EM Waves and Propagation of Light PDF

5/6/2014 Week 13: EM Waves and Propagation of Light
Week 13: EM Waves and Propagation of Light

Due: 6:00am on Monday, April 21, 2014
You will receive no credit for items you complete after the assignment is due. Grading Policy
Triangle Electromagnetic Wave
Learning Goal:
To show how a propagating triangle electromagnetic wave can satisfy Maxwell's equations if the wave travels at speed c.
Light, radiant heat (infrared radiation), X rays, and radio waves are all examples of traveling electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves consist of mutually compatible combinations of electric and magnetic fields ("mutually
compatible" in the sense that changes in the electric field generate the magnetic field, and vice versa).
The simplest form for a traveling electromagnetic wave is a plane wave. One particularly simple form for a plane wave is
known as a "triangle wave," in which the electric and magnetic fields are linear in position and time (rather than
sinusoidal). In this problem we will investigate a triangle wave traveling in the x direction whose electric field is in the y
direction. This wave is linearly polarized along the y axis; in other words, the electric field is always directed along the y
axis. Its electric and magnetic fields are given by the following expressions:
E y (x, t) = E0 (x − vt)/a and Bz (x, t) = B0 (x − vt)/a,
where E 0 , B0 , and a are constants. The constant a, which has dimensions of length, is introduced so that the
constants E 0 and B0 have dimensions of electric and magnetic field respectively. This wave is pictured in the figure at
time t = 0. Note that we have only drawn the field vectors
along the x axis. In fact, this idealized wave fills all space, but
the field vectors only vary in the x direction.
We expect this wave to satisfy Maxwell's equations. For it to

do so, we will find that the following must be true:
1. The amplitude of the electric field must be directly

proportional to the amplitude of the magnetic field.
2. The wave must travel at a particular velocity (namely,
the speed of light).
Part A
→
What is the propagation velocity v of the electromagnetic wave whose electric and magnetic fields are given by
the expressions in the introduction?
→ ^
Express v in terms of v and the unit vectors ^ ^
i , j , and k. The answer will not involve c; we have not yet
shown that this wave travels at the speed of light.
Hint 1. Phase velocity
All points
Typesetting math: along
98% the wave will propagate with the same velocity. You may find it easiest to concentrate on the
point where Ey (x, t) = Bz (x, t) = 0. At t = 0, this point occurs at x = 0. Where is this point when t is
http://session.masteringphysics.com/myct/assignmentPrintView?displayMode=studentView&assignmentID=2778958 1/45
some later time tf ?
Express the location xf , where the field

amplitude is zero at time tf , in terms of tf
and any necessary quantities from the
problem introduction.
ANSWER:
xf = vtf
ANSWER:
→
v = ^
vi
Correct
In the next few parts, we will use Faraday's law of induction to find a relationship between E 0 and B0 .
Faraday's law relates the line integral of the electric field around a closed loop to the rate of change in magnetic flux
through this loop:
→ → → → → →
d
∮ E ( r , t) ⋅ d l = − ∫ B ( r , t) ⋅ d A .
C dt S
Part B
To use Faraday's law for this problem, you will need to constuct a suitable loop, around which you will integrate the
electric field. In which plane should the loop lie to get a nonzero electric field line integral and a nonzero magnetic
flux?
ANSWER:
the xy plane
the yz plane
the zx plane
Correct
Part C
Consider the loop C1 shown in the figure. It is a square loop with sides of length L, with one corner at the origin
→
→
^
and the opposite corner at the coordinates x = L , y = L . Recall that E ( r , t) = [E0 (x − vt)/a]j . What is
the value of the line integral of the electric field around
loop C1 at arbitrary time t?
Express the line integral in terms of E 0 , L , a, v,

and/or t.
Hint 1. Integrating along segments 1 and 2
Note that the loop C1 is divided into four segments, labeled 1 through 4. First, consider the line integral
→
^
along segment 1. Along this segment, d l = dx i . When we dot this into the electric field vector, we find
→ →
^ ^ ^ ^
E ⋅d l = (Ex i + E y j + Ez k ) ⋅ (dx i ) = E x dx = 0 ,
since Ex = 0 . Only the y component of the electric field is nonzero. Therefore, the line integral along
segment 1 is equal to zero.
→ → →
^
Now consider the line integral along segment 2. In this case, d l = dy j , and E ⋅d l = Ey dy , which
leads to a nonvanishing integral. Find the value of the line integral along segment 2 at arbitrary time t.
Express line integral along segment 2 in terms of E0 , L , v, a, and t.
Hint 1. Evaluating the integral
Note that x = L along segment 2, so that the integral reduces to
L L L
∫ E y (x = L, t) dy = ∫ [E0 (L − vt)/a] dy = [E 0 (L − vt)/a] ∫ dy .
0 0 0
ANSWER:
L E 0 (L−vt)L
∫
0
Ey (x = L, t) dy =
a
Hint 2. Integrating along segments 3 and 4

→ → →
Along segment 3, d l = −dx ^ i , and we find that E ⋅ d l = 0 , just as it did along segment 1. The line
integral along segment 4, however, will be nonzero at general time t. Along segment 4,
→ → → →
d l
^ ^
= dy (−j ) = −dy j , and E ⋅d l = −Ey dy . (If we include the minus sign in d l , we must
remember to integrate dy from 0 to L, rather than from L to 0.) Find the value of the line integral along
segment 4 at arbitrary time t.
Express the line integral along segment 4 in terms of E0 , L , v, a, and t.
Note that x = 0 along segment 4, so that
L L L
∫ −E y (x = 0, t) dy = − ∫ [E0 (0 − vt)/a] dy = [E 0 vt/a] ∫ dy .
0 0 0
ANSWER:
L E 0 vtL
∫
0
− Ey (x = 0, t) dy = a
Hint 3. Integrating around the entire loop

The value of the line integral around the loop C1 will be equal to the sum of the integrals along each of the
segments. You should have found that the only nonzero contributions to the total line integral come from the
integrations along segments 2 and 4. When you add these contributions together, you should find that the
time t cancels out of the final result. The value of the line integral of the electric field along loop C1 is
therefore independent of time.
ANSWER:
→ → → 2
E0 L
∮
C1
E ( r , t) ⋅ d l =
a
Correct
Part D
→
→
^
Recall that B ( r , t) = [B0 (x − vt)/a]k . Find the value of the magnetic flux through the surface S 1 in the xy
plane that is bounded by the loop C1 , at arbitrary time t.
B0 L
Express the magnetic flux in terms of B0 , L , a, v, and/or t.
Hint 1. Simplifying the integrand

→ →
→
The quantity appearing in the integrand is B ( r , t) ⋅ d A . The surface S1 is in the xy plane and is
bounded by the curve C1 . Because the curve C1 is oriented in a counterclockwise direction, the unit vector
→
that is normal (i.e., perpendicular) to the surface S1 is ^
k. Therefore, dA
^
= dx dy k . When you take the
→ → → →
→
dot product of B and d A , you find that B ( r , t) ⋅ d A = Bz (x, t) dx dy .

Using the result from the previous hint,, we find that the integral reduces to
→ → →
L L
∫ B ( r , t) ⋅ d A = ∫ Bz (x, t) dx dy = B0 ∫ [(x − vt)/a] dx ∫ dy .
S1 S1 0 0
L
What is the value of the integral ∫ (x − vt) dx?
0
Express your answer in terms of L, v, and t.
ANSWER:
2
L L
∫ (x − vt) dx = − vtL
0 2
ANSWER:
→ → → 2 1
B 0L ( L−vt)
∫ B ( r , t) ⋅ d A = 2
S1
a
Correct
Part E
Now use Faraday's law to establish a relationship between E 0 and B0 .
Express E 0 in terms of B0 and other quantities given in the introduction.
Hint 1. Using Faraday's law

By using Faraday's law, we know that
→ → → → → →
d
∮ E ( r , t) ⋅ d l = − ∫ B ( r , t) ⋅ d A .
C1 dt S1
→ →
→
In Part C, you found an expression for the left-hand side of this equation, ∮
C1
E ( r , t) ⋅ d l , and in Part D
→ →
( , t) ⋅ d
→ →
→
you found an expression for ∫S B ( r , t) ⋅ d A . Use the result of Part D to find an expression for the
1
right-hand side of Faraday's law.

