Res 17ee563

Vtusolution.
in - Vtu Notes, question Paper, books, Internship, Final Year Projects and many exciting offers for students
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RENEWABLE ENERGY
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SOURCES ol
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Vtusolution.in - Vtu Notes, question Paper, books, Internship, Final Year Projects and many exciting offers for students
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ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND
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STANDARD OF LIVING
n.
• Energy consumption of a country can be broadly classified into the following
sectors depending on energy related activities:
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– Domestic sector
– Transportation sector
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– Agriculture sector
– Industry sector
•
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Consumption of large amount of energy in a country indicates increased
activities in these sectors. This implies better comforts at home due to use of
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various appliances, better transport , agricultural and industrial output. Thus
enabling better quality of life. Thus per capita energy consumption is an
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index of standard of living
CAUSES OF ENERGY SCARCITY
in
n.
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1. Increasing Population
2. Increasing Energy Usage or consumption
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3. Uneven Distribution of energy sources
4. Lack of Technical knowhow
5. Wastage of available energy
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SOLUTION TO ENERGY SCARCITY
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 Minimizing population growth , Exploitation and harnessing the large
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utilization of known and unknown resources
 Development of energy conversion techniques to convert basic
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energy available from energy reservoirs to usable form(primary
energy resources to secondary energy resources)
 Usable energy form should be such that it is easy to generate,
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control transport and utilize. Eg: Electrical energy, heat
 Energy Management
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 Development of cheap and reliable energy resources. New energy
system should be pollution free so that it is acceptable to human
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beings
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FACTORS AFFECTING ENERGY 5
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RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
n.
 Energy or fuel substitution or scale of shift
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 Energy Density
 Power Density
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 Intermittency
 Geographical energy distribution
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CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES
 Based on Usability of energy 6
o Primary resources
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o Secondary resources
 Based on traditional use
n.
o Conventional energy
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o Non-Conventional energy
 Based on availability
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o Non-renewable Energy Sources
o Renewable Energy Sources ol

 Based on commercial applications
o Commercial energy source

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o Non-commercial energy source
 Based on origin
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o Fossil fuel energy, Nuclear energy, Hydro energy, Solar energy, Wind energy, etc.
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Advantages of conventional
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energy sources
n.
•
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COST: Is very relatively cheap
• Security: As storage is easy and convenient, by storing a certain
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quantity the energy availability can be ensured for certain period of
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time
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• Convenience: These sources are very convenient to use as
technology for their conversion and their use is universally available.

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Disadvantages of conventional energy
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sources
n.
• Pollution:
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– When used fossil fuels generate pollutants. Main pollutants are CO, CO2, Nox, Sox,
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particulate matter, heat etc
– These pollutants degrade the environment, pose health hazards and cause various
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other problems. CO2 is responsible for global warming.
• Other uses of resources like coal is used as petrochemical and is used

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as raw material for chemical, pharmaceutical and paint industry
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Advantages of non conventional
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energy sources
n.
• Available abundantly in nature
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• They cause no pollution and hence environment friendly
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• They are inexhaustible ol
• Low gestation period
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Disadvantages of non conventional
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energy sources
n.
• Though freely available cost of harnessing them is
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generally very high
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• Availability is uncertain, since it is dependent on
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natural phenomenon
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• Difficult in transporting such forms of energy

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How Long will fossil fuels last?
n.
• Oil: 42 years (depleted in 2059)
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• Natural gas:59years (depleted in 2076)
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• Coal: 115 years (depleted in 2132)
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RENEWABLE ENERGY
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n.
 Energy sources such as sunlight ,wind, tides, and geothermal
 Renewable or Naturally restored
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Potential for World Wide
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Renewable Energy
n.
Energy Resource Energy Amount
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Solar Energy 1600 Ej
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Wind Power 600 EJ
Geothermal
ol 500 EJ
Biomass 250 EJ
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Mini hydropower 50 E J
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Ocean Power 1 EJ
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Solar Energy
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 Solar heating and Photovoltaic cells –potential sources of
n.
energy
 Solar thermal Industry is growing rapidly
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 22 solar thermal projects in Spain for 1037 MW
 US plans for 5600 MW solar thermal projects
 Major Solar PV Projects

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 Golmund Solar Park(China,200MW)
 Sarnia PV Power plant(Canada,97 MW)
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 Montaldo di Castro (Italy,84.2 MW)
 Finsterwalde(Germany,80.7 MW)
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Wind Power
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Energy sources in India
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n.
Source Total Capacity (MW) Percentage
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Coal 134,388.39 58.75
Hydroelectricity 39,788.40 17.39
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Renewable energy source ol 28,184.35 12.32
Natural Gas 20,380.85 8.91

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Nuclear 4780 2.08
Oil 1,199.75 0.52

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Total 2,28,721.73
India –Installed Capacity of 20
renewable energy
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21
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National Solar Mission 22
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Biomass
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Energy From Sun
n.
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 Primary Source of energy
 Solar energy is derived from sun’s radiation
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 If we could harvest energy from 10 hectors of suns
surface, that would be sufficient to supply the current
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energy demand
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Sun Earth Geometrical
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Relationship
n.
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 Elliptical orbit with a mean centre to centre distance 1.5 x
10^8 km
n.
 Sun also rotates on its own once every month
 Earths polar axis is inclined at angle 23.5
 The distance from the sun to earth varies at +/- 1.7% over the
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average distance. Thus solar energy reaching earth will vary
+/- 3% per year
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 Sun’s diameter =109 x Diameter of earth
 The sun appears to move in arc from east to west owing to
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the earth’s rotation in north south axis
 Viewing from the average miles,sun subtends an arc of 0.53
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degree
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Layers of the Sun
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28
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Core
n.
 Innermost layer
 Highly dense
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 40% suns mass in 10% volume
 Gaseous state
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 1,50,00000 degree celcius
 Fusion reactions produce gamma rays and neutrinos
ol
 Each high energy gamma ray that leaves the solar envelope
will become thousand low energy photons
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 Neutrinos are non reactive
vt
29
in
Solar envelope
n.
 Radiative envelope surrounded by convective envelope
 Temp is 4 million Kelvin
 Less dense than core
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 60% mass in 90% volume
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 Puts pressure on core and maintains core temperature
 Cooler and More Opaque than core
 Energy movement in huge cells in convection zone only
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30
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Photosphere
n.
 Zone from which sunlight is seen and emitted
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 Thin layer of low pressure gases
 6000 degree celcius
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Chromosphere ol
 A red circle can sometimes be seen outside the sun during
eclipse which is called chromosphere
 Hydrogen abundant
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 7000 K, hotter than photosphere
vt
31
in
n.
Corona
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 The outermost layer of the sun
 Thin and faint
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 Visible during total solar eclipse
 Outer layer is very dim
 It is the hottest layer though
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 Spreads over several million kilometers into space, lots of
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room for molecules to move
 Causes Solar winds
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Earth Angles
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1.Hour Angle
in
 Hour angle is the angular distance between the meridian of
the observer and the meridian whose plane contains sun
n.
 Hour angle is zero at solar noon
 Increases by 15 degrees every hour
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ω= −
 = solar time
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 ω = (1/4)
 = time in minutes
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before or after solar noon
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in
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2.Declination angle 35
in
 Angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of earth’s
equator
n.
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36
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37
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3.Latitude Angle
 Angle between line drawn on a point from earth’s surface to
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the center of earth and the earth’s equitorial plane
 Intersection of earth’s equitorial plane with the surface of
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earth forms the equator and it is at 0 degree latitude
 +90 degree– North Pole
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 -90 degree –South Pole
 +23.45 degree-Tropic of Cancer
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 -23.45 degree –Tropic of Capricorn
 66.55 degree- Artic Circle
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 -66.55 degree -Antarctic Circle
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Sun Angle 39
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n.
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1.Solar Altitude Angle ( )

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2. Zenith Angle (θz)

3. Solar Azimuth Angle (γs)
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Solar Altitude Angle(α)
in
 Angle between the central ray of the sun and a horizontal
plane containing the observer
n.
Zenith Angle θ )
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 Complement of solar altitude angle
θ =9 −
Solar Azimuth Angle( )

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 Angle between the horizontal projection of suns ray on the
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horizontal surface and the south coordinate
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Surface Angles
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in
n.
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1.Surface Azimuth Angle (γ)

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2.Tilt Angle or Slope (β)

3. Angle of Incidence (θ)
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Slope angle(β)
in
n.
 Angle between tilted (collector)and horizontal surfaces
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Surface Azimuth Angle( )
 Angle between the line towards South and the projection of
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normal to the horizontal surface
Angle of Incidence(θ)
ol
 Angle between sun’s ray and the normal to the tilted
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surface(collector)
vt
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in
Sun Earth Angle Relationships
n.
cos ∅𝑐 + 𝑖 ∅ 𝑖 𝑐 cos 𝑐 𝜔 + cos 𝑖 ω 𝑖 ∅ 𝑖 𝑖
𝑐 𝜃 =
+ 𝑖 𝑖 ∅𝑐 −𝑐 ∅ 𝑖 𝑐
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Special cases:
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1.For a surface facing south, =0
𝑐 𝜃 = cos ∅ − cos 𝑐 𝜔 + 𝑖 sin ∅ −
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2. For a horizontal surface, =0, 𝜃 =𝜃
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𝑐 𝜃 = cos∅cos 𝑐 𝜔 + sin 𝑖 ∅
0
3. For a vertical surface facing due south, =0, =9
𝑐 𝜃 = −sin 𝑐 ϕ + cos 𝑐 ω 𝑖 ∅
vt
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Solar Radiations
in
n.
 Sun’s energy reaches earth in the form of electromagnetic
radiations
 Sun converts its mass into light particles called photons
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 When a photon is absorbed ,it gets converted to electrical or
heat energy
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 When solar energy travels from outer space to earth energy is
lost due to ol
 Scattering
 Absorption
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 Cloud cover
 Reflection
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 Climate
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Problems with harnessing solar
n.
energy
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 Only a small fraction of the energy leaving an area of the sun
reaches an equal area on earth
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 Energy is available for only about half a day
 Atmospheric conditions are unpredictable
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in
n.
Solar Constant(Isc)
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 It is the measure of energy density
 Amount of solar electromagnetic radiation that would be
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incident on a unit area in a plane perpendicular to the rays of
sun at a distance of one AU
ol
 Include all types of solar radiation ,not only visible light
 World radiation Center (WRC) has adopted this as 1367
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W/m2
vt
48
in
Spectral energy distribution of
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solar radiation
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 Solar radiation has
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 5% UV ol
 43% visible
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 52% infrared
vt
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in
n.
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Radiation Wavelength(վm)
• Ultraviolet A • 0.1-0.28
ut
• Ultraviolet B • 0.28-0.315
• Ultraviolet C • 0.315-0.4
• •
•
Visible
IR A
ol •
0.4-0.78
0.7-1.4
• IR B • 1.4-3
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• IR C • 3-100
vt
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Extra terrestrial radiation
in
n.
 Intensity of solar radiation attenuates as it propagates
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from the surface of the sun but wavelength remains
unchanged
 Extra- terrestrial radiation
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ol
 Is the solar radiation incident on the outer
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atmosphere of the earth
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Deviation in extra terrestrial 51
in
radiations
n.
1. Variation in the radiation emitted by the sun
- It is less than ±1.5%
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2. Variation of the earth sun distance arising from the earths
slightly elliptical path
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- It is approximately ±3% ol
- Is specified as follows
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2
𝐼 =𝐼 . + . cos 𝑊/
3. This being outside the atmosphere is unaffected by

