CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT

Growth
- Physical change
- Increase in size
- Quantitative change
- Indicators:
 Weight
 Height
 Bone size
 Denition (Teeth) Sa ubos una mutubo ang ngipon
- Rapid during prenatal, infancy and adolescent

Development
- Increase the complexity, function and skill progression
- Qualitative change
- Simple to complex

Aspect of Development
- Physical development (lawas)
- Intellectual development (utok or panghunahuna)
- Personality and Social development (batasan ug pakig socialize sa laing tao)
- Moral development (kabalo naka sa sakto ug sa dili sakto nga binuhatan)
- Spiritual development (relasyon sa Ginoo)

Factors Affecting Growth and Development

- Genetic (kaliwat)
- Environmental (nakapalibot)
 Culture
 Nutrition
 Religion
 Family
 Child rearing philosophies (philosophy sa nagpadako sa bata)

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Developmental Task Theory (Robert Havighurst)
- Believed that learning is basic to life and that individuals learn throughout life.

Infancy and Early Childhood (birth to 5 years)

 Learning to walk
 Learning to control bodily wastes
 Learning to talk
 Learning to form relationships with family members

Middle Childhood (6 – 12 years)

 Learning physical skills for playing games
 Developing school-related skills such as reading, writing, and counting
 Developing conscience and values
 Attaining independence

Adolescence (13 – 17 years)

 Establishing emotional independence from parents
 Equipping self with skills needed for productive occupation
 Achieving gender-based social role
 Establishing mature relationships with peers of both sexes

Early Adulthood (18 – 35 years)

 Choosing a partner
 Establishing a family
 Managing a home
 Establishing a career

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Middle Age (36 – 60 years)
 Maintaining economic standard of living
 Performing civic and social responsibilities
 Relating to spouse as a person
 Adjusting to physiological changes

Later Maturity (over 60 years)

 Adjusting to deteriorating health and physical strength
 Adjusting to retirement
 Meeting social and civil obligations
 Adjusting to death or loss of spouse

Child Development Stages

1. Infancy

 Newborn to 5 months

Motor:
 Turns head from side to side.
 Grasp everything by palm when prone. (Kung magkulob, kuhaon
tanan butang pinaagi sa kamot.)

Social:
 Crying (hilakon)

 6 months to 8 months

Motor:
 Lifts chest and shoulder off.
 Bearing weights on hand when prone. (Kung magkulob, gamiton
ang kamot para alsahon iyang lawas)

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 Social:
 Imitates sounds (sundog.sundog sa storya)
 Vocalizes one syllable like “ma” or “da”

 9 months to 11 months

Motor:
 Creeps and crawls (magkamang)
 Uses pincer grasp with thumb and forefinger (paghawid gamit ang
thumb ug forefinger)

Social:
 Complies with simple verbal commands (makasabot na sa mga
ginagmay nga isulte) (example: AYAW!)

 12 months

Motor:
 Walks alone and uses spoon.

Social:
 Clings to mother in unfamiliar situation (muhawid sa inahan kung
dili known ang panghitabo)

2. Toddler

 Motor:

 18 months
 Holds a spoon and a cup
 Walks upstairs with assistance
 Start toilet training

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  2 years
 Hold spoon and put in mouth
 Runs and can balance on one foot
 Can ride a tricycle

 3 years
 Toilet trained
 Still have occasional accidents when playing

 Social:

 Temper tantrums are evident (tanan gusto dapat masunod)

3. Preschooler

 Motor:

 Able to wash their hands and face.

 Can brush their teeth
 Conscious about their bodies.
 Run skillfully and jump 3 steps.

 Social:

 Mimic parent’s behavior (sundugon ang binuhatan sa ginikanan)

 Electra and Oedipal complex
 Curious about their body and sexual functions

4. School Age

 Motor:

 Perfect their muscular skills

 Skilled in games of interest such as basketball or volleyball
 Good fine skills. (sewing and writing)
 Girls are heavier and taller than boys

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  Social:

 Member of the peer group (boys to boys/girls to girls)

 Compare themselves with others and obtain feedback

5. Adolescence

 Growth is markedly accelerated known as adolescent growth spurt

 Menarche for girls (dug-on)
 Wet-dreams for boys
 Appearance of secondary sex characteristics for both sexes
 Self-concept is on personal strengths and weaknesses
 Peer groups assume great importance

Developmental Theories

1. Psychoanalysis and Psychosexual Theory (Sigmund Freud)

Psychosexual Theory

Stages:

