ENV 401 : Lecture 10

INTRODUCTION
TOXICOLOGY OF
HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS 1. `ALL SUBSTANCES ARE
POISON, THERE IS NONE
THAT IS NOT A POISON’

(PARACELSUS, 1493-1541
– FATHER OF TOXICOLOGY)
DR.K.SUBRAMANIAM, MCIEH (UK); PJK,

PhD, Ms.Env., B.Sc.(Hons)Env.&Occ.Health,

Diploma RSH (Malaysia)
2. CHEMICAL HAZARDS e.g. Acids,
(`YOUR SAFETY IS MY CONCERN’) Alkalis & Toxic substances

• Chemical Hazards & * Occupational chemical

exposures are an area
Exposures to toxic of increasing concern.
substances are given less * About 100 000 different
attention compared with chemical products are
in use in modern work
other hazards environments and the
(MOH, 1995).
number is growing.
(WHO, 1997).

TOXICOLOGY is… THERE ARE 4 MODES OF ENTRY INTO

THE HUMAN BODY
 TO STUDY THE ILL-EFFECT OF
HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS TO HUMANS
 GREATER AWARENESS DUE TO MANY
(a). Absorption - skin
CHEMICALS IN THE MARKET (b). Inhalation - air
 TOX STUDIES DONE WITH MICE OR
RABBITS TO ESTABLISH P.E.L. TO (c). Ingestion – food & water
HUMANS (d). Injection – skin or tissue
 IMPORTANT IN SELECTING PROPER P.P.E.

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 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
HUMAN EFFECTS OF
CHEMICAL
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC
FACTORS WORKER
FACTORS

(a). Acute effects in < 24 hours

FOOD/
SKIN INHALATION
DRINKS (b). Chronic effects - 1 month
(c). Localized effects 1-3 months
BLOOD CIRCULATION
(d). Systemic effects in > 3 months
ACUTE / CHRONIC EFFECTS

TOXICITY INDICATORS TOXICITY INDICATORS

LC50 : LETHAL CONCENTRATION OF LD50 : LETHAL DOSE OF CHEMICAL

CHEMICAL IN AIR MIXTURE OR CONCENTRATION IN SOLUTIONS

THAT CAN KILL 50 %
SOLUTION THAT CAN KILL 50 %
OF TEST ANIMALS THROUGH
OF TEST ANIMALS THROUGH
INGESTION, INJECTION OR
INHALATION
APPLICATION

DOSE RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP DOSE TIME RELATIONSHIP

DEATH ACUTE EFFECTS

R
SERIOUS EFFECT T
E
I CHRONIC EFFECTS
S MEDIUM EFFECT
P M
O SLIGHT EFFECT
N E
S NO EFFECT
E

DOSE DOSE

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 FACTORS EFFECTING CHEMICAL TOXICITY
HODGE-STERNER DEGREE OF TOXICITY

EXPERIMENTAL LD50 DEGREE OF TOXICITY PROBABLE L.D. FOR A CHEMICALS HUMAN

70 KG PERSON

< 1.0 mg Dangerously Toxic A taste * ROUTE OF EXPOSURE * AGE

1.0 – 50 mg Seriously Toxic A Teaspoonful * TYPE OF CHEMICAL INVOLVED * SEX

50 – 500 mg Highly Toxic An ounce (30gm) * PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES * GENETICS
* LENGTH OF EXPOSURE TIME * IMMUNE STATUS
0.5-5 gm Moderately Toxic A Pint (50 gm)
* CONCENTRATION OF EXPOSURE * NUTRITIONAL
5 – 15 gm Slightly Toxic A Quart (95gm)
STATUS
> 15 gm Extremely Low Toxicity > A Quart
* EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL INTERACTION * CONCURRENT
DISEASE

ACUTE EFFECTS CHRONIC EFFECTS Statistics - Malaysia

(a). New cases of Poisoning & Accidents are
*ASPHYXIATION * CARCINOGENIC
1,077,738 kes every year with 27,000
Cancer cases (MOH, 1995)
*CORROSIVE * MUTAGENIC (b). Chemical processes in all aspects of
industries have grown (DOE M’sia, 1997)
*SENSITIZER * TERATOGENIC (c). No. of Workplace Accidents = 75,386
(DOSH, 2001).