→ → →
d
Express − ∫
S1
B ( r , t) ⋅ d A in terms of B0 , L , a, v, and/or t.
dt
ANSWER:
→ → → 2
d B0 L v
− ∫
S1
B ( r , t) ⋅ d A = a
dt
ANSWER:
E0 = B0 v
Correct
If the electric and magnetic fields given in the introduction are to be self-consistent, they must obey all of Maxwell's
equations, including the Ampère-Maxwell law. In these last few parts (again, most of which are hidden) we will use the
Ampère-Maxwell law to show that self-consistency requires the electromagnetic wave described in the introduction to
propagate at the speed of light.
The Ampère-Maxwell law relates the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed loop to the rate of change in
electric flux through this loop:
→ → → → → →
d
∮ B ( r , t) ⋅ d l = μ I + μ ϵ0 ∫ E ( r , t) ⋅ d A .
C 0 0 dt S
In this problem, the current I is zero. (For I to be nonzero, we would need charged particles moving around. In this
problem, there are no charged particles present. We assume that the electromagnetic wave is propagating through a
vacuum.)
Part F
To use the Ampère-Maxwell law you will once again need to construct a suitable loop, but this time you will
integrate the magnetic field around the loop. In which plane should the loop lie to get a nonzero magnetic field line
integral and hence nonzero electric flux?
ANSWER:
the xy plane
the yz plane
the zx plane
Correct
Part G
Use the Ampère-Maxwell law to find a new relationship between E 0 and B0 .
Express E 0 in terms of B0 , μ
0
, ϵ0 , and other quantities given in the introduction.
Hint 1. How to approach the problem

By using the Ampère-Maxwell law, we know that
→ → → → → →
d
∮ B ( r , t) ⋅ d l = μ0 ϵ0 ∫ E ( r , t) ⋅ d A .
C2 dt S2
→ → →
Find an expression for the left-hand side of this equation, ∮
C2
B ( r , t) ⋅ d l , and find an expression for
→ → →
∫ E ( r , t) ⋅ d A . Combine these results to find a relationship between E0 and B0 .
S2
Hint 2. Find an expression for the left-hand side of the equation

Consider the new loop C2 , a square loop with sides of length L with one corner at the origin and the
→ →
^
opposite corner at the coordinates x = L , z = L . Knowing that B ( r , t) = [B0 (x − vt)/a]k , find the
value of the line integral of the magnetic field
around loop C2 at arbitrary time t.
Express the line integral in terms of B0 , L , a,

v , and/or t.
Hint 1. Using the methods of previous parts

→ → →
To find ∮ C B ( r , t) ⋅ d l you can take a very similar approach to that used to find
2
→ → →
∮
C1
E ( r , t) ⋅ d l in Part C. If you have finished Part C, you can click on "Show complete part"
next to Part C's answer to review the steps that led to an expression for the line integral of the
electric field. You can follow the same steps for this part, with only minor modifications.
ANSWER:
→ → → 2
B0 L
∮
C2
B ( r , t) ⋅ d l =
a
Hint 3. Find an expression for the right-hand side of the equation

→ →
Knowing that the electric field is given by E ( r , t) = E 0 [(x − vt)/a]^
j , find an expression for the electric
flux through S2 - the surface in the xz plane bounded by the loop C2 , at arbitrary time t.
Express the electric flux in terms of E0 , L , a,

v , and/or t.
Hint 1. Using the methods of previous parts

→ → →
Try looking over the method you used in Part D to find ∫S B ( r , t) ⋅ d A ; it is nearly identical
1
to what you need to do to find the electric flux through the new loop C2 . If you have finished Part D,
you can click on "Show complete part" next to its answer to review the steps that led to the final
result. One thing to notice is the direction of the unit vector normal to the surface S 2 . Using the right-
hand rule (with your fingers curled in the direction of the loop C2 , your thumb then points in the
direction of the unit vector that is normal to the surface S 2 ) you should find that the unit vector normal
^
to S 2 is −j. This will affect the sign of your final result.
ANSWER:
→ → → 2 L
−E 0 L ( −vt)
∫ E ( r , t) ⋅ d A = 2
S2
a
Hint 4. Use the Ampère-Maxwell law

Use the result of the previous subpart to find an expression for the right-hand side of the Ampère-Maxwell
law.
→ → →
d
Express μ0 ϵ0 ∫
S2
E ( r , t) ⋅ d A in terms of E0 , μ0 , ϵ0 , L , a, v, and/or t.
dt
ANSWER:
→ → → 2
d μ0 ϵ 0 E0 L v
μ0 ϵ0 ∫ E ( r , t) ⋅ d A =
dt S2 a
ANSWER:
B0
E0 = ϵ 0μ v
0
Correct
Part H
Finally we are ready to show that the electric and magnetic fields given in the introduction describe an
electromagnetic wave propagating at the speed of light. If the electric and magnetic fields are to be self-consistent,
they must obey all of Maxwell's equations. Using one of Maxwell's equations, Faraday's law, we found a certain
relationship between E 0 and B0 . You derived this in Part E. Using another of Maxwell's equations, the Ampère-
Maxwell law, we found what appears to be a different relationship between E 0 and B0 . You derived this in Part I. If
the results of Parts E and I are to agree, what does this imply that the speed of propagation v must be?
Express v in terms of only μ0 and ϵ0 .
ANSWER:
1
v = √
ϵ 0μ
0
Correct
You have just worked through the details of one of the great triumphs of physics: Maxwell's equations predict a
form of traveling wave consisting of a matched pair of electric and magnetic fields moving at a very high velocity
−−− −
v = 1/√μ 0 ϵ0 . We can measure μ 0 and ϵ0 independently in the laboratory, and these experimentally
8
determined values lead to a speed of v = 2.998 × 10 m/s , the speed of light c. After thousands of years of
speculation about the nature of light, Maxwell had developed a plausible and quantitatively testable theory
about it.
Faraday had a hunch that light and magnetism were related, as demonstrated by the Faraday effect. (Glass,
put in a large magnetic field, will rotate the plane of polarization of light that passes through it.) Now Maxwell
had predicted an electromagnetic wave with the following properties:
1. It was transverse, with two possible polarizations (which agreed with an already known
characteristic of light).
2. It had an extraordinarily high velocity (relative to waves in air or on strings) that agreed with the
experimentally determined value for the speed of light.
Any doubt that light waves were in fact electromagnetic waves vanished as various optical phenomena (such
as the behavior of electromagnetic waves at glass surfaces) were predicted and found to agree with the
behavior of light. This theory showed that lower frequency waves could be created and detected by their
interactions with currents in wires (later called antennas) and paved the way to the creation and detection of
radio waves.
Exercise 32.3
A sinusoidal electromagnetic wave is propagating in a vacuum in the +z-direction.
Part A
If at a particular instant and at a certain point in space the electric field is in the +x-direction and has a magnitude of
3.10V/m , what is the magnitude of the magnetic field of the wave at this same point in space and instant in time?
ANSWER:
B = 1.03×10−8 T
Correct
Part B
What is the direction of the magnetic field?
ANSWER:
- y - direction
- z - direction
+ y - direction
Correct
Energy in Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves transport energy. This problem shows you which parts of the energy are stored in the electric
and magnetic fields, respectively, and also makes a useful connection between the energy density of a plane
electromagnetic wave and the Poynting vector.
In this problem, we explore the properties of a plane electromagnetic wave traveling at the speed of light c along the x
axis through vacuum. Its electric and magnetic field vectors are as follows:
→
^
E = E0 sin (kx − ωt)j ,
→
^
B = B0 sin (kx − ωt)k .
Throughout, use these variables ( E , B, E 0 , B0 , k, x , and ω) in your answers. You will also need the permittivity of
free space ϵ0 and the permeability of free space μ0 .
Note: To indicate the square of a trigonometric function in your answer, use the notation sin(x)^2NOT sin^2(x).
Part A
What is the instantaneous energy density uE (t) in the electric field of the wave?
Give your answer in terms of some or all of the variables in E = E 0 sin (kx − ωt) .
Hint 1. Energy density in an electric field