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changes in atmospheric conditions
52
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Terrestrial radiations
n.
 Is the solar radiations that reach the earth surface
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after absorption and scattering in the atmosphere
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 Solar insolation
ol
 Is defined as the solar radiation per unit area
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received on a flat horizontal surface on the earth
vt
53
in
Solar Radiation
n.
 Received on the earth surface
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ut
 Direct or beam radiation (unchanged in direction)
ol
 Diffuse radiation (direction changed after scattering and
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reflection
 Global radiation: Sum of direct and diffuse radiation

vt
54
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Global radiation
n.
 Is the total radiation at any location on the surface of the earth which is
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the sum of beam radiation and diffused radiation
 Beam radiation is the solar radiation propagating in a straight line
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and received at the earth surface without change of direction i.e in
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line with the sun
 Diffused radiation is the solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust

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and molecules. Has no unique direction (anisotropic in nature)
vt
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in
Depletion of solar radiation
n.
1. Absorption
a. N2, O2 and other atmospheric gases absorb X rays and extreme ultraviolet
radiations
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b. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiations (λ <0.38µm)
c. Water vapor and CO2 absorbs infrared radiations (λ > 2.3µm)
ut
d. Dust and air molecules absorb parts of solar radiant energy irrespective of
wavelength
2. Scattering
ol
 Under normal atmospheric conditions
 by dust particles and air molecules involves redistribution of incident energy
us
- part of it is lost and the remaining reaches the earth as diffuse radiation
 In cloudy atmosphere
 A major part of the incoming radiation is reflected back by the clouds
vt
 Part of it is absorbed by the clouds

 Part of it is transmitted downwards to the earth surface as diffused radiations
57
in
Air mass, m
n.
 Defined as the ratio of the path length the solar beam traversed through the
io
atmosphere to ground to the vertical path length (min) through the
ut
atmosphere
 =
𝑣
ℎ
𝑖
ℎ
ℎ
𝑣
ol ℎ ℎ
𝑖 𝑖
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vt
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 Air mass, m
in
 AM0 => m=0,Zero atmosphere i.e. radiation in outer space
n.
 AM1 => m=1 i.e sun is overhead (𝜃 =0)
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 AM2=> m=2 (𝜃 =600)
ut
= = sec𝜃 = cosec α ol
Where α= inclination angle
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𝜃 = zenith angle
vt
Sun at zenith => sun is directly overhead
59
in
Irradiance on a tilted surface
n.
𝐼 ℎ=𝐼 𝑖
 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin +
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 α= 90- +
ut
 𝐼 = 𝐼0ℎ sin + /( 𝑖
 𝐼 = Solar radiation on tilted surface
ol
 𝐼0 =solar radiation measured
Perpendicular to sun
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 𝐼0ℎ = solar radiation measured
on a horizontal surface
vt
Solar Thermal Energy -
60
Applications
in
 Technologies for conversion of solar energy into usable form
includes
n.
Passive system
-- collects energy through the orientation, materials and construction of
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collector
--suited for
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--- design of buildings
--- thermo siphoning solar hot water systems(refers to a method of
passive heat exchange based on natural convection, which circulates
ol
a fluid without the necessity of a mechanical pump)
 Active System
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-- Use pumps to circulate water or any other absorbing fluid through
solar collectors
vt
--can be open loop(water is directly heated by collector) or closed

loop(antifreeze or glycol mixture is heated before transferring it to
water via heat exchanger)
61
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Thermosiphon system
n.
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Multipurpose utilization of solar energy
63
Direct Thermal Applications
in
n.
 Solar energy can be collected to create high temperature steam
as well as low temperature heat
 Low ,Medium, and high temperature collectors
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 Low and medium temperature collectors are flat plates
 Low temperature collectors are used to heat swimming pools
ut
whereas Medium temperature collectors are used to heat water
or air for domestic and commercial purposes
ol
 High temperature systems use mirrors or reflective surfaces to
concentrate sunlight and are used for electric power generation
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vt
64
Low Temperature Solar Thermal
in
Systems
n.
 Space Heating for Homes ,offices and green houses
 Domestic and Industrial hot water
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 Pool heating
 Desalination
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 Solar Cooking
 Crop Drying
ol
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vt
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SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY
n.
COLLECTORS
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Solar Collectors
in
 Solar energy needs to be collected and then concentrated
n.
 Residential panels collects below 60 degree celcius
 In large scale systems ,the temperature is about 70 to 80
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degree celcius
ut
 Solar Collectors are special kind of heat exchangers that
converts solar radiation energy into the internal energy of
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the medium
 Absorbs incoming solar radiation ,converts it to heat and
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then transfers this heat to a fluid flowing through the
collector
vt
Applications of solar collectors
in
 Solar water heaters
n.
 Solar space heating systems
 Industrial process heat systems
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 Solar desalination systems
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 Solar thermal power generation systems
ol
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vt
Types of Solar Collectors
in
n.
 Flat Plate Collectors
 Flat air plate collectors
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 Flat plate liquid collectors
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 Concentrating Collectors
 Stationary concentrating collectors
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 Tracking concentrating collectors
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vt
Flat Plate Collectors
in
 Referred to as the non concentrating type
n.
 Same area for intercepting and absorbing solar radiation
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ol
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in
n.
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Flat Plate Collector
in
 Dark flat Plate Absorber of Solar energy
 ---consists of thin absorber sheet of thermally stable materials such as
n.
Al,Cu,steel,etc..
 Transparent Cover
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 ---allows solar energy to pass through, but
reduces heat losses
 ---reduces covection and radiation losses from
ut
 absorber plate
 Heat Transport Fluid
--air,water or antifreeze


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--To remove heat from absorber, fluid is usually
circulated through tubing to transfer heat from
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absorber to an insulating tank
 Heat Insulation Backing
 Insulated casing of glass or polycarbonate cover
vt
 Flat Plate Air Collector
 Air is the transport medium
in
 Air flows past the absorber by natural
covection or by blowers
n.
 Less efficient than liquid type as
air does not conduct heat as easily as
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liquid
 Flat Plate Liquid Collector
ut
 Liquid is the heat transfer medium
 Liquid gets heated as it passes through the tubes in or adjacent to the plates
ol
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vt
Concentrating collectors
in
 Uses reflectors to concentrate sunlight
n.
 Reduces the size of absorber
 Reduce heat losses
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 Increases efficiency at high temperature
ut
 Used for high temperature applications such as steam
production for electricity
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 Best suited for climates that have abundance of clear sky days
us
vt
Parabolic reflector
in
n.
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ol
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vt
Concentrating Collectors
in
 Stationary concentrating collectors
n.
 Operated in stationary mode
 Uses compound parabolic reflector & flat reflectors for
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directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber or
operate through a wide acceptance angle
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 Wide acceptance angle eliminates the need for sun tracing
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 Tracking Concentrating Collector
 Heliostats are tracking mirrors that reflect solar energy on to
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a fixed point
vt
Collector Configurations
in
 Flat Plate Collector
 ---Liquid Flat plate
n.
 ---Air Flat plate
 Commonly used configurations are
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1. Glazed flat Plate
2. Unglazed flat plate
ut
3. Unglazed perforated flat plate
4. Back Pass flat plate
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5. Batch Flat Plate
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6. Solar Cooker
7. Evacuated Flat Plate
8. Concentrating
vt
in
 Glazed flat plate collector
n.
 Commonly available as liquid or air
based collectors
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 Suited for moderate
temperature
ut
 30-70 degree Celcius
Used for
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 ---Domestic and commercial
building
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 ---water heating
 ---Indoor swimming Pool
vt
in
 Unglazed Flat Plate Collector
n.
 Suited for low temperature applications below 30 degree
celcius
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 Made of black plastic which can withstand ultraviolet rays
ut
 Since no glazing is provided, it can absorb more heat
 But losses are also more

ol
They transfer heat so well to air so that they can even capture
heat from air even at night
us
 Used for heating outdoor pools, fish farming, pre heating
water for car washes, etc..
vt
Unglazed Flat Plate Collector
in
n.
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ol
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vt
Solar Pool Heating
in
n.
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ol
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vt
Unglazed Perforated Flat plate collector
in
n.
 Industrial grade siding or cladding having perforated small
holes at a pitch of 2-5 cm
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 Mainly used for heating of buildings
ut
 Air is passed through the collector before it is drawn into the
building to provide preheated fresh ventilation air
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 Highly efficient and cost effective solution
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n.
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Back Pass Solar Collector
in
 A large solar absorber is used to heat air
n.
 Collectors that are coated with glaze can also be used to heat
air for space heating
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ol
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vt
Batch Flat Plate Collector
 Primarily used for residential water heating
in
 Earlier, black painted water tanks exposed to sun were used
n.
 Modern batch collectors have a glazing to concentrate solar
energy on tank surface
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ol
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vt
Flat Plate Collector with Flat Reflectors
in
 Addition of a reflector increases solar yield on the collector
n.
and the overall performance of the collector
 Enhancement in solar yield is about 44% in winter and 15%
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in summer
ut
ol
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vt
Evacuated tube collector
in
 Conventional flat plate collectors will be less efficient during
n.
cloudy, or cold weather conditions
 Weather influences such as condensation and moisture will
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deteriorate internal materials resulting in system failure
Evacuated tube collector will operate in a different manner
ut

which makes it suitable for adverse weather conditions as
ol
well
 Can achieve high temperatures(75 to 180 degree Celcius)
us
 Suitable for industrial and commercial applications
 Highly efficient with low thermal losses
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Material Aspects of Solar Collectors
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Absorber Coatings
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Glazing
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
 Glazing for practical applications requires attention in the
following areas
n.
 Cost
Longevity
io