 Oral

 Age: Birth to 1 ½ year

 Erogenous zone (pleasure): Mouth
 Tanan mahawiran kaonon
 Conflict: Weaning (lutas)

 Anal

 Age: 1 ½ – 3 years
 Erogenous zone (pleasure): Bowel and bladder control (Anus)
 Conflict: Toilet training
 Anally retentive (compulsive) – grabe ka limpyado
 Anally expulsive (disorganized) – hugawan

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 Phallic

 Age: 4 to 6 years
 Erogenous zone (pleasure): Genital (private part of the body)
 Dulaan ang private parts sa iyang lawas.
 Conflict: Electra and Oedipus complex

 Latency

 Age: 6 to 10 years (puberty)

 Erogenous zone (pleasure): Sexual feelings are inactive
 Energy spent in school and games
 Focus in study and playing
 Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers
and adults outside of the family.
 Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to
form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

 Genital

 Age: Puberty to death

 Erogenous zone (pleasure): Maturing sexual interests
 Conscious how they look
 The individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.

Psychoanalytic Theory

 ID

 Pleasure (atong gusto)

 Evil

 Ego

 Mediator (mo-decide)

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  Superego

 Conscience (Konsensya)
 Angel

2. Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½

2. Early Childhood Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3

3. Late Childhood Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3–5

4. School Age Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 – 12

5. Adolescence Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 – 18

6. Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 – 40

7. Adulthood Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 – 65

8. Maturity Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

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3. Cognitive Developmental Theory (Jean Piaget)

 Sensorimotor Stage

 Ages: Birth to 2 Years

 The infant knows the world through their movements and
sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot
be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the
world around them

Sensorimotor Substages:

1. Reflexes (0-1 month): During this substage, the child understands

the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking
and looking.

2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): This substage involves

coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child
may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally
repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant
finds them pleasurable.

3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): During this

substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins
to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the
environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in
order to put it in his or her mouth.

4. Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months): During this substage,

the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may
also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect.
Children begin exploring the environment around them and will
often imitate the observed behavior of others. The understanding of
objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize
certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child
might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.

5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Children begin a

period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage.
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 For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a
way of getting attention from a caregiver.

6. Early Representational Thought (18-24 months): Children begin

to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in
the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to
move towards understanding the world through mental operations
rather than purely through actions.

 Pre-operational Stage

 Ages: 2 to 7 Years
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and
pictures to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see
things from the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

Symbolic - Himoon og dulaan ang laing butang

- Ex. Ang silhig himoon og kabayo

Egocentrism – Kagustohon. Kung dili mahatag ang gusto mohilak.

Gusto niya iya tanan.

Centration – Nagfocus ang bata sa kadaghanon ug kadak-on even

pareho ra ang size/amount.

Irreversibility - Kabalo mo-guba pero dili kabalo mo ayo.

- Kabalo mo-plus pero dili kabalo mo-minus.

Animism - Storyahon ang mga butang

- Himoon og tao ang mga butang
- Ex. Storyahon ang unlan, teddy bear or ang laing butang

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 Transductive Reasoning - If A causes B, then B causes A.
- Ex. Kada gabie na mouli iyang mama.
Makabalo ang bata nga gabie na kay
niuli na iyang mama. Kabalo ang bata
nga mouli na iyang mama kay gabie na.

 Concrete Operational Stage

 Ages: 7 to 11 Years
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete
events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny
glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very
concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle

Decentering – Kabalo kung asa gamiton ang mga butang.

- Ex. Ang glass pang inom.
- Kabalo napud mopili.
- Ex. Papilion sa duha sa lollipop, mopili siya pinaagi sa
kalami sa lollipop bisag pareho ra ang color ug size.

Reversibility – (kabaliktaran sa irreversibility)

- Ex. Kabalo mo-plus, kabalo napud mo-minus.

Conservation – (kabaliktaran sa centration)

- Kabalo na mo determine na pariha ra ang kadaghanon
ug kadak-on.
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 Seriation – Ang bata kabalo na musunod sa instruction
- Ex. Palinyahon sugod sa pinakamubo padulong sa
pinakataas.

 Formal Operational Stage

 Ages: 12 and Up
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle
to specific information

Hypothetical Reasoning – Sigeg huna-huna og “what if” questions,

then maghuna-huna og daghan nga
solution.

Analogical Reasoning – Logical thinker

- What is true to one is also true of the other
- Ex. Pwede mabuhi ang tao sa Mars kay naay
water pareho sa Earth.

