Quantitative analysis of the damping of magnet oscillations by eddy

currents in aluminum foil

Andris Muiznieks and Inese Dudareva

Citation: Am. J. Phys. 80, 804 (2012); doi: 10.1119/1.4725416

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4725416
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Quantitative analysis of the damping of magnet oscillations by eddy
currents in aluminum foil
Andris Muiznieksa) and Inese Dudarevab)
Department of Physics, Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, University of Latvia, Zellu str. 8, Riga LV-1002,
Latvia
(Received 10 October 2011; accepted 17 May 2012)
This paper considers damped rotational oscillations about the vertical axis of a cylindrical
permanent magnet that is horizontally suspended by a vertical inelastic thread. The damping of the
oscillations is caused by eddy currents induced in aluminum foil that is placed horizontally below
the magnet. A simplified mathematical model of the damped oscillations is proposed and verified
by experiment qualitatively and quantitatively. It is shown that the relative energy loss during one
oscillation depends linearly on the number of layers of aluminum foil and on the oscillation period.
To measure the relative changes of the oscillation amplitude, a magnetic field sensor and data
collection interface are used. VC 2012 American Association of Physics Teachers.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4725416]

I. INTRODUCTION various coil geometries, the analytical solutions were obtained.9

The paper considers rotational oscillations about the verti-
cal axis of a cylindrical permanent magnet that is horizon-
tally suspended by a vertical inelastic thread. A simple
device is used to observe and analyze damping of these oscil-
lations by induced eddy currents in aluminum foil placed
horizontally below the oscillating magnet.
In recent years, several papers have described experiments
with a simple magnet and magnet pendulum for use in physics
teaching and learning. These have included experiments with a
magnetically controlled pendulum for observing free and forced
oscillations, including nonlinear oscillations and chaotic
motion;1 experiments with strong small magnets and with a cur-
rent loop to determine the magnetic moment and magnetization
of a magnet;2 a simple arrangement from a suspended magnet
for observing and analyzing coupled pendulum and torsional
motion;3 demonstration of Lenz’s law by dropping a magnet
down a nonmagnetic metal tube where the movement of the
falling magnet is affected by eddy currents;4 and several experi-
ments with two identical small dipole magnets, among them
finding the magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic field.5 However,
the description of simple experiments with quantitative analysis
of eddy currents (e.g., damping of magnet oscillations due to
eddy currents) is rarely addressed in physics teaching literature.
For example, the widely used textbook by Giancolli6 considers
only the qualitative inducing of eddy currents in a rotating con-
ducting wheel by a stationary magnet, as well as mentioning
some applications of eddy currents without any quantitative
relations. On the other hand, in the classical theoretical electro-
dynamics text by Jackson,7 the chapter on eddy currents consid-
ers only idealized quantitative one-dimensional examples, such
as analytical solutions of the skin effect and diffusion of the
magnetic field in the conducting medium.
Eddy currents are widely used in electrotechnical systems;
therefore, corresponding methods of engineering calculation are
well developed. In the 1970s, magnetic levitation for transporta-
tion systems was intensively studied by analytical methods, e.g.,
the eddy current distribution in a conducting sheet due to the
movement of a magnetic monopole source along a trajectory
parallel to the edge of the sheet was calculated analytically.8 For
lift and drag forces on a magnet or a current-carrying coil, mov-
ing with constant velocity above a thin conducting plate for
Nowadays, eddy currents in technical applications are normally
analyzed by numerical methods; examples include numerical
modeling of eddy currents in single silicon crystal growth10 and
numerical modeling of inductive melting in a cold crucible.11
An extensive summary of the analytical calculations of
eddy currents in thin conducting sheets and their applications
to electromagnetic shielding and magnetic levitation was
given by Saslow12 in 1992. Among other elements, the paral-
lel movements of a magnet monopole above a thin conduct-
ing sheet and magnet monopole above a thin rotating disc
(Arago’s experiment) are considered and the formulas for
the drag and lift forces acting on the monopole are derived.
The author at that time also states that “a subject as funda-
mental and as applicable as eddy currents has been relatively
neglected in textbooks on electromagnetism.” However, the
analytical work in the above papers8,9,12 goes beyond under-
graduate level physics.
Thus, it is evident that the complexity of eddy current dis-
tributions in conductor sheets in practical cases makes ana-
lytic quantitative calculations difficult for undergraduate
physics students. Nevertheless, in the present paper, a simpli-
fied analytic mathematical model for the description of the
damping of magnet oscillations by eddy currents in alumi-
num foil is proposed and is verified by a simple experimental
setup qualitatively and quantitatively. This setup could be
used as a basis for a laboratory exercise. Our experiment has
some similarity with Arago’s experiment.12
II. EXPERIMENT
Figure 1 shows a simple magnet pendulum system that
consists of a cylindrical permanent magnet (diameter d ¼
10.0 mm, length l ¼ 34.0 mm, mass m ¼ 19.4 g), an inelastic
lightweight thread, and a copper wire fixed in an aluminum
clamp which is held by an iron (magnetic) stand placed on a
wooden base (table). The wire and the clamp ensure suffi-
cient distance between the magnet and the iron stand. The
magnet is horizontally suspended by a vertical thread 10 mm
above the base; that is, the distance between the magnet’s
center and the base is a ¼ 15 mm.
The magnet can be excited into rotational oscillation about
the vertical axis. These oscillations are governed by the
moment of inertia of the magnet and by the horizontal