* IRRITANT

International Incidents
International Statistics • On Dec. 3, 1984, Bhopal was the scene of the
worst industrial accident in human history

(a). Workplace = 250 Million / year
(b). Deaths in the Workplace =
330,000 / year
( WHO, 1997 : Annual Report 1997).
• 2,500 persons died with 200,000 injured
when toxic Methyl Isocyanate gas leaked
from a pesticide plant there(Union Carbide)
• The tragedy raised serious questions about
the safety of the chemical industry and the
legal and moral responsibilities of multi-
national corporations operating in Third
World countries
(Louvar & Louvar, 1998 and Grolier, 1996).

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 B. BAHAN BERBAHAYA KEPADA KESIHATAN
• 6. Kawalan terhadap keselamatan kimia &
( SUBSTANCES HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH )
bahan toksik ditempat kerja mula diberi
perhatian oleh JKKP melalui : • 1. DEFINISI :
* Panduan `Chemical Health Risk * BOLEH AKIBATKAN MORBIDITY &
Assessment ’ 1996, MORTALITI DIKALANGAN MANUSIA, DAN,
* Peraturan `Chemical Safety Data Sheet, * ADA CIRI-CIRI SEPERTI BERIKUT :
2000, (juga dikenali sebagai MSDS) (a). KUANTITI (QUANTITY ) YANG
* Akta Keselamatan & Kesihatan MENCUKUPI ,
Pekerjaan 1994 , dan ; (b). KEPEKATAN (CONCENTRATION) YANG
* Peraturan Pengelasan, Pembungkusan MENCUKUPI DARI SEGI
& Pelabelan Bahan Kimia, 1997. * FIZIKAL,
* ( Walaubagaimanapun, perhatian serius perlu diberi
* KIMIA &
bukan sahaja oleh majikan tetapi juga oleh pekerja).
* BIOLOGI.

• 2. APAKAH BAHAN BERBAHAYA DAN

* BAHAN INI BERPOTENSI UNTUK MEMBERI KESAN
BAGAIMANA MENGENALPASTINYA ?
BURUK KEPADA KESIHATAN MANUSIA ( KESAN
AKUT ATAU KRONIK) DAN KEPADA PERSEKITARAN 2.1. JENIS - JENIS BAHAN BERBAHAYA :
DARI BEBERAPA SEGI : * CECAIR ( LIQUID - ACID / ALKALI )
(a). TOKSIK ( TOXICITY ), * PEPEJAL ( SOLIDS BASED ON
(b). KOROSIF ( CORROSIVITY ),
AMBIENT TEMP. IN STORAGE)
(c). REAKTIVITI ( REACTIVITY ), * HABUK ( DUSTS - PM10 & PM2.5
(d). KEUPAYAAN MEMBAKAR ( IGNITIBILITY ), and POWDERS )
(e). BAHAN HAZAD YANG BERBAHAYA ( ACUTE * GAS ( FUMES ), DAN;
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL ) * VAPOR ( VAPORS - FROM ACIDS /
ALKALI )
* BAHAN TERSEBUT INI TERMASUK HASIL PROSES * GELOMBANG ( U.V.RAYS / LASER )
INDUSTRI. (USEPA, 2001).

DISAMBUNG … DISAMBUNG …
2.2.3. TOKSITI ( TOXICITY )
2.2. CIRI-CIRI BAHAN BERBAHAYA :
• A. HUMAN EFFECTS :
2.2.1. IGNITIBILITI ( FLAMMABILITY ) a. ACUTE EFFECTS ( IRRITATION / LESIONS )
(A) . LIQUID < 24 % ALCOHOL & FLASH POINT < 60 ºC b. SYSTEMIC EFFECTS ( NON-LETHAL / LETHAL )
(B). NON LIQUID - FIRE BY FRICTION c. CHRONIC EFFECTS ( CARCINOGENESIS -
- MOISTURE ABSORPTION MUTAGENIC / TERATOGENIC ).
- CHEMICAL CHANGES
(C). FLAMMABLE COMPRESSED GASES ( Ex. LPG ) • B. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS :
(D). OXIDIZERS (Ex. CHLORATES & PERMANGANATES) * LEACHING PROCESSES IN THE GROUND AND
GROUND WATER
2.2.2. KAKISAN ( CORROSIVITY ) + TOXICITY TESTS : TOXICITY CHARACTERISTIC
(A). AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS : pH ACIDIC <2 LEACHING PROCESS ( TCLP )
A TEST TO MIMIC RAIN WATER LEACHING
pH ALKALI > 12.5
THROUGH SOLID WASTE & AMOUNT OF TOXIC
(B). LIQUIDS : CORRODING STEEL SAE 1020 /
CONSTITUENTS RELEASED EXCEEDING STANDARDS.
@ RATE OF > 6.35 MM / YEAR @ 55 ºC.

