 a German sociologist, is credited for being one of the founding fathers of modern sociology.
Weber’s inquiries revolved around his idea of social action.
Karl Marx
 a German sociologist and philosopher, is credited for being one of the founding fathers of
modern sociology. For Marx, truth about society is not found in abstract ideas or principles, but
is found instead in the observable and knowable world.
The Fields of Sociology
- Human ecology studies the society in relation with its environment.
- Penology or penal science studies how punishment is conducted on the offending members of
the society.
- Sociology of work historically, used to be an inquiry into the effects of the Industrial Revolution
on societies.
Key Concepts in Sociology
Society Institutions
Norms Deviance
Research Methods in Sociology
 Case Study is a research method which focuses on a particular social phenomenon and its
effects on a specific group of people or an individual.
 Survey is the collection of data using questionnaires and statistical analysis in order to arrive
at the collective response of a group or a sample given a particular phenomenon.

MODULE 10 : The Discipline of Demography
 The term demography comes from the Greek words demos (people) and graphia (a
description of). From this etymology, we may derive that demography is a study of describing
people.
Important Personalities in Demography
Classical Works in Demography
Thomas Malthus
 an English cleric and scholars whose most notable work is An Essay on the Principle of
Population(1798)
Kingsley Davis
 an American sociologist and demographer whose works produced theories about society and
populations
The Fields of Demography
- Historical demography is the quantitative study of populations in the past.
- Social demography uses demographic data describe and explain social phenomena.
Key Concepts in Demography
Fertility Mortality
Urbanization Migration
Population
Research Methods in Demography
 Direct demographic research has two methods. The first method is gathering data through
registries while the second method is acquiring data through censuses conducted by national
governments.
 Indirect research method is conducted usually in developing countries where registries and
censuses are not established.
Unit II : Approaches in Social Sciences
MODULE 11 : Structural Functionalism
 Structural functionalism or simply functionalism is essentially a sociological theory that
revolves around the nation that a society is composed of a system of interconnected parts that
have their own particular functions.
Key Concepts of Structural Functionalism
Manifest and Latent Functions
Manifest and Latent Dysfunctions
MODULE 12 : Marxism
 Marxism is a sociological, political, and economic philosophy that is based on the ideas and
theories of Karl Marx.
Key Concepts of Marxism
Social Inequality
Class Conflict
MODULE 13 : Symbolic Interactionism
 Symbolic Interactionism is a theory on society that focuses on the individual’s interactions
with objects and other people.
Key Concepts in Symbolic Interactionism
Interaction-based Meaning
Human Agency
MODULE 14 : Psychoanalysis
 A school of thought developed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis refers to a theory of the
mind and its direct connection to personality and behavior
Key Concepts of Psychoanalysis

MODULE 15 : Rational Choice

Key Concepts of Rational Choice
MODULE 16 : Institutionalism
Key Concepts of Institutionalism
MODULE 17 : Feminism
Key Concepts of Feminism
MODULE 14 :
MODULE 14 :