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V 804

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Fig. 1. Experimental setup for observing damped magnet oscillations.
component of the external magnetic field acting on the mag-
netic moment of the magnet. The period of oscillations5 T
may be expressed as
sffiffiffiffiffiffi
I assumed with reasonable precision that the measured mag-
T ¼ 2p ; (1)
lB
where I is the moment of inertia of the cylindrical magnet, l
is the magnetic dipole moment of the magnet, and B is the
horizontal component of the external magnetic field, e.g., the
magnetic field of the Earth.
We changed the value of the external magnetic field B and
consequently the period of oscillations T by using a ring
magnet from a loudspeaker. This additional magnet was ori-
ented so that its field axis was in the direction of the horizon-
tal component of the Earth’s magnetic field at the location of
the pendulum (Fig. 1). The value of B was changed by vary-
ing the distance between the pendulum and the additional
magnet. We could see that reducing this distance caused the
frequency of oscillation to increase. We used four positions
of the additional magnet and considered also one case with-
out the additional magnet.
With no additional fields present, such oscillations show
very weak damping. Surprisingly, the oscillations can last
10–20 min, because the friction of magnet movement in the air
and the friction in the thread are very small. To create an effec-
tive damping of oscillations, a thin aluminum plate is placed
on the wood base (Fig. 1). The aluminum plate consists of sev-
eral layers; each layer is aluminum foil (cooking foil) with
thickness b0 ¼ 0.0125 mm and area 15  16 cm2. We assumed
that the electric conductivity of aluminum foil is a standard
value r ¼ 3.5107 S/m.13 We placed aluminum foil layers
closely on top of each other to avoid air gaps between them.
To study the influence of plate thickness on the damping
of oscillations, we considered only the Earth’s magnetic
field. We used several thicknesses of the plate by changing
805 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 9, September 2012
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Fig. 2. Top view of the oscillating magnet and magnetic field sensor.
the number n of layers; the number n was 4, 8, and 16. In
these cases, the oscillating magnet soon came (within one
minute) to rest because of the induced eddy currents in the
foil. To study the influence of the oscillation period on the
damping of oscillations, we changed the external magnetic
field using the loudspeaker magnet and used 16 layers of alu-
minum foil. To register the oscillation amplitude decay
quantitatively, we used a magnetic field sensor placed in the
vicinity of one pole (end) of the magnet (Figs. 1 and 2). This
sensor from Vernier14 measures the magnetic field compo-
nent along the axis of the sensor hull. The sensor was con-
nected to the Vernier LabPro data-collection interface with
LOGGERPRO software. The oscillation amplitude of the magnet
pole in the experiments was small: at most about 2 mm, less
than 1/10 the length of the magnet and the distance between
the magnet pole and the sensor (about 30 mm); therefore, the
rotational oscillations can be considered small and it can be
netic field changes correspond linearly to the coordinate x of
the end of the magnet (see Fig. 2, where axis comes out of
the plane of the drawing).
Of course, at larger oscillation amplitudes, due to the inho-
mogeneous character of the magnetic field and due to the
change of the direction of magnetic field vectors during os-
cillation, the relation between the recorded magnetic field
and the value of x becomes somewhat nonlinear. This is con-
firmed by a slight asymmetry in the average signal value, as
can be seen in Fig. 6. Nevertheless, this asymmetry does not
affect the results significantly.
We used a magnetic field sensor to measure the vertical
component Bm0 of the magnet’s field below its end, at the
level of the aluminum plate (i.e., at the distance a ¼ 15 mm),
as shown in Fig. 3. We obtained the value Bm0 ¼ 0.032 T.
Fig. 3. Position of the magnetic field sensor during measurement of the
magnet’s vertical magnetic field component in the aluminum plate.
A. Muiznieks and I. Dudareva 805