 Absorptivity
ut
 Ability to withstand wind conditions
 Glazing Materials
ol
 Glass and Fiberglass
us
 Tedlar bonded to fiberglass
vt
Insulating Shell
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Concentrating Collectors
in
 Concave reflecting surface(shaped mirrors or lenses)
n.
 Focus the sun’s beam radiation to a smaller receiver area
 Provides high temperatures than flat plate collectors
io
 Mirror requires a clean ,smooth reflecting surface
 Selection of concentrating collector depends on the degree of
ut
concentration and hence the temperature to be achieved
Concentrating

ol
 on a point-high to very high temperature
us
 on a line-moderate to high temperature
 Non focusing –low to moderate temperature
vt
Classification of Concentrating
Collectors
in
1. Based on means of concentration
n.
2. Based on reflecting surfaces used: parabolic, spherical ,or
flat
io
3. Continuous or segmented
ut
4. Based on the formation of the image: imaging or non-
imaging ol
5. Imaging concentrator may focus on a line or at a point
6. On the basis of collector concentration degree or operating
us
temperature
7. By the type of tracking
vt
1. Compound Parabolic Solar
Collectors
in
 Non Imaging Concentrating
Collector
n.
 To make an image, all the
parallel light rays should be
io
concentrated at a single point.
 Non-Imaging collectors are the
ut
collectors which can’t make the
image (of sun). ol
 Compound Parabolic Collector
(CPC) is a well-known kind of
non-imaging collector. In CPC,
us
parallel light rays get focused at
two points instead of one
vt
in
 The CPC is comprised of two
parabolic mirror segments with
n.
different focal points as indicated in
figure.
io
 The focal point (B) of 1 st parabola
lies on 2 nd parabola, whereas the
ut
focal point (A) of 2 nd parabola lies
on 1st parabola.
 The two parabolic surfaces are
symmetrical with respect to
ol
reflection through the axis of the
us
CPC.
 The receiver tube place is AB.
vt
2.Parabolic Trough Solar Collector
 U shaped reflectors
in
 Made by bending a sheet of
reflective material
n.
 The troughs concentrate the
sunlight onto the receiver tube
which is placed along the focal line
io
 Receiver Tube is a metal black tube
often covered with glass tube to
ut
reduce heat losses
 They often use single axis or double
axis tracking
ol
 50 to 400 degree Celcius is
us
achievable
 It can be used to produce steam for
electricity generation
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
3.Fresnel Solar Thermal Collectors
in
 Linear Fresnel Reflector(LFR) relies on an array of linear
n.
mirror strips that concentrate light onto a fixed receiver
mounted on a linear tower
io
ut
ol
us
vt
 Uses flat or curved reflectors
in
 Cheaper compared to parabolic reflectors
n.
 Structural Requirements are minimal as they are mounted
close to ground
io
 In order to avoid shading and blocking between adjacent
reflectors ,increased spacing is required
ut
ol
us
vt
4.Cylindrical trough Collectors
in
 Biggest advantage of cylindrical trough collector is that it
n.
does not require tracking of sun
 For high rim angles there will be a focal plane instead of focal
io
line
 Design should be done with low rim angles
ut
ol
us
vt
5.Parabolic Dish Collectors
in
 Similar to a large satellite dish in appearance
n.
 Mirror like reflectors and Absorber at focal point
 Uses dual axis sun tracker
io
 Receiver absorbs solar
energy and converts it to
ut
thermal energy in the
circulating fluid
ol
 This thermal energy can be
converted to electricity
us
 Temperature upto 1500
degree Celcius can be achieved
vt
Advantages of dish collectors
in
 Most efficient of all collector systems as they are always
n.
pointing the sun
 Concentration ratio in the range of 500-2000,and thus are
io
highly efficient at thermal energy absorption and power
conversion systems
ut
 Modular collector and receiver units that can function either
ol
independently or as a part of a large system of dishes
us
vt
6.Heliostats
in
 Mirror based system used to continuously reflect sunlight to a
n.
central receiver
 The collected solar energy is then converted to electrical energy
io
 Uses a two axis solar tracking mirror that directs solar energy to a
large absorber located on a tower
ut
 Power Tower-A field of large mirrors that follow the suns path
across the sky and concentrate sunlight on to a receiver on top of a
ol
high tower
us
 A computer keeps the mirrors aligned so that the reflected rays
are always aimed at the receiver
 Temperature wee above 1000 degree Celcius can be achieved
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Working of Practical Heliostats
in
 A practical solar heliostat is a mirror that makes movements
n.
up or down and left or right to reflect sunlight onto a fixed
point
io
 The relative angular position of the receiver is input to the
computer
ut
 The computer commands the heliostat motor drive system to
ol
position the mirror exactly midway(angularly) between the
sun and thermal receiver
us
 Each heliostat is given a unique command
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Parabolic Dish Stirling Engine System

 The major Components are
in
1. Solar dish Concentrator
n.
2. Power Conversion Unit
3. Tracking System
io
 Power Conversion Unit
• Includes thermal receiver and the heat engine
ut
• Thermal receiver absorbs the concentrated beam of solar energy,
converts it to heat and transfers the heat to heat engine
ol
• Heat engine takes heat from the thermal receiver and uses it to
us
produce electricity
• Heat engines use fluids such as Hydrogen and Helium for their
working
vt
 The Engine Generator components are
1. A receiver to absorb the concentrated sunlight to heat the
working fluid of the engine
in
2. The engine itself which converts the thermal energy into
mechanical work
n.
3. An alternator attached to generate electricity
4. A waste heat Exhaust System
io
5. A control system to match the engine operation with the
available solar energy
ut
 Stirling Engine is the most common type used
 The parabolic dish heat engine system lacks thermal storage
capabilities
ol
 It can be hybridised to run on fossil fuels during periods without
us
sunshine
 Tracking System
 Computers are used to track the sun for maximum output
vt
Parabolic Dish Stirling Engine System
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Solar Collector Systems into Building
Services
in
 Low operating cost, but high installation cost
n.
 The most economical way is to have
io
ut
 The solar system meets the energy demand while operating
at its full capacity
ol
 Auxillary or back up system should be provide to carry peak
and unusual load
us
vt
Solar Air Heating Systems
in
 The major components are
1. Air handling Unit: a fan and two motor driven dampers
n.
2. Heat storage unit(rock bed)
3. Temperature Control System
io
4. Solar collectors
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
 Depending on position of dampers there are 3 modes of operation
 Damper A & B open:
in
 Normal day time solar heating mode.
 The storage unit is bypassed.
n.
 If the temperature is below a limit ass measured by sensor place in
the top of collector, auxillary furnace is turned on automatically
io
 Damper A open, B closed:
 This mode is used when solar energy is collected ,but no heating
ut
is required
 It gets collected in the rock bed(heat storage)
ol
 Damper A closed ,B open:
 Used for cloudy periods or at night
us
 The return air from the building is passed through rock bed,
where it picks up solar heat
vt
 If temperature is insufficient, auxillary furnace is activated
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Solar Water Heating Systems
in
 Two main parts
n.
1. Solar Collector
2. Storage tank
io
 Types
1.Active Systems
ut
 Rely on pumps to move the fluid between the collector &
storage tank
ol
2.Passive System
us
 Rely on Gravity and tendency for water to naturally circulate
as it is heated
vt
Active solar water heating systems
in
 It can be for
n.
 Water heating
 Space Heating
io
 Parts of Water Heating Systems
ut
1. Collectors
2. Circulation System
ol
3. Storage tank
us
4. Backup Heating System
5. Control System
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Active solar air heating
in
 Uses the same components as the active solar water heating
n.
system along with a heating distribution system
 The heated water is used as the heat source for air heating
io
 The distribution system can be either of the three types
ut
1. Air distribution System
2. Hydronic system with radiators
ol
3. Hydronic system with in slab heat
us
vt
 Air distribution system

 With a thermostat control
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
 Hydronic system with radiators
n.
 The heated water is circulated in series with a boiler into
radiators located in living spaces
io
 Using solar heated water for boiler will reduce boiler’s
energy consumption
 Temperature upto 140 degree Celcius
ut

ol
Hydronic system with in slab heating
 The heated water is pumped through distribution piping
us
within the floor of the home
 Temperatures upto 80 degree Celcius
vt
Passive Solar Water Heating System
in
n.
 Types :
1. Batch System
io
2. Thermosiphon system
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Applications of Solar water Heaters
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Solar Drying
in
 Used for domestic as well as Industrial applications
n.
 Advantages
 Hygienic and eco-friendly method
io
 Economical compared to dryers which uses conventional
ut
fuels or electricity
 Limitations
 Comparatively Slow Process
ol
us
 Intermittent availability of sun
 Upto 40 -50 degree Celcius
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Solar Cookers
in
 Basic principles are
n.
1. Concentrating Sunlight
2. Converting light to heat
io
3. Trapping the heat
ut
4. Green House effect
 Types
ol
1. Box Type
us
2. Reflector Cookers
3. Solar steam and Convection Cooker
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Solar Space Cooling
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Solar Space Cooling
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
 Components
n.
1. Absorber
2. Generator
io
3. Solar Collector
ut
4. Condenser
5. Expansion valve
ol
6. Evaporator
us
vt
 Absorber
in
 Used to store mixture of ammonia and water in a fixed proportion
 Function is to produce required aqua ammonia solution for the
n.
generator using pumps
io
 Low pressure Ammonia vapour is absorbed by solution of
ammonia and water in the absorber
ut
 Generator
 Collects thermal energy from sun and heats the strong aqua
ol
ammonia solution to boiling point and converts it to pure
ammonia vapours of high pressure
us
 It also separates dissolved ammonia from water using analysers.
vt
 Solar Collectors
in
 Provides heat to the generator
n.
 Condenser
 Used to condense the ammonia vapour to high pressure
io
liquid form
 Expansion valve
ut
 Used to convert high pressure ammonia liquid to low
pressure and inputs it to the evaporator
ol
 Evaporator
us
 Absorbs heat from the space to be cooled and converts the
low pressure liquid ammonia to low pressure vapour
vt
Solar Pond
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
 A pool of water that collects and also stores solar energy
n.
 It has three different layers of water which differs by their
density
io
 Density difference is achieved by adding salt solutions of
different concentration

ut
Relatively cold top layer with low salt content

ol
Intermediate layer with salt gradient that maintains the
density gradient , acts as the thermal insulator
us
 Hot bottom layer (up to 100 degree Celcius ) with high salt
content
vt
in
 Difference in densities prevent convection currents which
n.
would have transferred heat to the surface of pond and then
to air
io
 Heat is trapped in the highly dense , salty bottom layer
which can be used
ut
 But low solar to electricity conversion efficiency -15%
ol
us
vt
in
 Advantages of solar pond
n.
 Low cost per unit area of collection
 Inherent capacity for storage purposes
io
 Great source for production of electricity
ut
 Reduced Pollution
 Will help in saving conventional energy sources
ol
 Since it is coupled with desalting units ,it can be used for
us
purification of water
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Solar Cells
in

n.
 Solar cell
io
 An energy conversion device that converts sunlight to electricity
by using photovoltaic effect
 Photovoltaic effect
ut
 Generation of electromotive force as a result of absorption of
ionizing radiation

ol
us
vt
Solar Photovoltaic
in
 Sunlight contains energy packets called photons

n.
 The amount of energy depends on the wavelength of solar radiation
io
 When this sunlight falls on a semiconductor material they impart enough
ut
energy to the electrons in the valence band to jump to the conduction band
ol
 These highly excited electrons when accelerated by the built in potential
us
creating an electromotive force
vt
Type of material : Based on
in
electrical conductivity

n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Energy of a photon
in

n.
 Solar radiations reach the earth in the form of electromagnetic waves
io
 They contain packets of energy called photons
ut
 The amount of energy depends on the wavelength of the radiations
ol
us
vt
Energy of photon
in

n.
 Solar radiations available to us has energy in the range of 1.8eV to 3.1eV
io
 As a result semiconductors are used to make the cells whose band gap energy is in this
ut
range
 Insulators require energy >4.4eVol

us
vt
in

n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in

n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in

n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in

n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Elements of Silicon Solar
in
Cells

n.
 Substrate:
io
 Unpolished p type wafer
referred to as the p region base
ut
material
 Thickness:180-300 վm
ol
 Typical resistivity values are
1-2 Ωcm
us
 Doping: 5x 1 /cu.cm –
1 x 1 /cu.cm
vt
in

n.
 Emitter:
io
 Involves the doping of silicon with
penta valent impurities like phosphorous
 Doping is done by the process of
ut
diffusion
 The silicon wafer is placed in ol
a phosphorous rich environment
at high temperatures(850 degree Celcius)
 The phosphorous diffuses in due
us
to the concentration gradient
 Thickness:0.2-1վm
 Doping: 1 x 19 /cu.cm
vt
in