Recall that the energy density uE in an electric field E is given by
2
ϵ0 E
uE = .
2
ANSWER:
2
ϵ 0 (E 0 sin(kx−ωt))
uE (t) =
2
Correct
Part B
B (t)
What is the instantaneous energy density uB (t) in the magnetic field of the wave?
Give your answer in terms of some or all of the variables in B = B0 sin (kx − ωt) .
Hint 1. Energy density in a magnetic field

Recall that the energy density uB in a magnetic field B is given by
2
B
uB = .
2μ0
ANSWER:
2
(B sin(kx−ωt))
uB (t) = 0
2μ
0
Correct
Part C
What is the average energy density ⟨uE ⟩ in the electric field of the wave?
Give your answer in terms of ϵ0 and E0 .
Hint 1. Average value of sin2 (α)
The average of sin2 (α) over a full period is equal to 1/2.
ANSWER:
2
E0 ϵ 0
⟨u ⟩ =
E
4
Correct
Part D
What is the average energy density ⟨uB ⟩ in the magnetic field of the wave?
Give your answer in terms of μ0 and B0 .
2
Hint 1. Average value of sin (α)
2
http://session.masteringphysics.com/myct/assignmentPrintView?displayMode=studentView&assignmentID=2778958
(α) 12/45
The average of sin2 (α) over a full period is equal to 1/2.
ANSWER:
2
B0
⟨u ⟩ =
B
μ0 4
Correct
Part E
From the previous results, derive an expression for ⟨u⟩, the average energy density in the whole wave.
Express the average energy density in terms of E 0 and ϵ0 only.
Hint 1. Relationship among ⟨u⟩, ⟨uE ⟩ , and ⟨uB ⟩
The average energy density is simply the sum of the contributions from the electric and magnetic fields:
⟨u⟩ = ⟨uE ⟩ + ⟨uB ⟩ .
Hint 2. Relationship between E and B for electromagnetic waves in vacuum
In vacuum
E0 = cB0 .
Hint 3. Relationship among c, ϵ0 and μ

0
for electromagnetic waves in vacuum
In vacuum
2 1
c =
μ0 ϵ 0
.
ANSWER:
2
ϵ 0E 0
⟨u⟩ =
2
Correct
Part F
→
The Poynting vector S gives the energy flux per unit area of electromagnetic waves. It is defined by the relation
→ → →
E ×B
S = μ
.
0
→
⟨ ⟩
→
Calculate the time-averaged Poynting vector ⟨ S ⟩ of the wave considered in this problem.
Give your answer in terms of E 0 , c and ϵ0 and unit vectors ^ ^ ^

i , j , and/or k. Do not use μ0 or B0 .
Hint 1. Relationship between E and B for electromagnetic waves in vacuum
In vacuum
E0 = cB0 .
Hint 2. Relationship among c, ϵ0 and μ

0
for electromagnetic waves in vacuum
In vacuum
2 1
c =
μ0 ϵ 0
.
ANSWER:
→ ϵ 0E 0
2
c
^
⟨S ⟩ = 2
i
Correct
If you compare this expression for the time-averaged Poynting flux to the one obtained for the overall energy
density, you find the simple relation
∣ →∣
∣S ∣ = c u ⟨ ⟩.
∣ ∣
Thus, the energy density of the electromagnetic field times the speed at which it moves gives the energy flux,
which is a logical result.
Poynting Flux and Power Dissipation in a Resistor
When a steady current flows through a resistor, the resistor heats up. We say that "electrical energy is dissipated" by
the resistor, that is, converted into heat. But if energy is dissipated, where did it come from? Did it come from the
voltage source through the wires?
This problem will show you an alternative way to think about the flow of energy and will introduce a picture in which the
energy flows in many unexpected places--but not through the wires!
We will calculate the Poynting flux, the flow of electromagnetic energy, across the surface of the resistor. The Poynting
→ →
flux, or Poynting vector S , has units of energy per unit area per unit time and is related to the electric field vector E
→
and the magnetic field vector B by the equation
→ → →
μ0 S = E × B ,
where μ0 is the permeability of free space.
Consider a cylindrical resistor of radius r0 , length l, and resistance R with a steady current i flowing along the axis of
the cylinder.
Part A
→
Which of the following is the most accurate qualitative description of the the magnetic field vector B inside the
cylindrical resistor?
ANSWER:
The magnetic field vector points radially away from the axis of the cylinder.
The magnetic field vector is everywhere tangential to circles centered on the axis of the cylinder.
The magnetic field vector points inward toward the axis of the cylinder.
The magnetic field vector points along the axis of the cylinder in the direction of the current.
Correct
Part B
→
∣ ∣
Find the magnitude of the magnetic field ∣ B (r)∣ inside the cylindrical resistor, where r is the distance from the
∣ ∣
axis of the cylinder, in terms of i , r, r0 , l, and other given variables. You will also need π and μ0 . Ignore fringing
effects at the ends of the cylinder.
Hint 1. Ampère's law

To calculate the magnetic field, you need Ampère's law, which relates the integral of the magnetic field
vector around a loop to the flow of current through it:
→ →
∮ B ⋅ dl = μ i encl
0
.
Hint 2. How to set up the integral
What kind of loop do you need? You could take any loop, and it might be interesting for you to take different
loops inside the resistor. However, the better way to proceed is to exploit the symmetry of the situation,
choosing a loop in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, making it circular, and centering it on the
axis of the resistor.
The magnetic field always reflects the symmetry of the problem.
Hint 3. Amount of current through a loop

The amount of current that passes through a loop of radius r centered on the axis is simply
total current×area of the loop

.
total cross section of the resistor
ANSWER:
∣→ ∣ μ i
=
0
∣ B (r)∣ r
2
∣ ∣ 2πr0
Correct
Part C
→
What can you say about the electric field vector E inside the resistor?
ANSWER:
The electric field vector points along the axis of the resistor in the direction of the current.
The electric field vector is zero inside the resistor and on its surface.
The electric field vector is confined to the surface of the resistor and points in the ^
k direction.
The electric field vector points radially outward--away from the axis of the cylinder.
The electric field vector is everywhere tangential to circles centered on the axis of the resistor that lie in
the plane perpendicular to the current direction.
Correct
Part D
∣ →∣
What is the magnitude of the electric field vector ∣ E ∣?
∣ ∣
Give the magnitude of the electric field vector in terms of R, i , and other parameters of the problem.
Hint 1. Use Ohm's law