III. THEORY
A. Calculation of relative energy loss during one
oscillation period
The qualitative explanation of the damping by eddy cur-
rents in an aluminum plate is simple. If the south pole of the
magnet moves to the right [as shown in Fig. 4(a)], the mag-
netic flux through the aluminum plate grows on the right side
of the magnet pole. This growing flux induces eddy currents
j in a clockwise direction (Lenz’s law). Consequently, this
current loop can be considered as the source of a magnetic
field Bj with an upwards-oriented south pole. Because of the
repulsion between both south poles, the movement of the
considered magnet pole to the right slows.
Though the distribution of the considered eddy currents in
the plate is complex and varies in time, it is possible to
derive some analytic quantitative relationships describing
the damping of oscillations.
For the description of the position of the magnet pole, a
coordinate x is introduced and the original undisturbed posi-
tion of the magnet pole is denoted as 0 (see Fig. 2). During
the rotational oscillations, the energy continuously changes
from potential energy to kinetic energy and back again. The
total mechanical energy W is equal to the maximum kinetic
energy Kmax when the coordinate of the magnet pole is x ¼ 0,
i.e., W ¼ Kmax. The expression for maximum rotational ki-
netic energy Kmax is

l2 r2
I¼m þ ; (3)
12 4
where m is the mass of the cylinder, l is its length, and r its
radius. Because of the relation
v0 ¼ x0 R; (4)
where v0 is the maximum linear velocity of the magnet’s end
and R ¼ l/2 (see Fig. 2), we obtain for the total mechanical
energy
2Iv20
W¼ : (5)
l2
Let us assume that the end of the magnet is moving with
instantaneous velocity v in the direction of the x axis. It
means that the region with the vertical component of the
magnetic field Bm in the aluminum plate with maximum
value Bm0 is moving with this velocity v [see also Fig. 4(b)].
In the reference system connected with the pole, the plate is
moving in the opposite direction with the same velocity v
and the vertical component of the magnetic field creates an
inhomogeneous eddy electric field Em ¼ v  Bm in the
plate [Fig. 4(b)]. Because the eddy current loops must be
closed, the scalar potential u acts in the plate and the instan-
taneous induced current density is

Ix20 j ¼ rðEm  ruÞ: (6)

Kmax ¼ ; (2)
2
The “ru” acts against the Em , but in the central zone with
where I is the magnet’s moment of inertia and x0 is maxi- a stronger magnetic field [see Fig. 4(b)], Em dominates over
mum angular velocity. The moment of inertia of the cylinder ru. On the other hand, outside the control zone, ru
for the considered rotation axis is dominates over Em . For our estimation, we roughly assume
that this reduces the local current density in the zone with
magnetic field to

1
j ¼ rvBm : (7)
2

The corresponding local power density is

j2 1 2 2
q¼ ¼ rv Bm : (8)
r 4
Thus, the instantaneous total power loss in the plate for one
pole of the magnet is given by the integral
ð
1 2 2 1
P¼ rv Bm b dS ¼ rv2 bZ; (9)
S4 4

where S is the area of the magnetic field, b is the plate thick-

ness, and Z is an abbreviation for the integral
ð
Z ¼ B2m dS: (10)
S

To estimate this integral, we roughly assume that the length l

Fig. 4. The action of the eddy currents in the aluminum foil: (a) laboratory
reference system; (b) reference system with fixed magnet pole.
of the magnet is much larger than the distance a between a
magnet pole and the aluminum plate, so we can consider the
magnetic poles to be independent. For one magnet pole, we
assume that the corresponding magnetic field is that of a
point source (monopole), as shown in Fig. 5. Then the mag-
nitude of the magnetic field vector B in the plate is

806 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 9, September 2012 A. Muiznieks and I. Dudareva 806