Deductive Reasoning – Kabalo na mo-conclude

- Ex. All humans are mortal
Pedro is human
Therefore, Pedro is mortal.

4. Moral Developmental Theory (Lawrence Kohlberg)

 Pre-conventional

 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The

child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person
is punished, they must have done wrong. Punishment over
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 authority. (Bisag unsay isugo sa imo kay musugot ka para dili ka
ma-punish)

Ex. Magbinut-an para dili mabunalan.

 Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange (Mutual Benifit). This

stage expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right
behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their
best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the
needs of others, only to the point where it might further the
individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not
based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my
back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. (Dapat maka benefit ka kung
suguon ka or hatagan ka og suhol)

Ex. Suguon ka nga magpalit og hotdog. Then, mangutana dayon ka

nga unsa may makuha nako ana? Mutubag imong mama nga imo
ng baonon ugma. Buhaton dayon nimo ang sugo kay maka benefit
man ka.

 Conventional

 Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships (Societal Focus)

(Social Approval). The child/individual is good in order to be seen
as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the
approval of others. (Always gihuna-huna ang panan-aw sa ubang
tao sa iyang self)

Ex. Magbinut-an para ingnon sa ubang tao nga buotan.

 Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order (Law and Order). The

child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so
judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and
to avoid guilt. (Mahadlok na sa authority)

Ex. Dili mangawat para dili ma-priso.

 Post-conventional

 Stage 5. Social Contract. The child/individual becomes aware that

while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number,
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 there are times when they will work against the interest of particular
individuals.

For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is more

important than breaking the law against stealing.

(Bahala mubuhat against sa law basta para sa kaayuhan sa uban)

Ex. Mangawat og pagkaon para mapakaon ang gigutom nga mga

anak. Bahala ma-priso, mabuhi lang.

 Stage 6. Universal Principles (Universal Ethics). People at this

stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may
or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. (Mo-decide
dili lang para sa iyang self but para sa kadaghanan. Daghay
ginalantaw)

Ex. Musumbong sa tinuod kay kana ang sakto. Sala ang mamakak

5. Socio-cultural Theory (Lev Vygotsky)

 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

 The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between

what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve
with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

 Thus, the term “proximal” refers those skills that the learner is
“close” to mastering.

 Ang kalahian sa development sa tao nga individual lang kung mag

study, compare sa development sa tao nga naay magtabang nga
mas nakabalo.

 Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of

proximal development for a particular task, providing the
appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a
"boost" to achieve the task.

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 Social Interaction

 According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child

occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may
model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child.
Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue.

 The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided

by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the
information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

 Dapat naay interaction permi sa tutor or teacher para ma-guidan.

 More Knowledgeable Others (MKO)

 The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-

explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding
or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular
task, process, or concept.

 Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older

adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers
or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge
or experience.

 Tao nga mas bright, mas daghay alam. Ex. Teacher.

Theory of Scaffolding (Wood, Bruner and Ross 1976)

 Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more
competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the
zone of proximal development.

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6. Bioecological Systems Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)

 Microsystem — The prefix “micro" comes from the Greek for “small," and
is the first and most immediate layer of the nested systems. It encompasses
an individual’s human relationships, interpersonal interactions and
immediate surroundings. An example of this system would be the
relationship between an individual and his or her parents, siblings, or school
environment.

 Mesosystem — The second layer from the individual, surrounding the

microsystem and encompassing the different interactions between the
characters of the microsystem. For example, the relationship between the
individual’s family and their school teachers or administrators. In order for
an interaction to be considered part of the mesosystem, it has to be a direct
interaction between two aspects of the microsystem that influences the
development of the individual.

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  Exosystem — The exosystem is the third layer, and contains elements of
the microsystem which do not affect the individual directly, but may do so
indirectly. For example, if a parent were to lose their job or have their hours
cut back, this would affect their child in an indirect way such as financial
strain or increased parental stress.

 Macrosystem — The prefix “macro" comes from the Greek for “large," and
is used because this system was thought to be all-encompassing. The
fourth and outermost layer of the bioecological model, it encompasses
cultural and societal beliefs and programming that influence an individual’s
development. Examples of this would include gender norms or religious
influence.

 Chronosystem - Adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates

the influence of both change and constancy in the child’s environment. The
chronosystem may thus include a change in family structure, address,
parent’s employment status, in addition to immense society changes such
as economic cycles and wars.

BEHAVIORAL THEORY

1. Classical Conditioning or Pavlovian Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

 Unconditioned Stimulus - A feature of the environment that causes a

natural reflex action.

