Prepared by: Rubelisa S.

Pongon- EnviSc Instructor

HANDOUT #4
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

TOPIC: 2 PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY

2.1 Ecology: The study of Natural Systems

What is ecology?
• Oikos Greek for ―homestead‖
• Ology means ―study of‖
• biological science that studies the relationships between organisms, or living things, and
their environment, plays an important role in environmental science. A major focus of
ecology is the study of ecosystems.
• Uses both quantitative and descriptive research
• Combines information and techniques from many scientific fields:
 Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, Geology, and etc.

Levels of Organization in Ecology

1. Organism- Individual living thing
2. Population- A group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live together in
the same place at the same time
3. Community- Consist of all the populations of different species living in a particular
area.
4. Ecosystem- A community of different species interacting with one another and with
their nonliving/abiotic environment of matter and energy.
Three kinds of ecosystems
a. Terrestrial (land)
b. Fresh water
c. Marine: 75% of the earth
Components of ecosystem
a. The Abiotic
b. The Biotic
• Abiotic factors- A variety of abiotic factors can affect the number of organisms in a
population. Sometimes one or more factors, known as limiting factors,
 Air currents  Soil composition
 Temperature  Terrain
 Moisture  And many others
 Light
 Biotic- living components of ecosystem plants, animals, and microbes
1. Producers- plants, are also known as autotrophs
- need sunlight to make food, the sun is their main source of energy
2. Consumers- everything else, are also known as heterotrophs, energy flows from
producers to consumers.
Types of Consumers
herbivore – an organism that only eats plants
carnivore - an organism that only eats meat
omnivore – an organism that eats meat and plants
scavengers -must consume another organism to obtain energy, consumes
dead animal remains, provide food for other scavengers

3. Decomposers- must consume another organism to obtain energy, break down

dead plant and animal remains, provide food other organisms.
a. Bacteria: are decomposers that break down animal remains.
b. Fungus: are decomposers that break down plant remains.
4. Detritivores- Eat fragments of dead matter in an ecosystem, and return nutrients
to the soil, air, and water where the nutrients can be reused by organisms.

5. Biosphere- portion of the Earth that supports life

 High in atmosphere to bottom of ocean. Extends several kilometers above the
Earth’s surface and several kilometers below the surface of the ocean
 Very diverse climate

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Prepared by: Rubelisa S. Pongon- EnviSc Instructor

 Five basic types of interactions between species:

 interspecific competition,
 predation,
 symbiosis
 parasitism,
 mutualism,
 commensalism
Competition- two species share a requirement for a limited resource
- reduces fitness of one or both species
o Intraspecific Competition- same species compete with each other
o Interspecific Competition- different species compete with each other
o Competitive exclusion- is when one species is eliminated as a result of
competing for the same limited resource
o Character displacement- is when competitors evolve niche differences or
anatomical differences that lessen the intensity of competition. The difference is
often greatest where the competitors overlap
o Resource partitioning- is when the similar species coexist but each species only
uses part of the available resources
Predation- 1 species hunts, kills and eats another species
- 1 species benefits and other species life is lost

o Prey’s defense mechanism

 Speed,
 mimicry,
 camouflage,
 bright colors to warn of toxicity (poisonous)

Symbiosis- two species live together can include

 Parasitism- one species feeds on another
- enhances fitness of parasite but reduces fitness of host
 Mutualism- two species provide resources or services to each other
- enhances fitness of both species
- both species benefit
 Commensalism- one species receives a benefit from another species
- enhances fitness of one species; no effect on fitness of the other
species

2.2 Energy Flow: Producers and Consumers

 How Organisms Obtain Energy?
 Ultimate source of energy is the sun
 Producers use the sun’s energy to make food
 Consumers eat producers of other consumers
Photoautotroph- auto‖ = self;
―troph‖= energy
- organisms that use the sun’s energy to make food in the process of
photosynthesis;

chemoautotroph- make food by using energy stored in chemical bonds (some

Archaebacteria) through chemosynthesis

Heterotrophs: ―hetero‖= other; ―troph‖= energy

 Can’t make food so must feed on other organisms

st
1 Law of Thermodynamics
• Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed
nd
2 Law of Thermodynamics
• Transformations of energy always result in some loss or dissipation of energy

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Prepared by: Rubelisa S. Pongon- EnviSc Instructor

2.3 Food Chains and Food Webs

Food Chains- simple model to show energy flow in an ecosystem; one possible route
Food web- several interconnected food chains
- shows that an organism occupies more than one trophic level
- expresses more possible feeding relationships at each trophic level

2.4 Terrestrial Biomes and Aquatic Life Zone

• Habitat: place where an organism lives its life (home)
• Niche: the role and position a species plays in its environment
• Biologists have classified the terrestrial (land) portion of the biosphere into biomes—
large regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands, with distinct climates and certain
species (especially vegetation) adapted to them

Connections between Climate and Biomes

• Climate- the average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time.