n.
 Electrical Contacts
io
 Essential to connect to the external load
 Back Contact

ut
Metallic Conductor completely
covered in black
 Located on the sideway from
the incoming sunlight
ol
 Consists of aluminium
us
or Molybdenum metal
 Front Contact
 Located on the side facing the sunlight
vt
 Spreads the surface
in

n.
 Anti Reflective Coating
io
 To reduce reflection and maximize efficiency
 Helps to reduce reflection of desirable wavelengths
ut
from the cell allowing more light to reach the
semiconductor film layer
ol
 Silicon dioxide and Titanium dioxide is commonly
us
applied
 3-4% increase in efficiency is observed due to the use
of anti reflective coating
vt
Components of solar cell
in
system

n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Solar Cell Materials
in

n.
 Silicon
io
 Mono crystalline or single crystal Silicon
 Multi crystalline Silicon
ut
 Poly crystalline Silicon ol
 Amorphous Silicon
 Thin Film
us
 A few micro meters thickness
vt
Practical Solar Cells
in

n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in

n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
HYDROGEN
io
ENERGY
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Hydrogen Energy
n.
O Simplest element
io
O Available in combination with other
elements, eg: Water, hydro carbons, etc..
ut
O Hydrogen energy can be thought of usable
form, next to electrical energy in future
ol
us
vt
in
Benefits of Hydrogen Energy
n.
O Use of Hydrogen greatly reduces pollution
io
O Hydrogen can be produced locally from
numerous sources
ut
O A sustainable production system if hydrogen
is produced from water
ol
us
vt
Hydrogen Production
in
technologies
n.
O The choice of production method depends
io
on the required purity of hydrogen
O The methods are
ut
O 1.Thermochemical production
O 2.Electrolytic production
ol
O 3.Photolytic Production
us
vt
1.Thermochemical Production
in
Technologies
n.
O Hydrogen bound in water and organic matter
io
constitutes 70% of it on the earths surface
O Different Thermochemical production
ut
methods are
O A. Steam Reforming
O
ol
B. Partial Oxidation or Ceramic Membrane
Reactor
us
O C. Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis
vt
O Steam Reforming
in
O This process uses thermal energy to
separate hydrogen from methane and
n.
methanol
O Involves the reaction of these fuels with
io
steam on catalytic surfaces
O Steam reforming of natural gas is normally
ut
used
O Natural gas is cleared from sulphur
components
ol
O It is mixed with steam and send over a
us
Nickel Aluminia Catalyst inside a heated
tubular reactor
vt
in
O The two steps involved in Steam reforming are
O Step 1:Decomposition of fuel into CO and H2
n.
io
O Step 2:Shift reaction changes CO and water to
CO2 and H2
ut
ol
us
vt
Partial Oxidation or Ceramic
in
Membrane Reactor
n.
O Natural gas (or other hydrocarbons) and oxygen
are injected into a high pressure reactor
io
O The oxygen to carbon ratio is optimised to
minimise soot
ut
O The large amount of heat generated is removed
ol
O The next step is shift reaction to combine CO
and water to form CO2 and H2
us
O Since the reactions are exothermic, there is no
need to supply external heat
vt
Partial Oxidation or Ceramic
in
Membrane Reactor
n.
O The process needs oxygen which is usually
io
provided by a distillation plant
O Partial Oxidation helped by a oxidation
ut
catalyst is called as catalytic partial
oxidation ol
O Less energy efficient than steam reforming
us
vt
Biomass Gasification and
in
Pyrolysis
n.
O Biomass pyrolysis produces a liquid product
io
(bio-oil)
O Bio oil consists of a wide spectrum of highly
ut
reactive oxygenated components that can
be separated into valuable chemicals and
ol
fuels including hydrogen
us
vt
Electrolytic Production
in
Technologies
n.
O Separates the hydrogen and oxygen from
water by passing electrical current in an
io
electrochemical cell
O Addition of electrolyte improves efficiency of
ut
process by enhancing conductivity
O The charge breaks the chemical bond
ol
between the hydrogen and oxygen and
creates ions
us
O Hydrogen ions gets collected at cathode and
oxygen ions at anode
vt
O Two types of cells
in
O 1.Alkaline Electrolyser
n.
O A solution of sodium or potassium chloride is
used
io
O 2.Proton Exchange Membrane(PEM)
ut
ol
O Electrolyte is a proton conducting membrane
us
O Mobile ions are protons
vt
Methods of Electrolytic
in
Production
n.
O Water Electrolysis
io
O Steam Electrolysis
O Photo Electrolysis
ut
O Thermochemical water splitting
O By product of KCl and NaCl Electrolysis
ol
O Reversible Fuel Cells
us
vt
in
1.Water Electrolysis
O Splits water into hydrogen and oxygen by
n.
current passage
2.Steam Electrolysis
io
O Variation of conventional process
O Energy needed to split the water is provided by
ut
heat instead of electricity
O More efficient
ol
O At 2500 degree Celcius,water decomposes
into hydrogen and oxygen
us
O Chance of recombination is high at high
temperatures
vt
in
O 3.Thermochemical water splitting
O Uses bromine or iodine assisted by heat
n.
O Causes water molecules to split
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
O 4. By product of KCl and NaCl Electrolysis
n.
io
O 5.Photo Electrolysis
ut
O Uses solar power for providing necessary
current for electrolysis
O 6.Reversible Fuel Cell
ol
O Operating PEM fuel Cell in reverse mode will
us
yield hydrogen
vt
in
Fuel Cell
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Photolytic Production Process
n.
O There are two methods
O 1.Photo electrochemical cell(PEC)
io
O Using soluble metal
O As the metal dissolves in water ,it will absorb solar energy
and produces an electric charge which drives water
ut
splitting to produce hydrogen
O Using semiconductor electrode(anode)
O A semiconductor metal is used as anode
O
ol
It absorbs photons of sufficient energy
O Electrons are transferred from valence band to conduction
us
band producing current flow to split water
O Light induced corrosion limits useful life of the
semiconductor
vt
2. Biological and Photo biological processes
in
O Uses algae and bacteria to produce
n.
hydrogen
O Under specific conditions the pigments in
io
certain types of algae absorb solar energy
O The enzyme in the cell acts as catalyst to
ut
split the water molecules
O Bacteria requires substrate to grow on
ol
O These organisms can clean up pollution as
well
us
vt
in
Hydrogen Energy Storage
n.
O Hydrogen can be stored in
io
O 1.Compressed Gas and liquid hydrogen Storage
tanks
ut
O Liquefied hydrogen is denser than gaseous
hydrogen ol
O Tanks are required to be insulated to prevent
hydrogen loss
O 2.Material based storage
us
O Hydrogen can be stored on the surface of
solids(adsorption) or within them(absorption)
vt
O Methods of hydrogen energy Storage
in
O 1.Compression
O Hydrogen can be compressed into containers or reservoirs
n.
O Higher the pressure higher the energy density
O Simple technology, but low energy density and efficiency(65-70%)
O Most common method for transport industry(at 700 bar)
O The energy required for compression is a major drawback
io
O 2.Liquefied Hydrogen
O Can be liquefied by pressurising and cooling
O Here energy density is improved ,it is still less than conventional petrol
ut
O It must be kept below 20.27K
O 3.Metal Hydrides
O Certain metal hydrides and several types of carbon can absorb hydrogen
O
O
ol
By absorbing, hydrogen can be easily transported and stored
Once required, the hydrogen is removed from parent metal
O The extra material required to store is the major issue here
us
O Both metal hydride an carbon based absorption need to use thermal energy
which could be obtained from the waste heat of other processes, such as
electrolyzer or fuel cell , to improve efficiency
vt
in
Applications
n.
O At home sector
io
O Fuel cells are Ideal for residential zones
O Silent operation
ut
O No moving parts
O Provide reliable power ol
O At work sector
O Fuel cells can be used to power up office
buildings
us
O No need of backup power generators as fuel cell
power does not rely on transmission lines
vt
in
n.
O Transport and industrial sector
io
O Fuel cells can power cars ,buses, airplanes,
cell phones, laptops, and more.
ut
O Can replace conventional power generators
such as combustion engines or even large
ol
batteries in cars, submarines,etc..
us
vt
Advantages of Hydrogen
in
Energy
n.
O Uncoupling of primary energy source and utilization
O It is easier to store than to store electricity
io
O It can be obtained fro any primary energy source ,
including renewable energy source
O Decentralized production is possible. Hydrogen is
ut
viewed as capable of providing services where
electricity is not available, in particular as a fuel for
vehicles and energy storage in remote areas
O
ol
Very efficient when used in fuel cells
O Very good experience of hydrogen as a chemical
us
reactant
O Very good safety records
vt
Disadvantages of Hydrogen
in
Energy
n.
O Poor overall energy efficiency
io
O Very low density and poor specific volume
energy density
Need for high pressures and very low
ut
O
temperatures when stored in liquid state
O Specific safety problems and poor public
acceptance
ol
O No existing infrastructures for transport ,
us
distribution and storage
O Rather high cost(till today)
vt
Problems associated with
in
Hydrogen Energy
n.
O Hydrogen Storage
O Should be stored under high pressure and low temperature
io
O A container with such specifications are larger than a storage tank
O High Reactivity of Hydrogen
O Hydrogen is extremely reactive .It is combustible and flammable.
ut
O Cost and methods of hydrogen fuel production
O Current methods of production of hydrogen involves usage of fossil
fuels
O New clean technology or hydrogen production methods will need to be
O Consumer Demand
ol
developed for hydrogen vehicles to make sense
O The major transport companies will not start the manufacture of

us
hydrogen vehicles until there is consumer demand
O Nobody will opt for Hydrogen vehicles which are highly expensive
O Cost of changing Infrastructure
To accommodate hydrogen equipment and appliances
vt
in
n.
io
Geothermal Energy
ut
ol
us
vt
Geothermal Energy
in
n.
 Utilize temperature of the
earth’s core.
io
• 70% comes from the decay of
radioactive nuclei like uraniu
ut
m with long half lives that are
embedded within the Earth ol
• Some energy is from residual
heat left over from Earths for
mation.
us
• The rest of the energy comes
from meteorite impacts.
vt
in
Geothermal Systems
n.
 Under the earths crust there is a layer of hot and molten rock
called magma
io
 Heat is continuously produced here
 The amount if heat within 10 km of the earths surface contain
ut
s 50,000 times more energy than all oil and natural gas reserv
oirs in the world.
ol
us
vt
in
Geothermal Systems
n.
 The temperature gradient between magma and earths surface causes mag
ma’s heat to flow slowly towards the surface where it is lost to atmospher
io
e
 The cooled magma forms the crust
ut
 If magma breaks through weak spots in the crust ,the result is a volcano
 In some places, the crust permits surface water to come into contact with
the hot magma