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 DW prB2m0 a2 l2 b0
n¼ ¼ nT ¼ knT; (18)
W 16I
where the coefficient k is

prB2m0 a2 l2 b0
k¼ : (19)
16I
For our magnet, Eq. (3) gives a moment of inertia I  1:99
106 kg m2 . Plugging the other parameters given in the
Sec. II into Eq. (19), we obtain the numerical value
k ¼ 0.0115 s1.
Fig. 5. Magnetic field vertical component Bm created by a point source.
B. Experimental determination of the relative energy
C loss
BðrÞ ¼ 2 ; (11)
a þ r2 As mentioned before, for the measurement of the coordi-
nate x of one magnet end during rotational oscillations, we
where C is a constant describing the point source. We measured the magnetic field induction with the sensor as
obtained the constant C from the measured Bm0 value, i.e., shown in Fig. 2. Because of the nearly linear relationship
from B(0) ¼ Bm0 it follows that C ¼ Bm0a2. The component between the measured magnetic field and the coordinate x,
of the magnetic field normal to the plate is we can use the recorded time dependence of the magnetic
field to calculate the relative energy loss.
Bm0 a3 The total mechanical energy W during oscillations is equal
Bm ðrÞ ¼ : (12)
ða2 þ r2 Þ3=2 not only to the maximum kinetic energy but also to the maxi-
mum potential energy. The potential energy reaches its max-
Because at larger r values Bm becomes small very quickly, imum when the coordinate x equals its maximum value, the
we can take the integral Z over the interval [0…1] for r amplitude Ax . On the other hand, the potential energy is pro-
portional to the square of the amplitude, so W is proportional
ð1 to A2x . Because of the linear relation between the measured
B2m a6 p
Z¼ 2pr dr ¼ B2m0 a2 : (13) change of the magnetic field and the coordinate x, it follows
0 ða2 þ r 2 Þ3 2 that W is proportional to A2 , where A is the amplitude of the
oscillations of the measured magnetic field.
Therefore, Eq. (9) for the total instantaneous power loss in For consecutive oscillation periods, e.g., i and i þ 1, we
the plate for one magnet pole becomes can write
p  2
P ¼ rv2 bB2m0 a2 : (14) Wiþ1 Wi  DWiþ1;i Aiþ1
8 ¼ ¼1n¼ : (20)
Wi Wi Ai
Because the value of v oscillates approximately as a har- To relate nonconsecutive periods 1 and N, we use the
monic function of time, the power loss in the plate for one identity
magnet pole averaged in time over one oscillation period is
W N W2 W3 WN1 WN
p ¼    ; (21)
P ¼ rv20 bB2m0 a2 : (15) W1 W1 W2 WN2 WN1
16
which implies
We assume in this derivation that the power density is dis-
tributed uniformly over the thickness b ¼ b0n of the plate, A2N
i.e., the magnetic field of the induced currents in the foil can ð1  nÞN1 ¼ : (22)
A21
be ignored. For time-averaged power P2 (average rate at
which the plate dissipates the energy), for both magnet poles,
we obtain
p
P2 ¼ 2P ¼ rv20 B2m0 a2 b0 n: (16)
8

Thus, the energy loss during one oscillation period is

p
DW ¼ P2 T ¼ rv20 B2m0 b0 a2 nT: (17)
8
We see that the relative energy loss during one oscillation
depends linearly on the period and on the number of foil
layers. Combining Eqs. (2) and (17), we obtain the relative Fig. 6. Damped oscillations (number of foil layers 16) in the background
loss of energy during one oscillation, magnetic fields of the additional magnet and the Earth.

807 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 9, September 2012 A. Muiznieks and I. Dudareva 807

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 Table I. Relative decrease of energy n in magnet oscillations, with varying
thickness b of the aluminum plate, in Earth‘s magnetic field.