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 DISAMBUNG …
2.2.4. REAKTIVITI ( REACTIVITY )
(A). REACT WITH WATER VIOLENTLY
(B). PRODUCE TOXIC GASES
(C). EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES
(D). UNSTABLE
(E). EXPLOSIVES
(F). CONTAINING CYANIDE / SULFIDE.
APAKAH KESAN KEPADA KESIHATAN ?
( EFFECTS / DAMAGES TO HEALTH ? ).
3. KESAN KESIHATAN MENGIKUT CARA
KEMASUKAN ( HEALTH EFFECTS BASED ON
ROUTES OF ENTRY )
3.1. MELALUI KULIT ( DERMAL EXPOSURES )
• KESAN AKUT / KRONIK KEPADA MATA
/ KULIT
DAN SISTEMIK ( CNS / PNS )
• BOLEH MEMASUKI BADAN MELALUI
SISTEM DARAH DAN LIMPA ( SICKLE
CELL SYNDROME )
• KESAN ALAHAN PADA KULIT /MATA
(ALLERGY)
3.3. MELALUI MAKANAN & AIR
( INGESTION )
• MEMBAWA KESAN BURUK AKUT
( ACUTE )
eg. Nausea, vomiting or gastro-enteritis.
• KESAN KRONIK ( CHRONIC )
eg. Hepatitis , anemia, leukemia, etc.
• KESAN SISTEMIK ( SYSTEMIC )
• eg. All form of cancers, vital organ
failure - liver, kidneys.
DISAMBUNG …
2.2.5. LETHALITI ( LETHALITY )
(A). ORAL DOSE : LD 50 < 500 MG/KG IN RATS
(B). SKIN ABSORPTION : LD 50 < 1000 MG/KG.
IN RATS
(C). INHALATION : LC 50 < 2000 MG/CU.M.
(D). INHALATION : LC 50 < 1000 PPM GAS /
VAPOR IN RATS.
( * LD 50 : DOSE CAUSING 50 % DEATHS IN 100 RATS
* LC 50 : CONCENTRATION CAUSING 50 % DEATHS
IN 100 RATS )
[ SINGLE DOSE IN LIQUIDS ].
3.2. MELALUI BERNAFAS UDARA
( INHALATION )
• MEROSAKKAN PARU-PARU ( ALVEOLUS /
BRONCHUS IN THE LUNGS
• KESAN ALAHAN ( ALLERGY)
• BOLEH MEMASUKI BADAN MELALUI
SISTEM DARAH
MENGAWAL RISIKO KESIHATAN
CONTROLLING HEALTH RISKS IN THE WORKPLACE
4 . HIRARKI KAWALAN
( HIERARCHY OF CONTROL )
4.1. Kawalan pengurusan ( Administrative measures )
* Menghentikan Penggunaan Bahan Berhazad
( Elimination Hazardous Substances & Chemicals)
* Penggantian Kimia Yg. Kurang Berisiko / Proses Yang
Lebih Selamat ( Substitution with Less Hazardous
Chemicals / Safer Processing )
* `Job rotation’
* Polisi kesihatan keselamatan dan kesihatan pekerjaan
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 Disambung ... Disambung ...