ol
The molten magma itself contains water which it releases as it solidifies
 The heated water or steam rises to the surface forming hot springs and
us
geysers
vt
in
Geothermal Reservoirs
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Locations
in
n.
 Ring of Fire
 Over 20 countries:
io
Iceland, U.S., Italy,
ut
France, China, Japan,
ect. ol
 The United States is
us
the country with the
greatest geothermal
energy production
vt
in
Classifications
n.
 Dry Steam geothermal Systems(Vapour Dominated)
 :In this case a hole dug into the ground can cause steam to come to t
he
io
surface.
 Hot Water Geothermal Systems(Liquid Dominated)
ut
 As the name implies these are reservoirs of hot underground water.
 Water under pressure will be found in liquid state ,but when it comes t
ol
o the low pressure surface, will vapourise into steam
 These systems were found in countries like New Zealand and in Mexico
us
vt
in
Geothermal Energy Utilization
n.
 Direct Use of Low grade Geothermal Energy
 Aquaculture and horticulture
io
 Fish farming, green houses, etc..
ut
 Industry and Agriculture
 Drying fruits, vegetables, wood, drying wool, extraction of g
ol
old and silver from ore, etc..
 Food Processing
us
 Sterilizing of equipment
 Residential use
vt
 Space heating, Air conditioning
Electricity Generation
in
n.
 Dry Steam Power Plant: Uses the
superheated, pressurized steam (180°-
io
350°C)
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
 Steam produced directly from the reservoir runs the turbines t
hat power the generator
io
 Dry steam systems are simple
 Requires
ut
 steam condensate injection piping
ol
 minimal steam cleaning devices
 Rock catcher to remove large solids
us
 Centrifugal separator to remove condensate and small solid
particulates
vt
 Final scrubber
in
n.
 Flash Steam Power Plant: use hot water
above 182°C (360°F) from geothermal
io
reservoirs.
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
 The fluid is sprayed into a flash tank, which is held at a much lower pressure than
the fluid, causing it to vaporise (or flash) rapidly to steam.
The steam is then passed through a turbine coupled to a generator as for dry steam
io

plants.
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
 Binary Cycle Power Plant:
 Insufficiently hot resource to efficiently
io
produce steam
ut
 Too many chemical impurities to allow
flashing. ol
us
vt
in
n.
 In the binary cycle process, the geothermal fluid is passed through a heat
exchanger.
io
 The secondary fluid, which has a lower boiling point than water (eg
isobutane or pentane), is vaporised, and expanded through a turbine to
generate electricity.
ut
 The working fluid is condensed and recycled for another cycle.
 All of the geothermal fluid is reinjected into the ground in a closed-cycle
system.
ol
Binary cycle power plants can achieve higher efficiencies than flash steam
us
plants, and they allow the utilisation of lower temperature resources.
 In addition, corrosion problems are avoided.
 However, binary cycle plants are more expensive, and large pumps are
vt
required which consume a significant percentage of the power output of

the plants.
Heat Pumps
in
n.
 Utilizes constant
temperature of upper
io
10 feet of the Earth’s
ut
surface.
Similar to ordinary

ol
heat pumps, but they
us
rely on more stable
source than air.
vt
Multi purpose Total Energy Utilization of geothermal
in
Resources
n.
 Steam separated in a conventional manner and used to supply
cheap water
io
 CO2 extracted from the gases are used for refrigeration and fo
od processing
ut
 Hydrogen Sulphide refined to obtain sulphur
Hot waters could supply a desalination plant

ol
 The hot water would also provide air conditioning and
us
refrigeration
vt
in
Global Geothermal Energy Scenario
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Prospects of Geothermal Energy in India
n.
 More than 300 hotsprings scattered all over the country
 Mostly in Bihar, Bombay, Ratnagiri, Himachal Pradesh and
io
Ladakh
ut
 Indian geothermal field is mainly a liquid dominated field(hot
water)
Streams of water under depths 11 – 32m

ol
 Studies are essential to determine whether such low temperat
us
ure and low pressure water could be used for electricity gener
ation
vt
in
n.
 Major ones are
io
 Puga(Ladakh,50-110 degree celcius,25MW),
 Manikaran(HP,69-93 degree Celcius),
 Rajgir(35-42.5 degree Celcius)
ut
ol
 Surajkund(87 degree Celcius)
us
 Ratnagiri..
vt
in
Problems Associated with Geothermal Energy
n.
 Estimation of power life of the reservoir
 Separation of steam from steam water mixture and its
io
transport through pipelines to power houses
ut
 The origin of geothermal systems that yield dry steam and wh
y they differ from hot water systems are unknown
ol
 Selection of materials suitable for geothermal systems
us
vt
in
Environmental Effects
n.
 Gaseous and Particulate Emission
 Emits CO2,H2S,CH4,NH3,Mercuric components, lead 210 and radon 222,a
io
nd dissolved arsenic ,boron, and antimony
 Contributes to global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells if released
ut
 Land Pollution
 Degradation of usable soil ol
 Disposition of pollutant on surface may harm plant, soil sterility and may
enter into the food chain
us
 Subsidence Effect
 Lowering of ground level when fluids are removed
vt
in
n.
 Seismic Hazards
 Geothermal resources are mostly associated with the regions of high geolo
io
gic activity, which is manifested commonly as earthquakes
 Researches are directed towards the effects of geothermal fields on the
ut
seismic hazards
 Water Pollution ol
 Contamination of surface water and ground water by geothermal fluid is a
big risk
us
 Specific research is required to identify those chemical constituents,
which may have adverse effect
vt
in
n.
 Biological Effects
 Numerous unknown effects exists regarding the impact of ge
io
othermal operation on the bionature
 It is considered that the delicate balance of environment may
ut
be affected due to the chemical changes in soil and water caus
ed by geothermal fields
ol
 Social Effects
us
 Problems of noise and land use
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
 Heat energy generation
 Bioenergy generation
io
 Recycling
ut
 Fuel and energy generation from agricultural
and municipal waste
ol
us
vt
in
n.
 Residential wastes
 Municipal services wastes
io
 Industrial and commercial wastes
ut
 Building and construction demolition
 Agriculture
ol
us
vt
in
n.
1. Incineration
2. Pyrolysis
io
3. Anaerobic digestion
ut
4. Recycling
5. Bioenergy Conversion
ol
us
vt
in
 A furnace where waste is burnt to produce energy
n.
 Incinerator combustion temperature is about 1000 degree
Celsius
io
 Burning of waste in incinerator will only reduce its
ut
volume, but does not dispose the toxic substances in the
waste and creates the largest source of dioxins
ol
 Modern incinerators are equipped with pollution control
systems
us
 To remove dangerous chemicals flue gases are sent
through scrubbers
vt
in
n.
1. Auditing of waste
2. Proper incinerator selection
io
3. Proper operation of incinerator
ut
4. Removal of dangerous chemicals and toxic
gases
ol
5. Safe handling and disposal of incinerator
us
residues
vt
in
n.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Minimizes high transport costs of • Generates hazardous gases such as
waste to landfills furans and dioxins, which causes
io
• Large reduction in volume of waste cancer, affects hormones an damages
• Cost effective solution immune system
ut
• Can be used for electricity generation • Generates CO2 and odour
• Used for Hazardous and clinical waste • Requires high energy
treatments • Expensive to build
• Can be operated under any weather
ol
conditions
• Long life span
us
• Cheaper in operation
vt
in
n.
 Process:
 Organic waste is burnt at relatively low temperature
 Chemical mining of waste
io
 Chemical decomposition of waste materials by heat in the absence
of oxygen under pressure and operating temperature above 430
degree Celsius
ut
 Transforms organic materials into gases, small quantities of liquid
and a solid residue containing carbon and ash
ol
 By Products :
 Combustible gases, including CO, Hydrogen and methane and other
hydrocarbons
us
 If the off gases are cooled ,liquids condense producing an oil or tar
residue and contaminated water
 Pyrolysis liquids can be used directly or refined for high quality
fuels, chemicals, adhesives and other products
vt
 Direct pyrolysis liquids can be toxic or corrosive
in
n.
Advantages Disadvantage
• Significant reduction in volume of • Generates possible toxic residues such
waste as inert mineral ash, inorganic
io
• By Products are very useful compounds and unreformed carbon
• Storable and transportable fuel or • Possible toxic air emissions such as
ut
feedstock is obtained acid gases, dioxins , furans, nitrogen
• Environment friendly than incineration oxides,SO2,and particulates
• Environmental Problem is reduced • Requires a certain amount of materials
• More efficient than incineration
ol to work efficiently
• Sustainable process
• Modular plants, Hence easy to operate
us
• Easy to control the contaminated air
emissions
• Replaces coal and natural gas as viable
vt
fuel sources
in
n.
Pyrolysis Incineration
• Thermal degradation in the absence of • Requires oxygen in the form of air
oxygen • Carried out at higher temperatures
io
• Carried out at lower temperatures, and combustion takes place
and there is no combustion • Produces energy as heat that can be
ut
• Produces liquid fuel of useful high used to create steam for power
quality although the syngas is rich in generation
CO and hydrogen as well • It is done to reduce the volume of
• Controlled chemical Process in order
ol waste
to produce valuable secondary raw • Produces toxic gases
material
us
• Excellent Performance in controlling
the emission of harmful substances
vt
in
n.
 Series of processes in which microorganisms break
down biodegradable material in the absence of
io
oxygen
 Anaerobic digester is an airtight chamber in which
ut
organic waste is decomposed and transformed into
ol
biogas
 One of the end products is biogas ,which is
us
combusted to produce electricity and heat,or can be
processed into renewable natural gas and
vt
transportation fuels
in
n.
 Conversion of biomass or biogas to usable form
 Electricity
io
 Liquid Fuels(ethanol or methanol)
 The production of usable energy through algal and similar
ut
crops include the following steps
1. Photosynthesis production of organic matters
ol
2. Collection and processing of plant materials
3. Fermentation leading to liquid and gaseous fuels and storage
us
vt
in
n.
 The following issues must be investigated before the
economic viability of a RDF(Refuse Derived
io
Fuel)scheme
 Collection of waste
ut
 The volume and nature of waste to be processed
 The type of efficient RDF process required and
market for fuel products
ol
 Potential users and Revenue obtainable
us
 Utilization of solar thermal energy for increasing the
temperature of digesters
vt
 Economy for the alternate method of refusal of waste

in
n.
 Involves the collection of used and discarded
materials in order to process them and make
io
them into new products
ut
 Results in waste reduction
 It is a tool for economic development as well
ol
as for environment
us
 Reuse , recycling and waste reduction offer
direct development opportunities for
vt
communities
in
n.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Reduced damage to environment • High cost of recycling
• Reduced energy consumption • Durability and small life span of
io
• Reduction in pollution recycled items
• Mitigate global warming • Unsafe and unhygienic process
ut
• Promotes sustainable utilization of
resources
ol
us
vt
in
n.
 Recycling rate for different types of plastics differ greatly
 Plastics are very good asset to recycling program
io
 Two categories
 Thermosets: Solidifies or sets irreversibly when heated.
ut
 durable and strong.
 Uses : automobiles, construction,adhesives,inks
 Thermoplastics:
ol
 Softens when exposed to heat and returns to original condition
us
at room temperature
 Can be easily shaped
 Uses: milk jugs, floor coverings, credit cards, etc
vt
in
n.
 Important agenda in the three R’s
 Process:
io
1. Collection of plastic wastes
2. Collected waste goes to material recovery facility where
they are sorted by type and baled
ut
3. Sent to reclaiming facility, where any trash or dirt is sorted
out , plastics are washed and ground into small flakes
4.
ol
A flotation tank may be used to separate contaminants based
on their densities
us
5. Flakes are then dried , melted ,filtered and formed into
pellets
6. Pellets are then shipped into manufacturing plants,where
vt
they are made into new products