Use Ohm's law to express the potential drop V across the resistor in terms of the current i through it.
R i
Give you answer in term of resistance R and current i
ANSWER:
V = Ri
→
Hint 2. Relationship between E and V
Inside the resistor, the electric field is uniform, just like the electric field inside a parallel plate capacitor;
therefore the field is defined by the relationship
∣ →∣ V
∣E ∣ = .
l
∣ ∣
ANSWER:
→
∣ ∣ iR
∣E ∣ =
∣ ∣ l
Correct
Part E
→
In what direction does the Poynting vector S point?
Hint 1. Cross products in cylindrical coordinates

^ ^ ^ ^
In cylindrical coordinates, ^ ×θ = k
r . Or, rearranging this, ^
k × θ = −r .
ANSWER:
^
i
The Poynting vector is zero inside the resistor including its surface.
^
−r
^
θ
Correct
Part F
→
∣ ∣
Calculate ∣ S ∣ , the magnitude of the Poynting vector at the surface of the resistor (not at the circular ends of the
∣ ∣
cylinder). To answer this you need to take r = r0 .
Give your answer in terms of R, i , and other parameters of the problem.
Hint 1. Definition of the Poynting vector

→
The Poynting vector S is defined as
→ → →
1
S =
μ
E × B ,
0
→ →
where E and B are the electric field and magnetic fields, respectively.
ANSWER:
∣ →∣ 2
i R
∣S ∣ =
∣ ∣ 2πr0 l
Correct
Multiplying this value of the Poynting flux by the surface area of the resistor (which in this case is equivalent to
integrating the Poynting vector over the surface of the resistor), we recover the familiar expression for the power
P dissipated in a resistor R through which a current i flows:
P = Ri
2
.
Solar Sail
A solar sail allows a spacecraft to use radiation pressure for propulsion, similar to the way wind propels a sailboat. The
sails of such spacecraft are made out of enormous reflecting panels. The area of the panels is maximized to catch the
largest number of incident photons, thus maximizing the momentum transfer from the incident radiation.
If such a spacecraft were to be simply pushed away from a star by the incident photons, the force of the radiation
pressure would have to be be greater than the gravitational attraction from the star emitting the photons. The critical
parameter is the area density (mass per unit area) of the sail.
Part A
Consider a perfectly reflecting mirror oriented so that solar radiation of intensity I is incident upon, and
perpendicular to, the reflective surface of the mirror. If the mirror has surface area A, what is Frad , the magnitude of
the average force due to the radiation pressure of the sunlight on the mirror?
Express your answer in terms of the intensity I , the mirror's surface area A , and the speed of light c.

Radiation pressure arises from the photon momentum transfer as the photons strike the mirror. Thus, if you
find an expression for the total momentum transferred to the mirror by the photons that strike it, you can
determine the average force exerted on the mirror. Notice that when writing an expression for the momentum
transfer you'll need to take into account the fact that the mirror reflects the photons, rather than absorbs
them.
Hint 2. Find the total momentum transfer

What is the total momentum Δp transferred to the mirror by the photons in a time interval Δt ?
Express your answer in terms of the time interval Δt , the intensity I , the mirror's surface area ,
A
and the speed of light c.
Hint 1. Energy of the photons and their momentum

The momentum p of a photon can be expressed in terms of the photon energy U as
U
p=
c
,
where c is the speed of light in vacuum. This ratio also holds for the total momentum and energy of
the photons striking the mirror.
Hint 2. Radiation intensity and energy

The total energy of the photons striking the mirror during a time interval Δt is given by
U = I AΔt ,
where I is the intensity of the radiation and A is the surface area of the mirror.
Hint 3. Reflection vs. absorption

When an object absorbs a photon of energy U , it receives momentum equal to U /c . When an object
reflects a photon of energy U , the object must not only stop the photon (as is the case when the
photon is absorbed) but also send it back in the opposite direction. Thus, the total momentum
transfer for photon reflection is twice as much as in the case of photon absorption.
ANSWER:
Δp = 2I AΔt
c
Hint 3. Force and change in momentum

Let Δp be the total momentum transferred to the mirror by the photons that strike the mirror during a time
interval Δt . Then the magnitude of the average force exerted on the mirror is
Δp
F rad = .
Δt
ANSWER:
2AI
Frad =
c
Correct
To solve the second part of this problem you will need to know the following:
30
the mass of the sun, M sun = 2.0 × 10 kg ,
the intensity of sunlight as a function of the distance, R , from the sun,
25
3.2×10 W
I sun (R) =
2
,
R
and
−11
the gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10
3 2
m /(kg ⋅ s ) .
Part B
Suppose that the mirror described in Part A is initially at rest a distance R away from the sun. What is the critical
value of area density for the mirror at which the radiation pressure exactly cancels out the gravitational attraction
from the sun?
Express your answer numerically, to two significant figures, in units of kilograms per meter squared.
Hint 1. Find the force due to gravity

Suppose the mirror has mass M . Find a general expression for Fgrav , the magnitude of the gravitational
force due to the sun that acts on the mirror.
Express your answer symbolically in terms of the gravitational constant G , the mass of the sun,
M sun , the mass of the mirror, M , and the mirror's distance from the sun, R.
ANSWER:
GM M sun
Fgrav = 2
R
Hint 2. Solving for area density
By equating the force due to the sun's radiation (Frad found in Part A) and the force due to the sun's
gravitational pull, you should be able to solve for the area density of the mirror. Note that the expression for
2
the intensity, given in the problem, has a factor of 1/R , just like the expression for the gravitational force,
so the critical value of the area density turns out to be independent of R.
ANSWER:
mass/area = 1.60×10−3
2
kg/m
Correct
In selecting the material for a solar sail, area density, strength, and reflectivity are the principal concerns.
Given a representative thickness of the sail of 1 μm, one of the few currently existing materials with a
sufficiently low density and high strength can be made from carbon fibers. These have a density of 1.60
g/cm , roughly one-fifth that of iron.
3
Exercise 32.27
If the eye receives an average intensity greater than 100W/m2 , damage to the retina can occur. This quantity is called
the damage threshold of the retina.
Part A
What is the largest average power (in mW) that a laser beam 1.45mm in diameter can have so that it can be
considered safe to view head-on?
ANSWER:
Pmax = 0.165 mW
Correct
Part B
What is the maximum value of the electric field for the beam in part A?
ANSWER:
Emax = 274 V/m
Correct
Part C
What is the maximum value of the magnetic field for the beam in part A?
ANSWER:
Bmax = 9.13×10−7 T
Correct
Part D
How much energy would the beam in part A deliver per second to the retina?
ANSWER:
U = 0.165 mJ
Correct
Part E
Express the damage threshold in W/cm2 .
ANSWER:
= 1.00×10−2
2
I W/cm
Correct
Problem 32.44
The electric field of a sinusoidal electromagnetic wave obeys the equation

E = −(375V/m) sin[(5.97 × 10
15 7
rad/s)t + (1.99 × 10 rad/m)x] .
Part A
What is the amplitude of the electric field of this wave?
ANSWER:
E = 375 V/m
Correct
Part B
What is the amplitude of the magnetic field of this wave?

ANSWER:
B = 1.25 μT
Correct
Part C
What is the frequency of the wave?
ANSWER:
f = 9.50×1014 Hz
Correct
Part D
What is the wavelength of the wave?

ANSWER:
λ = 316 nm
Correct
Part E
What is the period of the wave?
ANSWER:
T = 1.05×10−15 s
Correct
Part F
Is this light visible to humans?
ANSWER:
No, this wavelength is too short to be visible.

Yes, this light is visible to humans.
Correct
Part G
What is the speed of the wave?
ANSWER:
v = 3.00×108 m/s
Correct
Wavelength, Frequency, and Speed of Light in Different Media
A beam of light from a monochromatic laser shines into a piece of glass. The glass has a thickness L and an index of
refraction n . The wavelength of the laser light in vacuum is L/10 and its frequency is f . In this problem, the constant c
should not appear in any of your answers.
Part A
How long does it take for a short pulse of the light to travel from one end of the glass to the other?
Express the time t in terms of f and n .