 Unconditioned Response - Pavlov showed the existence of the

unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the
measuring its salivary secretions.

 Conditioned Stimulus or Neutral Stimulus - A feature of the environment

that has an effect through its association with a U.C.S. (Ex. Pavlov’s dog
learned to salivate at the sound of a bell)

 Conditioned Response - The behavior elicited by the C.S. (Ex. Salivation

when the bell rings)

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 Extinction - The dying out of a conditioned response by breaking the
association between the C.S. and the U.C.S. (Ex. When the bell was
repeatedly rang and no food presented Pavlov’s dog gradually stopped
salivating at the sound of the bell)

 Generalisation - When a stimulus similar to the C.S. also elicits a response.

E.g., if a dog is conditioned to salivated to the sound of a bell, it may later
salivate to a similar sounding bell.

 Discrimination - The opposite of generalisation i.e. the ability of the subject

to tell the difference between two similar stimuli. (Ex. Eventually Pavlov’s
dog learns the difference between the sound of the 2 bells and no longer
salivates at the sound of the non-food bell)

 Higher Order Conditioning – Ex. Bell + Food = Salivate

Bell + Food + Flashlight = Salivate
Flashlight = Salivate

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2. Operant Conditioning (Burrhus Frederick Skinner)

- Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and

punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an
association between a particular behavior and a consequence (Skinner, 1938).

 Reinforcement – Anything that strengthens the desired response.

 Positive Reinforcement (Reward) – Hatagan ka’g something na

makalipay sa imo. (Ex. Extra money sa baon)

 Negative Reinforcement (Reward) – Kuhaan ka og something nga

nakapalisod sa imo or nagpabug-at sa imo. (Ex. Exempted ka sa
exam)

 Punishment – Consequences intended to result in reduced responses.

(Ex. Kasab-an or bunalan)

 Extinction or Non-reinforcement – Ignore the behavior. (Pasagdan ra)

Reinforcement Schedules:

o Continuous Reinforcement - An animal/human is positively reinforced

every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a
pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.

o Fixed Ratio Reinforcement - Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior

occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after
every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For
example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.

o Fixed Interval Reinforcement - One reinforcement is given after a fixed

time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An
example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15
minutes (half hour, hour, etc.)

o Variable Ratio Reinforcement - Behavior is reinforced after an

unpredictable number of times.

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 o Variable Interval Reinforcement - Providing one correct response has
been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time
has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes.

3. Theory of Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)

 Law of Effect - Any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is

likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant
consequences is likely to be stopped.

 Law of Exercise - Strengthened with practice and weakened when practice

is discontinued.

 Law of Readiness - A satisfying state of affairs results when an individual

is ready to learn and is allowed to do so. Being forced to learn when not
ready.

4. John B. Watson (Father of Psychological School of Behaviorism)

Behaviorism - According to Watson, was the science of observable behavior.

Only behavior that could be observed, recorded and measured was of any real
value for the study of humans or animals.

“Little Albert Experiment” - Albert was a 9-month-old baby who had not
previously demonstrated any fear of rats. In the beginning of the experiment, John
Watson placed a rat on the table in front of Albert, who did not react. He then began
making a loud noise on several separate occasions while showing Albert the rat.
Albert cried in reaction to the noise and, after a period of conditioning, cried in
response to the rat even without the loud noise. This is prototypical example of
classical conditioning.

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 5. Purposive Behaviorism or “Sign Learning Theory” (Edward Tolman)

“Rat in the maze experiment”

 Goal Directedness - Naay goal or purpose

 Cognitive maps – Ex. Naa ka sa inyong balay. Imong gitudlo sa imong

friend kung asa dapit inyong balay. Itudlo pinaagi sa huna-huna.

 Latent Learning – Na learn nimo sa una, then imong ma-apply kung

kinahanglan na.

 Intervening Variables – Mga butang or situation na maka pa-inspire sa

imo nga ma-abot ang imong gusto.

6. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

 Learn by observing
 Learning can occur without a change
 Condition plays a role in learning

There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:

1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior. For a behavior
to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily
basis, and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely
important in whether a behavior influences others imitating it.
2. Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed
but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important
therefore that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the
observer.
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those
cases. Even if the behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be
a memory to refer to.

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3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be
able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our physical
ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we cannot.
This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the
scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing on Ice. She
may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate
it because she physically cannot do it.
4. Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that
follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards
outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more
likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to
be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behavior.

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