in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
 Energy and natural resource conservation
 Environmental protection
io
 Reducing the dumping spaces
ut
 Energy conservation ol
us
vt
in
n.
 Method to convert waste plastics into usable form
 A catalytic pyrolysis process to convert waste plastic to
io
liquid hydrocarbons, coke and gas, which then can be
used as boiler fuel for power generation
ut
 Complex organic materials are reduced into light crude
oil
ol
 Under pressure and heat , long chain polymers of
us
hydrocarbons ,oxygen and carbon decompose into short
chain petroleum hydrocarbons
vt
in
n.
 Essential steps in the pyrolysis of plastics
1. Evenly heating the plastic to a narrow
io
temperature range without excessive
temperature variations
ut
2. Purging oxygen from pyrolysis chamber
ol
3. Managing the carbon rich char by product
before it acts as a thermal insulator
us
4. Careful condensation and fractionation of
the pyrolysis vapours to produce distillate of
vt
good quality and consistency

in
n.
 Surat will be the first in the state of Gujaratto
convert plastic waste into crude oil and pellets
io
 Process:
1. Forced air, heated by a gas burner is used to
ut
indirectly heat the feedstock inside the process
vessel ol
2. The process vessel is isolated from oxygen and
exposed to vacuum
us
3. The energy from the burner is used for
depolymerisation
4. The oil obtained is refined for use
vt
in
n.
 Double tank combustor design
 Plastic waste is first processed in an upper
io
tank through pyrolysis which converts solid
ut
plastic into gas
 The gas flows to a lower tank where it is
ol
burned with oxidants to generate heat and
us
steam
 The heat sustains the combustor and the
vt
steam can be used to generate electricity

in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
BIOMASS ENERGY
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Biomass
in
 Biomass is organic matter produced by plants – terrestrial
n.
and aquatic – and their derivatives.
 The term biomass refers to those organic matters that are
io
stored in plant and trees in the form of carbohydrate
(sugar).It is then transferred through food chains in humans
ut
,animals, and other living creatures and their waste.
ol
 It includes all plant life: trees, agricultural plants, bush, algae,
and their residues after processing
us
 It may be obtained from forest woods, agricultural lands, arid
lands, and even waste lands
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Biomass Energy
in
 The energy stored in biomass is called bioenergy.
n.
 Bioenergy is very versatile: It can be used to provide heat, make
fuels, and generate electricity.
io
 Many bioenergy sources are replenished through the cultivation of
fast growing grasses, trees, and agricultural residues like vegetable
ut
oils, wheat straw, or corn.
 Biomass energy, or bio energy is the conversion of biomass
ol
(organic material originating from plants, trees, and crops and
essentially the collection and storage of the sun’s energy through
us
photosynthesis) into useful forms of energy such as heat,
electricity, and liquid fuels
vt
Photosynthesis Process
 Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon
in
dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the
energy from sunlight
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
PHOTOSYNTHESIS PROCESS
in
 Biomass is produced in the photosynthesis process which
n.
converts the solar energy into biomass energy.
 Photosynthesis process only occurs in green plants.it is the
io
process of combining the carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere with water plus light energy to carbohydrates
ut
produce(sugars , starches, celluloses etc.)and oxygen.
ol
 6CO2 + 6H2O +solar light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
us
vt
Biomass Production and Usage
in
1. Direct Methods
n.
 Biomass is available in the following forms
1. Forest wood and wastes
2. Agricultural crops and residues
io
3. Residential food wastes
4. Industrial waste
ut
5. Human and animal waste
6. Energy crops ol
 These raw biomass has a low energy density
 Their direct uses are burning them for cooking
 The problems with direct usage are energy inefficiency and excessive pollution
us
 This necessitates some kind of pre processing and conversion technology for
enhancing the usefulness of biomass
vt
in
2.Indirect Methods
n.
 Biomass can be used indirectly by converting it to electricity
or heat or into a convenient fuel in solid ,liquid or gaseous
io
form
ut
 The Conversion processes are
 Thermo electrical Conversion ol
 Biomass conversion to fuel
us
vt
Thermo electrical conversion
in
 Direct combustion of biomass material in the boiler produces steam
n.
 That steam is used to drive a turbine coupled with a generator to
produce electricity or to provide heat for residential and industrial
system
io
 But the boiler equipment are expensive and energy recovery is low
 Emissions from burning biomass are less compared to that of fossil fuels
ut
 The efficiency of this process is influenced by
 Biomass moisture content
ol
 Combustion air distribution and amount
us
 Operating temperature and pressure
 Flue gas temperature
vt
Biomass conversion to fuels
in
 Two main types
n.
 Thermochemical conversion includes processes such as
destructive distillation, pyrolysis and gasification
io
 Biological conversion includes processes such as fermentation
ut
and anaerobic digestion
 Gasification: produces synthesis gas with usable energy
ol
content by heating biomass with less oxygen than needed for
combustion
us
 Pyrolysis:Yields bio oil by rapidly heating in absence of
oxygen
vt
Biomass Gasification
in
 Process of partial combustion
n.
 Solid biomass is converted to combustible gas mixture
 Incomplete combustion process
io
 Biomass+airCO+CO2+CH4+H2+N2+water vapour
ut
 The gas produced is a mixture of CO, CO2,CH4,H2,N2
 Producer gas can be used
ol
 To run IC engines
us
 As a substitute for furnace oil
 To produce methanol economically
vt
in
 Gasification processes involved with biomass are:
n.
1. Drying of fuels: Process of drying biomass before it is fed into
gasifier
io
2. Pyrolysis: Breaking down of biomass into charcoal by applying
heat in the absence of oxygen
ut
3. Combustion: All the heat required for gasification process are
available from combustion ol
4. Cracking: Breaking down of large complex molecules when
heated
us
5. Reduction: Oxygen atoms are removed in this process from
combustion products and returning them to combustible form
again
vt
Gasification Processes
in
 Low temperature gasification
n.
 Process temperature:750 to 1100 degree celcius
 The gas produced has high level of hydrocarbons
io
 It can be directly used for steam production and electicity
generation or it can be cleaned and used for IC engines
ut
 The gas mixture composition depends on type of gasifiers
 High temperature gasification

ol
Carried out at high temperature 1200-1600 degree celcius
 The product gas is known as syngas
us
 It has high proportion of CO and Hydrogen which can be
converted to bio fuel compatible for diesel engines
vt
Conversion Efficiency of gasifiers
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Theory of gasification
in
 Gasification is an incomplete or partial combustion process
n.
where the biomass is decomposed by heat and converted to
charcoal ,oils, tars , dusts and a combustible producer gas
io
 It takes place at a temperature of about 1000 degree Celcius
ut
ol
us
vt
Gasification
in
 In a typical combustion process , generally the oxygen is
n.
surplus, while in a gasification process, the fuel is surplus.
 The combustion products mainly CO , water vapour,
io
hydrogen ,nitrogen, carbon dioxide passes through a glowing
layer of charcoal
ut
 During this stage both Carbon dioxide and water vapour
oxidise the char to form CO, Hydrogen and Methane
ol
 The key to gasifier design is to create conditions such that
 1.Biomass is reduced to charcoal
us
 2.Charcoal is converted at a suitable temperature to produce
CO, Hydrogen and Methane
vt
Composition of Biomass based

producer gas
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Chemistry of Reaction Processes in

Gasification
in
 Four distinct processes are taking place in a gasifier
n.
 1.Drying Zone of fuel:
 In this zone moisture content of biomass is removed to obtain the dry
biomass.
io
 Some organic acids also comes out during the drying process. These
acids give rise to corrosion of gasifiers
ut
 2.Pyrolysis zone:
 In this zone tar and other volatiles are driven off.
ol
 (a) Upto 200 degree Celcius, only water is driven off
 (b)Between 200 -280 degree Celcius,CO2 ,acetic acid and water are
driven off
us
 (c) Between 280 and 500, large quantity of tar and gases containing
carbon dioxide is produced. Besides, methyl alcohol is also formed
 (d)Between 500-700,the gas production is small and contains hydrogen
vt
in
 Combustion (Oxidation) zone:
C+O2CO2+Heat
n.

 Reduction Zone:
 The hot gas passes through the reduction zone after the combustion zone
io
 No free oxygen in this zone.
 The carbon dioxide gas reacts with carbon in the fuel forming carbon monoxide
ut
gas
 1.C+CO2+heat2CO(endothermic)
 Water gas shift reaction:
ol
 2.C+H2O+HeatCO+H2 (endothermic)
 Surplus water vapour reacts with CO to liberate CO2 and hydrogen
us
 3.CO+H2O-HeatCO2+H2 (exothermic)
vt
Classification of Gasifiers
in
 Two types:
n.
 1.Fixed bed gasifier:
 In this type biomass fuels move either counter current or
io
concurrent to the flow of gasification medium which is air, steam
or oxygen
ut
 They are further classified according to the way in which air flow
is introduced in it. ol
 2.Fluidized bed gasifier:
 In fluidized bed gasifier inert materials like sand ,ash , or char is
us
utilized to make bed and act as heat transfer medium
 It makes use of excellent mixing characteristics and high reaction
rates of gas solid mixture
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Updraft gasifier
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
 The air intake is at the bottom and gas leaves at the top (counter current
flow)
in
 The reactive agent is injected at the bottom of the reactor and ascends to
the top ,while the fuel is introduced at the top, and descends to the
bottom
n.
 The combustion reactions occur near the grate at the bottom followed
by reduction reaction somewhat higher up in the gasifier
io
 Drying and Pyrolysis happens at the upper part
 In the upper part ,gases ,tar and other volatile compounds are dispersed
at the top part
ut
 Ash is removed at the bottom
 The producer gas or syngas will have high ash content which should be
removed before direct use.
ol
 Slagging and ash content can be severe if high ash fuels are used
us
 Unsuitable for use with fluffy, low density fuels
 Applications:
 Packaged boilers, thermal fluid heaters, Aluminium melting/annealing
vt
furnaces, all kinds of fryer roaster
Downdraft Gasifier
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
 Air is introduced at ,or above the oxidation zone in the gasifier and the producer gas is
removed at the bottom
 Fuel and gas move in the same direction
in
 Biomass fuel is admitted at the top similar to the updraft gasifier
 As the feed progresses down through the gasifier,it dries and its volatiles are pyrolysed.
n.
 The char is directed into a reduced diameter cylindrical throat section at the bottom of the
gasifier
io
 Gasification air is injected into the throat through openings in the throat wall.
 Due to the high temperature existing at the throat section , tars and oils could be cracked ,
ut
which tend to form the producer gas, particularly when the biomass has more than 20%
moisture content
 The producer gas leaves at the bottom of the gasifier.
 Applications:
ol
 Continuous baking ovens, Batch type baking ovens, Drying and curing, Thermal fluid
us
heaters, Annealing furnaces, Direct fired rotary klins, Boilers,IC engine
vt
Crossdraft Gasifier
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
 Here the biomass is fed through one side of the gasifier and the
n.
producer gas leaves through the other side
 In crossdraft gasifier, the ash bin, fire and reduction zone and
io
reduction zone in crossdraft gasifiers are separated
 Air enters the gasifier through a water cooled nozzle mounted on
ut
one side of the firebox
 Confines its combustion and reduction near the air nozzle
ol
 High operating temperature
 The high operating temperature will affect the gas composition
us
such as high CO, and low hydrogen and methane content when
dry fuels like charcoal is used
 Operates well with low ash ,dry biomass feed fuels.
vt
Fluidized bed gasifier
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
 Improved version of fixed bed gasifiers
n.
 The bed is made of an inert material (such as sand ,ash,or char) is heated
initially and the fuel is introduced when the temperature has reached the
appropriate level.
io
 The bed material transfers heat to the fuel
 Fluidized bed gasifiers have no distinct reaction zones and drying,
ut
pyrolysis and gasification occur simultaneously
 The fuel particles are introduced at the bottom of the reactor ,very
ol
quickly mixed with the bed material and almost instantaneously heated
up to the bed temperature
us
 As a result fuel is pyrolysed fast resulting in a component mix with a
relatively large amount of gaseous materials
 Further gasification and tar conversion reactions occur in the gas phase
vt
Benefits of fluidized bed gasifier
in
 High overall efficiency
n.
 Fuel flexibility
 Highly reliable
io
 Low purchase and installation costs
ut
 Flexible operation
 Low emission
ol
 Reduced costs for boilers, additional steamers
us
 Reduced dependency on external fuel sources.
vt
Gasifier Feed characteristics
in
 The following will dictate the feed characteristics of gasifier
n.
 1.Energy content of fuel and Bulk density
 Higher the energy conent and bulk density, higher will be the volume of
gasifier
io
 2.Moisture content
 Low moisture content is desirable
ut
 Should be less than 20%
 3.Dust content ol
 The undesirable dust produced by gasifier fuels can clog IC engines and
hence should be removed
us
 The gasifier design should be such that it should not produce dust
beyond limits
 Higher the dust produced higher will be the load on the filters
vt
in
 4.Tar content
n.
 Tar is one of the most unpleasant components
 It tends to get deposited on carburator and intake valves
io
causing sticky and troublesome operations
ut
 By product of pyrolysis process
 Filters and cleaners are used to remove tar content
ol
us
vt
in
 5.Ash and slagging characteristics
n.
 The mineral content in the fuel that remains in the oxidised state after
complete combustion is called ash.
io
 Ash interferes with gasification process in two ways:
 1.it fuses together to form slag and this clinker stops or inhibits the flow
of biomass feed
ut
 2.Even if it does not fuse together, it shelters the points in fuel where
ignition is initiated, thus lowering the fuel reaction response