You'll need to find the speed of light in the glass in terms of n and f . Then use the fact that distance is the
product of velocity and time.
Hint 2. The speed of light
The speed of light in a given medium is the product of the frequency and wavelength in that medium.
Hint 3. Find the speed of light in the glass

What is v glass , the speed of the light in the glass?
Express your answer in terms of f , L , and n .
Hint 1. Find the frequency in glass

What is f
glass
, the frequency of the light in the glass?
Express your answer in terms of L, f , and n .
ANSWER:
f
glass
= f
Hint 2. Find the wavelength in glass

What is λglass , the wavelength of the light in the glass?
Express your answer in terms of n and L .

ANSWER:
L
λglass =
10n
ANSWER:
fL
v glass =
10n
ANSWER:
10n
t =
f
Correct
When light travels from air into another medium, the wavelength changes, but the frequency remains the same.
As a result, the speed of the light wave changes (since it is the product of the frequency and wavelength).
Diffuse Reflection
The law of reflection is quite useful for mirrors and other flat, shiny surfaces. (This sort of reflection is called specular
reflection). However, you've likely been told that when you look at something, you are seeing light reflected from the
object that you are looking at. This is reflection of a different sort: diffuse reflection. In this problem, you will see how
diffuse reflection actually arises from the same law of reflection that you are accustomed to for reflections from mirrors.
Part A
Consider a spotlight shining onto a horizontal mirror . If

the light from the spotlight strikes the mirror at an angle
θ a to the normal, what angle θ r to the normal would you
expect for the reflected rays?

Express your answer in terms of θ a .
ANSWER:
θr = θa
Correct
This simple rule of reflection no longer seems to hold for diffuse reflection. Consider the same spotlight but now
reflecting from the surface of a table . Unlike the light reflected
from the mirror, the light reflected from the table seems to go
in all directions. If it didn't, then you'd only be able to see
tables when you were at a specific angle to the lights above
you! To understand why the light reflects in all directions, you
must first look at a slightly simpler problem.
Consider a flat surface, inclined downward from the horizontal

by an angle α . The red line represents the surface and the
red
dotted line indicates the normal to this surface (the normal line). The two blue dashed lines represent horizontal and
vertical. The angle between the incoming ray and the vertical is θ a . Throughout this problem, assume that θ a is larger
than α but smaller than 2α. (If you wish, you can determine the correct sign rules to generalize your results later.)
Part B
Find the angle θ r between the reflected ray and the vertical.
Express the angle between the reflected ray and the vertical in terms of α and θa .

For this problem, it's best to redraw the figure with only the minimum information you need. Add new
information as it becomes necessary. Begin with only the physical setup: surface, normal line, horizontal,
and vertical. Once you have found the angle between the normal and the vertical, then add the incoming ray,
and finally add in the reflected ray.
Hint 2. Find the angle between the normal line and vertical
Find the angle between the normal line and vertical. It will be helpful to redraw the figure without the incoming
ray, being sure to label all right angles. You can find the angle by considering triangles and what the sum of
their angles must be.

Express your answer in terms of α.
Hint 1. Consider the right triangle
Look at the right triangle that contains α and has the surface and the dashed vertical and horizontal
lines as its three sides. Because this is a right triangle (by definition, the vertical and horizontal lines
intersect in a right angle), the third angle (between the surface and the vertical) must be 90 − α
degrees. This angle is also the complement of the angle that you are looking for (i.e., the angle
between the vertical and the normal). Use this information to find the value of the angle you are
looking for.
ANSWER:
Angle between the normal line and vertical = α
Hint 3. Find the angle between the incoming ray and the normal line
Find the angle between the incoming ray and the normal line. You will need to add the incoming ray to your
drawing, if it is not already there. Once you know the angle between the normal line and vertical, you can
find the angle between the incoming ray and the normal line by subtraction (since you already have the angle
between the incoming ray and vertical).
Express your answer in terms of θ a and α .
ANSWER:
Angle between the incoming ray and the normal line = θa − α
Hint 4. Find the angle between the normal line and the reflected ray
Find the angle between the normal line and the reflected ray. Now, you will need to add the reflected ray to
your drawing. Use the law of reflection to find the angle.
Express your answer in terms of θ a and α .
ANSWER:
Angle between the normal line and the reflected ray = θa − α
ANSWER:
θr = 2α − θ a
Correct
Part C
Suppose that the spotlight shines so that different parts of the beam reflect off of different two surfaces, one inclined
at an angle α (from the horizontal) and one inclined at an angle β . What would the angular separation Δθ be
between the rays reflected from the two surfaces? Assume that the light comes at an angle θ a to the vertical.
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the angles θ a , α , and β .
Hint 1. Finding the angular separation
You already know the angle between the reflected ray and the vertical for the surface tilted at an angle α. To
find the angle between the reflected ray and the vertical for the surface tilted at an angle β , just substitute β
for α in the formula from the previous part. The difference between these two angles will be the angular
separation between the two reflected angles.
ANSWER:
Δθ = 2α − 2β
Correct
Most surfaces are not smooth like the surface of a mirror. Instead, on a microscopic scale, they are covered in
ridges and pits. Thus, when light from a spotlight (or any other source) strikes a seemingly flat surface, the
light is reflected in all directions. You can see that if α = 45∘ and β = −45∘ (the negative angle indicates
that the second surface is inclined above the horizontal), then the angular separation between the reflected
rays would be 180∘ . In most surfaces, the roughness can be represented as a large number of small, flat
surfaces inclined at different angles to the horizontal. In this way, light reflects in all directions, frequently
sending rays that began very close to one another in very different directions. This microscopic roughness is
why most surfaces do not form images as mirrors do.
Underwater Optics
Your eye is designed to work in air. Surrounding it with water impairs its ability to form images. Consequently, scuba
divers wear masks to allow them to form images properly underwater. However, this does affect the perception of
distance, as you will calculate.
Consider a flat piece of plastic (index of refraction n p ) with water (index of refraction n w ) on one side and air (index of
refraction n a ) on the other. If light is to move from the water into the air, it will be refracted twice: once at the
water/plastic interface and once at the plastic/air interface.
Part A
If the light strikes the plastic (from the water) at an angle θ w , at what angle θ a does it emerge from the plastic (into
the air)?
Express your answer in terms of n w , np , na , and θw . Remember that the inverse sine of a number x
should be entered as asin(x)in the answer box.
Hint 1. Angles inside the plastic

There are two important angles within the plastic: the angle immediately after the first refraction (the
water/plastic interface) and the angle immediately before the second refraction (the plastic/air interface). To
find out how they relate, draw a picture with the path the light follows in the plastic and the normals to both
surfaces. Once you have labeled both angles, keep in mind that the surfaces are parallel, and thus their
normals are parallel lines. An important theorem from geometry will give you the relationship between the
angles.
Hint 2. Important theorem from geometry
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal (a third line not parallel to the first two), then alternate interior
angles are congruent.
Hint 3. Find the angle in the plastic
Using Snell's law, find θ p , the angle inside the plastic (i.e., the angle to the normal immediately after the first
refraction at the water/plastic interface).
Express your answer in terms of θ w , nw , and np . Remember that the inverse sine of a number x
should be entered as asin(x)in the answer box.
Hint 1. Snell's law