b n nav

1 4b0 0.059 0.059

2 0.055
3 0.063
4 0.058
5 8b0 0.108 0.107
6 0.104
7 0.103
8 0.114
Fig. 7. Damped oscillations (number of foil layers 16) in Earth’s magnetic field.
9 16b0 0.207 0.204
10 0.178
11 0.218
This relationship allows us to obtain n with higher precision,
12 0.215
because the difference between AN and A1 is larger when N
is large. Solving for n gives
 2=ðN1Þ dependence of the relative energy loss during one period on
AN
n¼1 : (23) the number of foil layers and on the duration of the oscilla-
A1 tion period.
Figures 9 and 10 can also be used to determine the exper-
imental value of the coefficient k. For example, consider the
IV. RESULTS point that is common to both graphs, i.e., the measurement
At the beginning of the experiment, rotational oscillations for n ¼ 16 and T ¼ 1.334 s (only Earth‘s magnetic field).
about the vertical axis were initiated without aluminum foil Equation (18) gives k ¼ n=ðnTÞ ¼ 0:204=ð16  1:334Þ ¼
beneath the magnet. We switched on the data collection 0:00956  0:01 s–1 This value agrees relatively well with
interface for the magnetic field sensor, and after about 10 s, the theoretical value k ¼ 0.0115 s1.
quickly placed the aluminum foil below the oscillating mag- The obtained values of n also allow us to calculate the quality
net. We could directly observe the beginning of the distinct factor Q ¼ 2p=n of this system. For our n values which are
damping of oscillations. This damping can also be seen in between 0.059 and 0.204, the Q values are between 31 and 106.
the collected data; see examples in Figs. 6–8.
For the calculation of the relative energy loss n, we first V. DISCUSSION
chose one oscillation period after the beginning of damping, The agreement between the proposed simplified mathe-
shown as the thick black line in Fig. 6 denoted as L1 . We cal- matical model of the damped oscillations and our experiment
culated the corresponding amplitude A1 as half of the vertical
distance on the graph for the endpoints of the line L1 . After a Table II. Relative decrease of energy n in magnet oscillations, with varying
corresponding number of periods, we determined the values oscillation period T, and fixed thickness of the aluminum plate, b ¼ 16b0.
A10 ; A11 ; A12 and A13 in the same way. Then we used these
amplitudes to calculate four n values and calculated the aver- T (s) n nav
age of these, nav . The results obtained for all experimental
cases, that is, for 3 thicknesses of the aluminum plate and for 1 0.845 0.147 0.126
5 values of the oscillation time period, are summarized in 2 0.133
Tables I and II. The results for nav are plotted in Figs. 9 and 3 0.100
10. We can see that the experiment confirms the linear 4 0.124
5 1.073 0.159 0.158
6 0.159
7 0.155
8 0.161
9 1.109 0.150 0.179
10 0.188
11 0.190
12 0.186
13 1.257 0.209 0.197
14 0.197
15 0.190
16 0.190
17 1.334 0.207 0.204
18 0.179
19 0.219
20 0.215
Fig. 8. Damped oscillations (number of foil layers 4) in Earth’s magnetic field.

808 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 9, September 2012 A. Muiznieks and I. Dudareva 808

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Fig. 9. Relative decrease of energy n during each period, plotted vs the
number n of aluminum foil layers.
is qualitatively good: the relative energy loss during one os-
cillation depends linearly on the number of layers of alumi-
num foil and on the oscillation period.
Although quantitative values of the constant k obtained in
the experiment (k ¼ 0.0956 s1) and theoretically calculated
(k ¼ 0.0115 s1) correspond relatively well, precise agree-
ment would be incidental. The greatest uncertainty in the
theoretical value of k comes from our rough estimate of the
scalar potential impact, using 1/2 as the coefficient in Eq. (7)
for the current density in the zone of the magnetic field.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that this coefficient is inde-
pendent of the speed of the magnet poles and the number of
layers of aluminum foil. Another factor that significantly
affects the theoretical value of k is the fact that the two mag-
net poles are treated as independent monopoles. The length
of the magnet is 34 mm, while the distance between the mag-
net poles and the foil is 15 mm, so the approximation is obvi-
ously relatively inaccurate.
One of the problems in the measurement was the scatter of
results in determining the relative energy loss n during one
oscillation. For example, for one recorded damping curve,
the scatter of n reached 20%, and in some cases, it was even
more. This scatter resulted from the fact that it is difficult to
excite only the rotational oscillation mode about the vertical
axis; the magnet’s actual motion contained other weaker
Fig. 10. Relative decrease of energy n during one period, plotted vs the
oscillation period T.
809 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 80, No. 9, September 2012
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oscillation modes. On the other hand, the fact that the aver-
aged relative energy loss nav depends linearly both on the
number of layers of aluminum foil and on the oscillation
period can be attributed to the averaging procedure which
significantly reduces the influence of other oscillation modes.
A weak nonlinearity in the relationship between the meas-
ured magnetic field and the coordinate x could also affect the
accuracy of the analysis.
We would like to mention the following additional sources
of inaccuracy: the increasing number of layers of aluminum
foil reduces slightly the effective distance between the foil
and the magnet; and the magnetic field of the eddy current in
the foil might influence the total magnetic field slightly.
We think that the proposed simplified quantitative analysis
of eddy currents can contribute to physics education at the
undergraduate level.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been supported by the European Social
Fund within the project “Support for Doctoral Studies at
University of Latvia.”
a)
Electronic mail: andris.muiznieks@lu.lv
b)
Electronic mail: inesehej@gmail.com
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