ol
Slagging can be overcome by two types of gasifier operations
 Low temperature operation with temperature below the flow
us
temperature of ash
 High temperature operature that keeps the temperature above the
melting point of ash
vt
Applications of biomass Gasifiers
in
 1.Motive Power
n.
 2.Direct heating Applications
 3.Electrical Power generation
io
 4.Chemical Production
ut
ol
us
vt
Cooling and cleaning of gasifier
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
 The types of filters are:
n.
 1.Cyclone filters:
 Useful for particle size 5 micrometer and above
 Due to the combined effect of Cyclonic movement of the gas and the
io
effect of gravity ,the dust particles sediment at the bottom and are
removed
ut
 2.Wet scrubber
 Here gas is washed by water in countercurrent mode
ol
 The scrubber also acts like a cooler
 3.Cloth filters
us
 Fine filter
 For many gasifiers the hot gases passes through cyclone filter ,then to
cloth filter and finally through wet scrubber
vt
in
n.
io
ut
BIOGAS
ENERGY
ol
us
vt
in
BIOGAS
n.
 Biogas is a clean and efficient fuel
io
 It is a mixture of
 Methane
ut
 Carbon Dioxide
 Hydrogen ol
 Nitrogen
 Hydrogen Sulphide
Moisture
us

 The chief constituent of biogas is methane(50-
70%)
vt
in
COMPOSITION OF BIOGAS
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
BIOGAS PRODUCTION
n.
 Biogas is produced by anaerobic
io
digestion
 It is a biological process in which
ut
microorganisms breaks down organic
matter into simpler chemical components
ol
in the absence of oxygen
us
 The digestion process itself takes place in
a digester
vt
in
Anaerobic digestion
n.
 Ithas a series of processes where
microorganisms break down biodegradable
io
material in absence of oxygen
 Step1:Organic matter is decomposed to
ut
break down into usable sized molecules
such as sugar ol
 Step2:Conversion of decomposed matter
into organic acids
us
 Step 3:Organic acids are converted to
biogas
vt
in
Process Stages of anaerobic
digestion
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
 1.Hydrolysis
in
 The process of breaking down large biomass organic chains into
smaller constituent parts such as sugars ,fatty acids and amino acids
and dissolving the smaller molecules into solution
Assists the bacteria in the anaerobic digester to access the energy
n.

potential of the material
 2.Acidogenesis
io
 The products of the hydrolysis process are broken down by
fermentative (acidogenetic) bacteria
 The products are ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and other by
products
ut
 3.Acetogenesis
 The products of acidogenesis are further digested to produce acetic
 4.Methanogenesis
ol
acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
us
 Here the methanogens use the products of preceding stages and
convert them into biogas rich in methane and carbon dioxide
vt
in
Construction of biogas plants
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
 Itis a brick and cement structure with the
io
following five sections:
 1.Mixing tank
ut
 2.Digester tank ol
 3.Gas holder or dome
 4.Inlet chamber
us
 5.Outlet chamber
vt
in
1.Mixing tank:
 In mixing tank ,the water and cattle dung are mixed in equal proportion to form
the slurry
2.Inlet chamber:
n.
 The cow dung slurry is supplied to the digester tank via inlet chamber
 It is made at the ground level for easy inlet of the slurry
 Made of bricks, cement and sand
io
 The outlet wall of the inlet chamber is made inclined so that slurry easily flows
into the digester
3.Digester tank
ut
 Most important part of any biogas plant where all the important chemical
processes takes place
 Deep underground well like structure of cylindrical shape made of brick,
cement and sand built on a solid foundation
ol
 It is divided into two chambers by partition wall in between
 Also called as fermentation tank
 Two long pipes are used:
us
1.Inlet pipe opening into inlet chamber for slurry input to digester
2.Outlet pipe opening into the outlet chamber for the removal of used slurry
from the tank
vt
4.Dome or Gas holder
in
 The hemispherical top portion of the digester is called dome.
 The biogas formed after anaerobic digestion in the digester gets collected in the dome
 It can be either fixed or floating type
n.
 Cements and bricks are used in the construction of fixed dome and is made
approximately at the ground level
 For floating type, an inverted steel drum resting on the digester above the ground
io
surface is used.
 The drum floats over the digester and moves up and down with biogas pressure
5.Outlet chamber
ut
 The digested slurry from the biogas plants is removed through the outlet chamber .
 The opening of the outlet chamber is also at the ground level
6.Gas outlet pipe and valve
ol
 The gas holder has an outlet at the top which could be connected to gas stoves for
cooking or gas lighting purpose .
 Flow of the gas from the dome via gas pipe can be controlled by valve
us
7.Foundation
 Forms the base of the digester
 Provides stability and should be able to sustain the full load of slurry filled in it.
vt
in
Working of biogas Plants
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Types of biogas plants
n.
io
1. Fixed Dome type
ut
2. Floating Dome type
ol
us
vt
in
Fixed Dome type
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Fixed Dome type
n.
The parts of the fixed dome biogas plants are
io
1.Mixing tank
2.Digester
ut
3.Inlet chamber
4.Outlet chamber
5.Fixed Dome
ol
6.Overflow tank
us
7.Gas pipe & Gas control
valve
vt
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Contd..
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Fixed dome type
n.
 Advantages:
 Low cost compared to floating dome type
io
 Simple construction as there is no moving dome
 Long life can be expected(20 yrs or so)
ut
 Underground and almost ground level dome construction
prevents damage to plant ol
 The anaerobic digestion inside digester is less influenced by
temperature variations during day and night
 Disadvantages:
us
 Porosity and cracks in walls of the plant may occur
 Difficult to maintain
vt
in
Types of fixed dome plants
n.
• Chinese fixed-dome plant is the arch type fixed dome plants..
io
The digester consists of a cylinder with round bottom and top.
Janata model
• was the first fixed-dome design in India. It is not constructed
ut
anymore. The mode of construction lead to cracks in the
gasholder - very few of these plant had been gas-tight.
• Deenbandhu,
•
ol
the successor of the Janata plant in India, with improved design,
was more crack-proof and consumed less building material than
the Janata plant,with a hemisphere digester
us
• CAMARTEC model:
• Simplifies structure of hemispherical dome shell based on a
rigid foundation ring and was developed in tanzania
vt
in
Floating Dome Type
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Floating dome type
 The different parts are:
n.
 1.Mixing tank
 2.Digester tank
io
 3.Inlet pipe & inlet tank
 4.Floating dome
ut
 5.Outlet pipe & overflow tank
 6. Gas outlet pipe ol
 7.Gas control valve
us
vt
in
Working
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Contd.
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
in
Floating dome type
n.
 Advantages:
io
 Efficient
ut
 Easy maintenance
 Disadvantages: ol
 Expensive
 Steel drum may rust
us
 Requires regular maintenance
vt
in
Types of floating drum plants
n.
 KVIC model
io
 Pragati Model(with hemisphere digester)
ut
 Ganesh Model(angular steel and plastic
foil) ol
 Arati Model(low cost, made of plastic
water containers and fiberglass drums)
us
 BORDA Model(with hemispherical
digester, has longer life and stability)
vt
in
Benefits of biogas:
Production of energy
n.
1.
2. Transformation of organic waste into high quality
organic fertilizer
io
3. Health benefits of biogas and the improvement
of hygienic conditions(reduction of pathogens,
ut
worm eggs and flies)
4. Reduction of workload for collecting firewood
and cooking
5.
ol
Environmental advantages through protection of
forests ,soil, water and air
us
6. Reduced emission of carbon dioxide through the
use of biogas than fossil fuels will reduce global
warming
vt
in
Selection of biogas plants
n.
 Principal and maintenance cost
io
 Simplicity of design
 Durability
ut
 Suitability of use with available raw inputs
 Frequency of utilization of biogas as well
ol
as the frequency of fresh slurry input
influence the selection of a particular
us
plant model and the size of various
components
vt
in
Biogas feed
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Carbon to Nitrogen ratio
in
 The most important characteristics of biogas feed is amount of carbon to
n.
nitrogen ratio present in the organic matter
 A C/N ratio of 20 to 30 in the organic matter is considered optimum for
anaerobic digestion
io
 For very high C/N ratio
 The nitrogen will be consumed rapidly by methanogens and the remaining
carbon will not have any reaction process.This will reduce biogas
production
ut
 For very low C/N ratio
 Nitrogen will be liberated and accumulated to form NH4 (ammonia) which
will increase the pH of the content in the digester. A pH >8.5 will be toxic

ol
for the methanogens population
The animal wastes particularly cattle dung has an average C/N ratio of 24
 The plant materials(Straw, sawdust,etc..) have much higher C/N ratio(60-
us
70)
 In order to balance the C/N ratio ,normally the feed will be a composite mix
of high C/N ratio materials and low C/N ratio materials
vt
Biogas
in
 Advantages:
 Clean fuel
n.
 High calorific value
 Convenient ignition temperature
 No residue , smoke,dust
io
 Non polluting
 Economical
ut
 High quality nutrient rich manure for plants
 Limitations:
 High initial cost ol
 Inadequcy of raw materials and continuity of supply
 Social acceptability
 Maintenance and repair
us
 Uses:
 Domestic fuel for cooking, Electricity generation , fuel for
motive power
vt
RES - Tidal - 08-11-17
in
n.
io
Introduction
Tidal Energy Resources
ut
Tidal Energy Availability
Tidal Power Generation In India
ol
Leading Country In Tidal Power Plant Installation
us
vt
Sumit Raj
1MV15EE105
Introduction
in
Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts
n.