Snell's law states that n 1 sin(θ 1 ) = n 2 sin(θ 2 ) , where θ 1 is the angle of incidence, n1 is the index
of refraction for the medium from which light is incident, θ2 is the angle of refraction, and n 2 is the
index of refraction for the medium into which light emerges.
ANSWER:
nw
θp = asin( sin(θw ))
np
ANSWER:
nw
θa = asin(
na
sin(θw ))
Correct
Notice that np does not appear in this equation.
Humans estimate distance based on several different factors, such as shadows and relative positions. The most
important method for estimating distance, triangulation, is performed unconsciously. Triangulation is based on the fact
that light from distant objects strikes each eye at a slightly different angle. Your brain can then use that information to
determine the angle θ w as shown in the figure . In the figure, points L and R represent your left and right eyes,
respectively. The distance between your eyes is 2l, and the distance to the object, point O, is D.
Part B
What is the distance to the object in terms of θ w and l?
Express your answer in terms of θ w and l.
ANSWER:
l
D =
tan(θ w )
Correct
Part C
If the distance to the object is more than about 0.4 m, then you can use the small-angle approximation
tan(θ) ≈ θ . What is the formula for the distance D to the object, if you make use of this approximation?
Express your answer in terms of θ w and l.
ANSWER:
l
D =
θw
Correct
Your eyes determine θ w by assuming that θ a and θ w (in the figure) are equal. This is true, unless the light rays are
bent before they reach your eyes, as they are if you're wearing a scuba mask underwater.
Underwater, the situation changes, as shown in the figure . Your eyes will calculate an apparent distance d using the
angle θ a that reaches your eyes, instead of the correct geometric angle θ w . This is the same θ a that you calculated in
Part A. Note that there are no important geometric considerations arising from the refraction except the substitution of
θ a for θ w , because the refraction takes place so close to your eyes. If the problem discussed someone looking out of
the porthole of a submarine, the geometry would become

more complicated.
Part D
Find the ratio d/D. Since we are dealing with small angles, you may use the approximations sin(x) ≈ x and
asin(x) ≈ x .
Express your answer in terms of n w and na .
Hint 1. Use the small-angle approximations
From Part A, you have the expression

nw
θa = asin( sin(θw )) .
n a
Apply both small-angle approximations to this equation to get a simpler expression for θ a .
Express your answer in terms of n w , na , and θw .
ANSWER:
nw
θa = na
θw
Hint 2. Find d
Because of the refraction your eyes use θ a instead of θ w . Once you've used the small-angle
approximations, plug your equation for θ a into the equation from Part C D = l/θ w . Since you are putting
θa into the equation instead of θ w , this gives the apparent distance d.
Express your answer in terms of l, θw , nw , and na .
ANSWER:
lna
d =
nw θ w
ANSWER:
d na
= nw
D
Correct
Part E
Given that n w = 1.33 and n a = 1.00 , by what percent do objects underwater appear closer than they actually
are?
Express your answer to two significant figures.

To find the fraction by which objects appear closer, simply find the difference between the apparent distance
and the true distance, then divide by the true distance. You can then convert this fraction to a percent to get
the final answer. For example, if an object is 1 m away and it appears to be 0.6 m away then it is 40%
closer ([(1 − 0.6)/1] × 100%).
ANSWER:
25 %
Correct
A Sparkling Diamond
A beam of white light is incident on the surface of a diamond at an angle θ a . Since the index of refraction depends on
the light's wavelength, the different colors that comprise white
light will spread out as they pass through the diamond. The
indices of refraction in diamond are n red = 2.410 for red
light, and n blue = 2.450 for blue light. The surrounding air
has n air = 1.000 . Note that the angles in the figure are not
to scale.
Part A
8
Calculate vred , the speed of red light in the diamond. To four significant figures, c = 2.998 × 10 m/s .
Express your answer in meters per second to four significant digits.

ANSWER:
v red = 1.244×108 m/s
Correct
Part B
8
Calculate vblue , the speed of blue light in the diamond. To four significant figures, c = 2.998 × 10 m/s .
Express your answer in meters per second to four significant digits.
ANSWER:
v blue = 1.224×108 m/s
Correct
Part C
Derive a formula for δ , the angle between the red and blue refracted rays in the diamond.
Express the angle in terms of n red , n blue , and θa . Use n air = 1 . Remember that the proper way to enter
the inverse sine of x in this case is asin(x).
Hint 1. Apply Snell's law for blue light

Snell's law states that n a sin θ a = n b sin θ b , where θ a is the angle of the incident ray as it passes through
material a and θ b is the angle of the refracted ray, which passes through material b. These angles are
relative to the normal of the interface between the two materials. Type an expression for sin θ blue , where
θ blue is the angle of the blue refracted ray.
Express your answer in terms of θ a and n blue . Use n air = 1 .
ANSWER:
1
sin θ blue = nblue
sin(θa )
Hint 2. Apply Snell's law for red light

Write an expression for sin θ red , where θ red is the angle of the red refracted ray.
θa air = 1
Express your answer in terms of θ a and n red . Use n air = 1 .
ANSWER:
1
sin θ red = nred
sin(θa )
Hint 3. Compare the angles

Which refracted angle is larger?
ANSWER:
θ red
θ blue
ANSWER:
1 1
δ = −asin(
nblue
sin(θa )) + asin(
nred
sin(θa ))
Correct
Part D
∘
Calculate δ numerically for θ a = 45 .
Express your answer in degrees to three significant figures.
Plug the given numerical values into the formula you derived from Part C.
ANSWER:
δ = 0.287 ∘
Correct
The red and blue light rays are split by almost a third of a degree as they pass through the diamond. This
explains why diamonds are cut to have faceted surfaces--if the rays are spread out enough, each color will
shine out of a different facet on the surface of the diamond, producing a brilliant sparkle.
Part E
θc
http://session.masteringphysics.com/myct/assignmentPrintView?displayMode=studentView&assignmentID=2778958 θc 34/45
Now consider θ c , the angle at which the blue refracted ray hits the bottom surface of the diamond. If θ c is larger
than the critical angle θ crit , the light will not be refracted out into the air, but instead it will be totally internally
reflected back into the diamond. Find θ crit .
Express your answer in degrees to four significant figures.
Hint 1. Find the refracted angle when θc = θcrit
If the light ray hits the bottom surface of the diamond at an angle θ c ≤ θ crit , it will be refracted into the air
with an angle of θ d (with respect to the normal of the surface). If θ c = θ crit , what is θd ?
Express your answer in degrees.
Hint 1. What's going on at the critical angle?