• Factors determine the climate

1. Average temperature
2. average precipitation
3. latitude (distance from the equator)
4. elevation /altitude (distance above sea level
5. Solar radiation,
6. the earth’s rotation,
7. global patterns of air and water movement,
8. gases in the atmosphere, and
9. the earth’s surface features
• Major Biomes

1. Tropical Forest- distribution is in equatorial and subequatorial regions. In tropical rain forests,
rainfall is relatively constant, while in tropical dry forests precipitation is highly seasonal.
Temperature is high year-round (25–29oC) with little seasonal variation.
2. Desert- in the interior of
continents. Precipitation is low and highly variable, generally less than 25 cm per year. Deserts
may be hot or cold.
3. Savanna- Savanna vegetation is typical composed of a mixture of grass and trees.
4. Chaparral- Chaparral occurs in midlatitude coastal regions on several continents. Precipitation
is highly seasonal with rainy winters and dry summers. The annual rainfall in this biome ranges
from 65 cm to 75 cm (25.6–29.5 in) .Summer is hot (30oC+); fall, winter, and spring are cool
(10–12oC). The chaparral is dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs; many plants
are adapted to fire and drought.Chaparral is highly prone to events of catastrophic wildfire. The
ashes left behind after a fire are rich in nutrients like nitrogen and fertilize the soil, promoting
plant regrowth. Fire is a natural part of the maintenance of this biome.
5. Temperate Grassland- Precipitation is highly seasonal. Annual precipitation ranges from 25.4
cm to 88.9 cm (10–35 in). Winters are cold (often below –10oC) and dry; summers are hot (often
near 30oC) and wet

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Prepared by: Rubelisa S. Pongon- EnviSc Instructor

6. Northern Coniferous Forest- It is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth. The northern
coniferous forest spans northern North America and Eurasia. The annual precipitation is from 40
cm to 100 cm (15.7–39 in) and usually takes the form of snow; relatively little evaporation
occurs because of the cool temperatures. A climate consisting of long, cold winters and short,
cool, wet summers.
7. Temperate Broadleaf Forest- is found at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with
smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Significant amounts of
precipitation fall during all seasons as rain or snow. Precipitation is relatively constant
throughout the year and ranges between 75 cm and 150 cm (29.5–59 in).

8. Tundra- The geographical distribution of the tundra biome is largely poleward of 60° North
latitude. Tundra covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops
at all latitudes. Precipitation is low in arctic tundra (15 cm –25 cm or 6 in–10 in) and higher in
alpine tundra.Winters are cold (below –

Aquatic life zone

There are freshwater life zones (such as lakes and streams) and ocean or marine life zones (such
as coral reefs, coastal estuaries, and the deep ocean).

2.5 Natural Ecosystem Change

How do communities respond to changing environmental conditions?
 The structure and species composition of communities change in response to changing
environmental conditions through a process called ecological succession.

2 types of Ecological succession:

1. Primary- involves the gradual establishment of communities in lifeless areas where there is
no soil in a terrestrial community (or no bottom sediment in an aquatic community.
2. Secondary succession- Ecological succession in an area in which natural vegetation has been
removed or destroyed but the soil is not destroyed.

2.6 Cycling of Matter/ Biogeochemical Cycles

Natural processes that recycle nutrients in various chemical forms from the nonliving
environment to living organisms and then back to the nonliving environment.
biogeochemical cycle- (literally, life-earth-chemical cycles) or nutrient cycles—

 hydrologic cycles
 carbon,
 oxygen,
 nitrogen,
 phosphorus,
 sulfur,

Law of conservation of matter

In any physical or chemical change, matter is neither created nor destroyed but merely changed
from one form to another; in physical and chemical changes, existing atoms are rearranged into
different spatial patterns (physical changes