the energy obtained from tides into useful forms of

power, mainly electricity.
io
 The tide is created by gravitational effect of the sun
ut
and the moon on the earth causing cyclical
movement of the seas.
ol
 Commonly plant for tidal power facilities involved
us
erecting a tidal dam, or barrage, with a sluice across
a narrow bay.
vt
Introduction
in
As the tide flows in or
n.

out, creating uneven

water levels on either
io
side of the barrage, the
ut
sluice is opened and
ol water flows through low
head hydro turbines to
generate electricity.
us
 For a feasible barrage,
the difference between
vt
high and low tides must

be at least 5 m
Tidal Energy Resource
 Tides are the waves caused due to the gravitational
in
pull of the moon and the sun. The rise of seawater is
called high tide and fall of seawater is called low
n.
tide.
io
 This process of rising and receding of water waves
happen twice a day & cause enormous movement of
ut
water. ol
 When the moon, the Earth and the sun are in a
straight line, the highest tides called spring tides
us
occur.
When the earth, moon and the Sun are at right angles
vt
to each other, the lowest tides called neap tides

occur.Vtusolution.in - Vtu Notes, question Paper, books, Internship, Final Year Projects and many exciting offers for students
Tidal Energy Resource
in
Commercially ocean energy can be used to generate
n.

Electricity in following ways :-
io
1. Tidal energy :- using dams
ut
2. wave energy :- using the kinetic energy of the
ocean. ol
3. Ocean thermal energy :- It focus on the
temperature difference
us
between warm ocean
surface water and deep
vt
sea cold water.

in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
 Gravitational forces between the moon,the sun and
in
the earth cause the rhythmic rise and fall of ocean
waters throughout the world.
n.
 The moon exerts more than twice as great force on
io
the tides as the sun due to much clear position to the
earth.
ut
 So tides closely follows the moon during rotation
ol
around the earth.
Rise of water in ocean due to moon's gravitational
us

pull is called tide cycle.

Receding of water as water as moon moves away
vt
from moon to land, reducing its gravitational

influence on the ocean water is called ebb cycle.
in
The amplitude or height of the tide wave is very
n.

small in the open ocean where it measures several

cm in center of the wave distributed over hundreds
io
of KM.
ut
 However, the tide can increase dramatically when it
reaches continental shelves, bringing huge masses of
ol
water into narrow bays, and river estuaries along a
us
costline.
 The tides in the Bay of Fundy in Canada are the
vt
greatest in the world, with amplitude between 16-

17m.
Tidal Power Generation In India
in
Site Location Tide Height (m) Estimated Power
n.
Potential (MW)
io
The Gulf of Cambay, 11 (6.7 av) 7000
Gujrat
ut
Gulf of Kutch, 8 (5.23 av) 12,000
Gujarat ol
The Ganges Delta in 5 (2.97 av) 8,000
the Sundarban,
us
West Bengal
vt
Leading Country In Tidal Power

Plant Installation
in
Country Site Location Installed Capacity (MW)
n.
io
France La Rance 240 MW
ut
UK The Severn Barrage 8,560 MW
Russia
ol Kislaya Guba 0.4 MW
us
Canada Annapolis 18MW
vt
China 3.9 MW
in
n.
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
io
CONVERSION
ut
ol
us
vt
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

CONVERSION(OTEC)
in
 About 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by oceans,
n.
which are continuously heated by sun
 OTEC extracts this solar thermal energy from oceans
io
 OTEC is a method to produce electricity by using the
temperature differences between warm ocean surface and
ut
cool deep ocean water to run a heat engine coupled to a
generator
 More the temperature difference ,more energy is
produced
ol
 Ocean water with more than 5 degree temperature
us
gradient is known as ocean thermal energy
 OTEC sites are normally located between tropic of Cancer
and tropic of Capricorn
vt
PRINCIPLE OF OTEC
in
n.
 The warm water in the ocean surface is collected and
pumped through the heat exchanger to heat and
io
vapourise a working fluid ,and it develops pressure in a
secondary cycle
 The working fluid vapour expands through a heat engine
ut
coupled to an electrical generator
 Working fluid vapour coming out of the heat engine is
ol
condensed back by a condenser which uses the cold deep
sea water
us
 The vapour is cooled to liquid state and is recycled .
 This is known as closed cycle OTEC.
vt
PRINCIPLE OF OTEC
in
n.
 Normally used working fluids are
 Propane for high temperature ocean surface water
io
 Low boiling point liquid ammonia for low temperature
ocean surface water
ut
 In open cycle OTEC, warm ocean surface water is
pumped into a low pressure boiler to boil water and
produce steam.
ol
 Then, the steam is used to drive steam turbine to
us
produce electricity
 To condense steam, cold deep sea water is used
vt
OTEC Plants
in
n.
 Two different types:
1. Land Based Power Plant
io
2. Floating Power Plant
Land Based Power Plant
ut
 Will consist of a building constructed on the shore
 It requires laying of pipes
ol
 One pipe to collect warm ocean water
 Second pipe lay down on the slope deep into the ocean to
us
collect cold water
 Third pipe is used as outlet to discharge used water again to
deep down ocean
vt
Land based OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Floating Power Plant
in
n.
 Built on a ship platform
 Same principle as that of land based power plant
io
 Cost savings on piping,but electricity transmission is
difficult
ut
ol
us
vt
BASIC RANKINE CYCLE
in
n.
 Basic Rankine cycle consists of the following
 1.An evaporator
io
 2.A turbine expander
ut
 3.A condenser
 4.A pump ol
 5.A working fluid
1. Steam Rankine Cycle
us
2. Organic Rankine cycle
vt
Selection of working fluids
in
n.
 Chemical Stability and compatibility
 Heat transfer coefficient
io
 High Flash point to reduce flammability

ut
Low specific heat to reduce the load on condenser
 Safety(non-toxic, non corrosive, and non- flammable)
ol
 Environmental acceptability
 Low cost
us
 Availability
vt
Open cycle OTEC PLANTS
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Open cycle OTEC PLANTS
in
n.
 Major Components
1. Evaporator: A flash evaporator is used in which the warm
io
sea water instantly boils or flash in the chamber that has
reduced pressure than the atmosphere
ut
2. Turbine coupled to a generator ol
3. Condenser
4. Non condensable gas exhaust
us
5. Pumps
6. Marine culture ponds
vt
Working Principle of open cycle OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
CLOSED CYCLE OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CLOSED

CYCLE OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
HYBRID OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
HYBRID OTEC
in
n.
 Hybrid cycle combines the features of both open and closed
cycle OTEC s
io
 Warm sea water is pumped into vacuum chamber where it is
flashed to steam
 The steam produced will vapourise a working fluid
ut
 The vaporized working fluid will rotate the turbine and drive
the generator to produce electricity
ol
 The fluid vapour will be condensed by cold sea water in a
condenser and re circulated in a closed cycle
us
 The condensed steam or desalinated water is used for marine
culture plants
 Non condensable gases are exhausted
vt
Carnot Cycle
in
 Carnot cycle is the most efficient thermo dynamical
n.
cycle which can use the warm surface sea water and
cold deep sea water
io
ut
ol
us
vt
Carnot Cycle
in
 Carnot efficiency is given by
n.
io
 W=work done by the system
ut
 QH =heat input
 Tc =temperature of the cold sea water

ol
TH = temperature of the hot surface sea water
us
vt
Carnot cycle
in
 The four stages are:
n.
1. Isothermal expansion: The vapourized fluid(for closed
cycle OTEC) or steam(for open cycle OTEC) is allowed to
io
expand at constant temperature TH . Here volume
increases, Pressure falls down (From P V Diagram shown)
ut
2. Adiabatic Expansion: Here the volume increases, pressure
falls down and the temperature of the vapourised fluid or
steam falls down to Tc
ol
3. Isothermal compression: Here the fluid or steam is
compressed at constant temperature Tc .Pressure
us
increases, Volume decreases
4. Adiabatic compression: The fluid is compressed again
increasing the temperature to TH and the cycle repeats
vt
APPLICATION OF OTEC OTHER THAN

ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
APPLICATIONS OF OTEC
in
n.
1. Electricity generation
2. Hydrogen Production
io
3. Ammonia and methanol production
ut
4. Desalinated water
5. Aquaculture ol
6. Chilled soil agriculture
7. Air conditioning
us
vt
ADVANTAGES of OTEC
in
n.
 Renewable , clean natural resource
 Available in abundance
io
 Pollution free

ut
No green house effects
 Good source of fresh water ol
 Used for marine culture plants
us
vt
DISADVANTAGES OF OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt
BENEFITS OF OTEC
in
n.
io
ut
ol
us
vt

Res 17ee563

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Vtusolution.

index of standard of living

CAUSES OF ENERGY SCARCITY

SOLUTION TO ENERGY SCARCITY

FACTORS AFFECTING ENERGY 5

 Based on Usability of energy 6

 Based on traditional use

o Renewable Energy Sources ol

o Commercial energy source

• Security: As storage is easy and convenient, by storing a certain

technology for their conversion and their use is universally available.

Disadvantages of conventional energy

• Other uses of resources like coal is used as petrochemical and is used

Advantages of non conventional

Disadvantages of non conventional

• Difficult in transporting such forms of energy

 Major Solar PV Projects

Energy sources in India

Hydroelectricity 39,788.40 17.39

Natural Gas 20,380.85 8.91

Oil 1,199.75 0.52

India –Installed Capacity of 20

National Solar Mission 22

Sun Earth Geometrical

Layers of the Sun

1.Solar Altitude Angle ( )

2. Zenith Angle (θz)

Solar Altitude Angle(α)

Solar Azimuth Angle( )

1.Surface Azimuth Angle (γ)

2.Tilt Angle or Slope (β)

Extra terrestrial radiation

 Extra- terrestrial radiation

Deviation in extra terrestrial 51

3. This being outside the atmosphere is unaffected by

changes in atmospheric conditions

 Global radiation: Sum of direct and diffuse radiation

 Beam radiation is the solar radiation propagating in a straight line

 Diffused radiation is the solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust

 Part of it is absorbed by the clouds

Sun at zenith => sun is directly overhead

--can be open loop(water is directly heated by collector) or closed

Multipurpose utilization of solar energy

Direct Thermal Applications

Low Temperature Solar Thermal

Applications of solar collectors

Types of Solar Collectors

Flat Plate Collectors

Flat Plate Collector

Unglazed Flat Plate Collector

Solar Pool Heating

Unglazed Perforated Flat plate collector

Back Pass Solar Collector

 Primarily used for residential water heating

Flat Plate Collector with Flat Reflectors

Evacuated tube collector

Material Aspects of Solar Collectors

3.Fresnel Solar Thermal Collectors

 Uses flat or curved reflectors

4.Cylindrical trough Collectors

5.Parabolic Dish Collectors

Advantages of dish collectors