If θ c < θ crit , the light ray is refracted into
the air. If θ c > θ crit , the light ray is
reflected back into the diamond. This
means that, at θ c = θ crit , the light ray
must go exactly along the surface of the
diamond.
ANSWER:
θd = 90 ∘
Hint 2. Apply Snell's law
Use Snell's law to express θc in terms of θ d , where θ d is the angle at which the light ray is refracted into
the air.
Express your answer in terms of n blue and θd . Use n air = 1 . Remember that the proper way to
enter the inverse sine of x in this case is asin(x).
ANSWER:
1
θc = asin( n sin(θd ))
blue
ANSWER:
θ crit = 24.09 ∘
Correct
Part F
A diamond is cut such that the angle between its top surface and its bottom surface is α. For α = 45∘ , find the
largest possible value of the incident angle θ a such that the blue light is totally internally reflected off the bottom
surface.
Express your answer in degrees to four significant figures.
Hint 1. Determine θblue
Find an expression for θ blue (defined in the figure) in terms of θ c and α.
Hint 1. Use the normal to find the unknown angle
You can use the normal to the bottom surface and the normal to the top surface to define a triangle
that is made out of the angles θ blue , θ c , and a third angle that we will call θ inside . What is this third
angle?
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the angles α, θc , and θ red .
ANSWER:
θ inside = 180 − α
ANSWER:
θ blue = α − θc
Hint 2. Apply Snell's law
Use Snell's law to find an expression for θ a .
Express your answer in terms of \texttip{\theta _{\rm c}}{theta_c}, \texttip{\alpha }{alpha}, and
\texttip{n_{\rm blue}}{n_blue}. Remember that the proper way to enter the inverse sine of
\texttip{x}{x} in this case is asin(x).
ANSWER:
\texttip{\theta _{\rm a}}{theta_a} = {\asin}\left(n_{\rm{blue}} {\sin}\left({\alpha}-{\theta}_{c}\right)\right)
Hint 3. When is \texttip{\theta _{\rm a}}{theta_a} maximized?
The maximum value of \texttip{\theta _{\rm a}}{theta_a} that can give total internal reflection will occur when
the blue light ray hits the bottom surface of the diamond at exactly the critical angle:
\theta_{\rm c}=\theta_{\rm crit} (with respect to the normal of the bottom surface). See your answer for part
E.
ANSWER:
\texttip{\theta _{\rm a}}{theta_a} = 60.97 ^\circ
Correct
The angle at which a diamond is cut plays an important role in how brightly it sparkles. The proper choice for
\texttip{\alpha }{alpha} will ensure that a large fraction of the light gets totally internally reflected back toward
your eyes, maximizing the diamond's "fire." Generally \texttip{\alpha }{alpha} is chosen to be between 39^\circ
and 42^\circ. For more information on the physics of diamonds, check out http://www.folds.net/diamond/.
Cerenkov Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is emitted when a charged particle moves through a medium faster then the local speed of
light (which is always lower then the speed of light in vacuum). This radiation is known as Cerenkov radiation. Cerenkov
radiation is found in many interesting places such as particle detectors and nuclear reactors and can even be seen by
astronauts when cosmic rays traverse their eyes. It should be stressed that the particle is never going faster then the
speed of light in vacuum (or \texttip{c}{c}), just faster then the speed of light in the material (which is always less then
\texttip{c}{c}). The creation of Cerenkov radiation occurs in much the same way that a sonic boom is created when a
plane is moving faster then the speed of sound in the air. The various wavefronts that propagate in the material add
coherently to create an effective shock wave. In this problem you will become familiar with this type of radiation and
learn how to use its properties to get information about the particles that created it.
Part A
What is the threshold velocity \texttip{v_{\rm threshold}}{v_threshold} for creating Cerenkov light of a charged particle
as it travels through water (which has an index of refraction n=1.33)?
Express your answer as a multiple of \texttip{c}{c} to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
\texttip{v_{\rm threshold}}{v_threshold} = 0.7519 \texttip{c}{c}
Correct
Part B
What is the threshold velocity \texttip{v_{\rm threshold}}{v_threshold} for creating Cerenkov light of a charged particle
as it travels through ethanol (with index of refraction n=1.36)?
ANSWER:
\texttip{v_{\rm threshold}}{v_threshold} = 0.7353 \texttip{c}{c}
Correct
Part C
Which of the following best explains why neutrally charged particles can't give off Cerenkov radiation?
ANSWER:
Neutral particles are too heavy to emit radiation.

Neutral particles don't interact with the electromagnetic fields of the medium.
Neutral particles can't move above the threshold velocity for Cerenkov radiation.
Charged particles hit the nuclei of the material more often and thus create more radiation.
Correct
When a charged particle passes through a material it interacts with the atom's electric and magnetic fields;
this interaction can then release radiation (in this case in the form of Cerenkov light).
When a charged particle passes straight through a medium faster than the local speed of light, it will emit the Cerenkov
radiation in a cone. Next we will calculate how the cone angle is correlated to the speed of the particle.
Part D
If a particle is traveling straight through a material with index of refraction \texttip{n}{n} at a speed \texttip{v}{v}, what
is the angle \texttip{\Theta }{Theta} that the cone of light makes with the particle's trajectory? In other words what is
the angle between the vector of the propagating Cerenkov radiation and the vector in the direction of the propagating
particle?
Express your answer in terms of \texttip{v}{v}, \texttip{c}{c}, and \texttip{n}{n}.
Hint 1. Geometry of the problem

Consider that the particle is emitting light along every point along its path through the medium. Pick one
point along the particle's path and look at how far the light from this point would have traveled in a certain
amount of time \texttip{t}{t} compared to how far the particle itself traveled. Use this information to determine
the angle of the light cone. Remember that the local speed of light is lower than that of the particle.
Hint 2. Using the geometry

One can draw a circle about a point along the particle's path that represents the distance that light travels in
time \texttip{t}{t} from when the particle passed that point and then draw a line tangent to the circle and
intersecting the point at which the particle is at time \texttip{t}{t}. Since this line is tangent to the circle of
propagating light it is perpendicular to a line from the center of the circle. This gives us a right triangle from
which one can derive the angle of the propagating light cone.
ANSWER:
\texttip{\Theta }{Theta} = \large{{\acos}\left(\frac{c}{v n}\right)}
Answer Requested
Ring-imaging Cerenkov detectors are devices that can accurately measure the velocity of charged particles as they pass
through them. They are very useful as subdetectors in large particle detector systems. Let us look at what decisions
need to go into designing a Cerenkov detector.
Part E
Suppose you wish to accurately measure the speed of high energy particles with velocities greater then 98% the
speed of light in vacuum. You can use a ring-imaging Cerenkov detector consisting of a thin slab of material
separated from an array of photomultiplier tubes (devices used to detect weak light signals) by an arbitrary open
space. The detector works on the principle that the Cerenkov radiation emitted in the thin slab will be a cone of light
that can be measured with the array of photomultiplier tubes. Your photomultiplier tubes, having a finite width, can
only resolve a finite change in the angle of the ring created by the Cerenkov radiation. Use these constraints and the
equation for \texttip{\Theta }{Theta} from Part D to determine which of the following substrate materials is best
suited to giving you the greatest precision in determining particle velocity.
Hint 1. Using example velocities

Look at the difference in angle between two different particle velocities, such as v_1 = 0.99c and v_2 = 0.98c.
Compare this difference using each of the different materials. This will allow you to determine which of the
materials provides the best angular resolution for the velocities.
ANSWER:
diamond (n = 2.417)
crown glass (n = 1.52)
ice (n = 1.3)
aerogel (n = 1.03)
vacuum (n = 1)
Correct
Part F
Suppose our detector used aerogel (n= 1.03) for the Cerenkov material and the photomultiplier tube array had a
resolution of \Delta\Theta = 1.2\; {\rm degrees}. This means the detector can distinguish between Cerenkov light
emitted at an angle of 15 degrees and that emitted ar 13.8 degrees but can't tell the difference between Cerenkov
light emitted at 15 degrees and that emitted at 13.9 degrees. What is the highest velocity
\texttip{v_{\rm max}}{v_max} at which a charged particle can be accurately measured to be below the speed of light
in vacuum ( \texttip{c}{c})?
Hint 1. Determine the angle for a particle going the speed of light
What is the Cerenkov angle \texttip{\Theta }{Theta} for a charged particle passing through the aerogel at the
speed of light in vacuum \texttip{c}{c}?
Express your answer in degrees to three significant figures.
Hint 1. Obtaining the Cerenkov angle from the speed of a particle
Recall that the speed of the charged particle can be determined from the angle of the emitted
Cerenkov radiation using the formula
\large{\cos(\theta) = \frac{c}{n v}},
where \texttip{\theta }{theta} is the angle between the Cerenkov light cone and the line the
propagating particle follows, \texttip{c}{c} is the speed of light in vacuum, \texttip{n}{n} is the index of
refraction of the material the particle is passing through, and \texttip{v}{v} is the actual speed of the
particle (for which \texttip{c}{c} is an upper limit).
ANSWER:
\texttip{\Theta }{Theta} = 13.9 \rm degrees
Hint 2. Determine the resolved angle
What is the next lower angle that can be resolved as being different from 13.9 degrees give the resolution of
1.2 degrees in the detector?
Express your answer in degrees.
Hint 1. Angular resolution

For the detector to measure that a particle travels slower than the speed of light \texttip{c}{c}, it must
measure an angle \Theta_{\rm max}-\Delta\Theta, where \Theta_{\rm max} is the Cerenkov angle from
a particle going the speed of light and \Delta\Theta is the angular resolution. This new angle will allow
one to calculate the highest velocity that can be distinguished from the speed of light.
ANSWER:
\texttip{\Theta }{Theta} = 12.7 \rm degrees
Hint 3. Obtaining the speed of a particle from the angle

Recall that the speed of the charged particle can be determined from the angle of the emitted Cerenkov
radiation using the formula
\large{\cos(\theta) = \frac{c}{n v}},
where \texttip{\theta }{theta} is the angle between the Cerenkov light cone and the line the propagating
particle follows, \texttip{c}{c} is the speed of light in vacuum, \texttip{n}{n} is the index of refraction of the
material the particle is passing through, and \texttip{v}{v} is the actual speed of the particle (always a bit
below \texttip{c}{c}).
ANSWER:
\texttip{v_{\rm max}}{v_max} = 0.995 \texttip{c}{c}
Correct
Part G
What is the lowest velocity \texttip{v_{\rm min}}{v_min} that a charged particle can have and still emit Cerenkov
radiation in the aerogel?
Express your answer as a multiple of \texttip{c}{c} to two significant figures.
Hint 1. Requirement for Cerenkov radiation
To generate Cerenkov radiation, the particle must be traveling faster than the local speed of light. Use the
index of refraction of the material to calculate this speed.
ANSWER:
\texttip{v_{\rm min}}{v_min} = 0.97 \texttip{c}{c}
Correct
Exercise 33.8
A laser beam shines along the surface of a block of transparent material. (See the figure .) Half of the beam goes
straight to a detector, while the other half travels through the
block and then hits the detector. The time delay between the
arrival of the two light beams at the detector is 6.50{\rm {\rm
ns}} .
Part A
What is the index of refraction of this material?
ANSWER:
n = 1.78
Correct
Problem 33.44
A light ray in air strikes the right-angle prism shown in the figure (\angle B=29.0{\rm ^\circ}). This ray consists of two
different wavelengths. When it emerges at face AB, it has
been split into two different rays that diverge from each other
by 8.50^\circ .
Part A
Find the index of refraction of the prism for each of the two wavelengths.
Enter your answers in ascending order separated by a comma.
ANSWER:
n_1, n_2 = 1.09,1.13
Correct
Exercise 33.2
The vitreous humor, a transparent, gelatinous fluid that fills most of the eyeball, has an index of refraction of 1.34. Visible
light ranges in wavelength from 400{\rm {\rm nm}} (violet) to 700{\rm {\rm nm}} (red), as measured in air. This light travels
through the vitreous humor and strikes the rods and cones at the surface of the retina.
Part A
What are the ranges of the wavelength of the light just as it approaches the retina within the vitreous humor?
Answer in the order indicated. Separate your answers with a comma.
ANSWER:
\lambda_{\rm min},\,\lambda_{\rm max} = 299,522 {\rm nm}
Correct
Part B
What are the ranges of the frequency of the light just as it approaches the retina within the vitreous humor?
Answer in the order indicated. Separate your answers with a comma.

ANSWER:
f_{\rm min},\,f_{\rm max} = 4.29×1014,7.50×1014 {\rm Hz}
Correct
Part C
What is the speed of the light just as it approaches the retina within the vitreous humor?
ANSWER:
v = 2.24×108 {\rm m/s}
Correct
Exercise 33.4
Light with a frequency of 6.30×1014{\rm Hz} travels in a block of glass that has an index of refraction of 1.53.
Part A
What is the wavelength of the light in vacuum?
Use 3.00×108{\rm m/s} for the speed of light in a vacuum.
ANSWER:
\lambda = 4.76×10−7 \rm m
Correct
Part B
What is the wavelength of the light in the glass?

ANSWER:
\lambda = 3.11×10−7 \rm m
Correct
Exercise 33.15
A ray of light is incident on a plane surface separating two sheets of glass with refractive indexes 1.72 and 1.60. The
angle of incidence is 59.5{\rm ^\circ}, and the ray originates in the glass with n= 1.72 .
Part A
Compute the angle of refraction.

ANSWER:
\theta = 67.9 ^\circ
Correct
Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 99.2%.
You received 16.87 out of a possible total of 17 points.

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5/6/2014 Week 13: EM Waves and Propagation of Light

Week 13: EM Waves and Propagation of Light

Triangle Electromagnetic Wave

E y (x, t) = E0 (x − vt)/a and Bz (x, t) = B0 (x − vt)/a,

We expect this wave to satisfy Maxwell's equations. For it to

1. The amplitude of the electric field must be directly

shown that this wave travels at the speed of light.

Hint 1. Phase velocity

some later time tf ?

Express the location xf , where the field

Express the line integral in terms of E 0 , L , a, v,

Hint 1. Integrating along segments 1 and 2

Express line integral along segment 2 in terms of E0 , L , v, a, and t.

Hint 1. Evaluating the integral

Note that x = L along segment 2, so that the integral reduces to

Hint 2. Integrating along segments 3 and 4

Express the line integral along segment 4 in terms of E0 , L , v, a, and t.

Hint 1. Evaluating the integral

Note that x = 0 along segment 4, so that

Hint 3. Integrating around the entire loop

Express the magnetic flux in terms of B0 , L , a, v, and/or t.

Hint 1. Simplifying the integrand

Hint 2. Evaluating the integral

Express your answer in terms of L, v, and t.

Now use Faraday's law to establish a relationship between E 0 and B0 .

Express E 0 in terms of B0 and other quantities given in the introduction.

Hint 1. Using Faraday's law

right-hand side of Faraday's law.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Find an expression for the left-hand side of the equation

Express the line integral in terms of B0 , L , a,

Hint 1. Using the methods of previous parts

Hint 3. Find an expression for the right-hand side of the equation

Express the electric flux in terms of E0 , L , a,

Hint 1. Using the methods of previous parts

Hint 4. Use the Ampère-Maxwell law

Express v in terms of only μ0 and ϵ0 .

A sinusoidal electromagnetic wave is propagating in a vacuum in the +z-direction.

Energy in Electromagnetic Waves

Hint 1. Energy density in an electric field

Hint 1. Energy density in a magnetic field

Give your answer in terms of ϵ0 and E0 .

Hint 1. Average value of sin2 (α)

The average of sin2 (α) over a full period is equal to 1/2.

Give your answer in terms of μ0 and B0 .

The average of sin2 (α) over a full period is equal to 1/2.

Express the average energy density in terms of E 0 and ϵ0 only.

Hint 1. Relationship among ⟨u⟩, ⟨uE ⟩ , and ⟨uB ⟩

Hint 2. Relationship between E and B for electromagnetic waves in vacuum

Hint 3. Relationship among c, ϵ0 and μ

Give your answer in terms of E 0 , c and ϵ0 and unit vectors ^ ^ ^

Hint 1. Relationship between E and B for electromagnetic waves in vacuum

Hint 2. Relationship among c, ϵ0 and μ

Poynting Flux and Power Dissipation in a Resistor

Hint 1. Ampère's law

Hint 2. How to set up the integral

Hint 3. Amount of current through a loop

total current×area of the loop

Hint 1. Use Ohm's law

Give you answer in term of resistance R and current i

Hint 1. Cross products in cylindrical coordinates

cylinder). To answer this you need to take r = r0 .

Give your answer in terms of R, i , and other parameters of the problem.