4.4. Melatih Pekerja (Training) - Semua aspek

keselamatan pekerjaan (Eg. First Aid training & Fire
4.2. Cara Kejuruteraan ( Engineering Methods ) :
fighting)
4.5. Prosedur Kerja yg. Selamat ( Safe Work
( a). Pengudaraan - Di Punca
- (Local Ventilation@ source) Procedures ) -Manual keselamatan kerja(SOP)
- Umum ( General Ventilation ) 4.6. Peralatan Keselamatan Pekerja ( Personal
Protective Equipment ) ( * perkara ini
( b). Mengurangkan Pendedahan dijelaskan di slaid berikut )
( Minimise Exposure ) 4.7. Menyediakan Fasiliti Kebajikan dan
Kebersihan ( Welfare & Hygiene Facilities )
( c ). Mengawal di punca (Isolation at Source) ...
- Penubuhan JK/KKP (OSH Committee)

5(a). PERALATAN KESELAMATAN PEKERJA

Disambung ...
( Personal Protective Equipment - PPE )
1. KEPERLUAN UMUM ( GENERAL REQUIREMENTS )
4.8. Penggunaan Tanda-Tanda Keselamatan 2. PERLINDUNGAN MATA DAN MUKA
( Hazard Signs ) ( EYE & FACE PROTECTION )
(a). ` EYEWASH’ (b). ` EMERGENCY SHOWER ‘
4.9. Pemeriksaan di Tempat Kerja ( Workplace 3. PERLINDUNGAN PERNAFASAN ( RESPIRATORY
Auditing ). PROTECTION )
4. PERLINDUNGAN KEPALA ( HEAD PROTECTION )
4.10. Mengawal proses pengangkutan 5. PERLINDUNGAN KAKI ( FOOT PROTECTION )
(Transportation and handling) 6. PERLINDUNGAN LETRIK ( ELECTRICAL
PROTECTION )
4.11. Prosedur pelabelan yg. betul ( Proper 7. PERLINDUNGAN TANGAN ( HAND PROTECTION )
8. PERLINDUNGAN SEMASA RESPONS KECEMASAN &
labelling )
PENGURUSAN SISA BERBAHAYA (HAZMAT HANDLING )
4.12. Pemeriksaan and pengawasan kesihatan (Refer to conceptual framework-following slides)
9. PERLINDUNGAN DARIPADA BAHAN KIMIA
pekerja ( Monitoring of workers health ) 10. TEKANAN SUHU TINGGI ( HEAT STRESS )
11. FASILITI PERTOLONGAN CEMAS ( FIRST AID FACILITIES)

5. (b).LANGKAH KESELAMATAN LAIN: Disambung...

( PERSONAL SAFETY MEASURES )
5.1. PENJAGAAN PERALATAN ( MAINTENANCE OF
CONTROL EQUIPMENT ) 5.6. RADIATION SAFETY :-
5.2. PENYAMPAIAN MAKLUMAT , ARAHAN &
LATIHAN KEPADA PEKERJA ( PROVIDING (a). Non - Ionising Radiation
INFORMATION , INSTRUCTION & TRAINING ) (EMF,UV, MW,INFRA-RED & LASER)
5.3. PEMANTAUAN PENDEDAHAN DAN UDARA
(b). Ionising Radiation ( ALFA, BETA,
PERSEKITARAN TEMPAT KERJA - TERMASUK
( PERSONAL EXPOSURE MONITORING , AIR GAMMA & X-RAY )
QUALITY/ GAS MONITORING ) (c). Radioactive Wastes ( MINT )
5.4. PENGAWASAN KESIHATAN PEKERJA
(d). Safety Measures :
( WORKERS HEALTH SURVEILLANCE )
* UJIAN SPIROMETER PARU-PARU ( SPIROMETER ) - Occupational Exposures
5.5. PROSEDUR KECEMASAN & PERTOLONGAN - Medical Measures.
CEMAS ( EMERGENCY RESPONSE PROCEDURES
& FIRST AID ).

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 Disambung...
5.7. NOISE AND HEARING CONSERVATION PROGRAM:
(A). SOUND(<55dBA/TWA) & NOISE(< 90 dBA/TWA ),
(B). SOUND LEVEL MEASUREMENTS (DOSIMETER),
(C). HEARING LOSS - AUDIOMETER
( THRESHOLD SHIFT)
(D). OVERVIEW OF STANDARDS ( REGULATIONS)
- FMA,1967 & NOISE REGULATIONS,
- EQA 1974 & REGULATIONS.
(E). NOISE CONTROL & ABATEMENT.
- ENGINEERING CONTROL
- P.P.E. - EAR PLUG , EAR MUFF,
7. PENGURUSAN KESELAMATAN & KESIHATAN
PEKERJAAN : ( O.S.H. MANAGEMENT ).
7.1. DIBAWAH AKTA KESIHATAN DAN KESELAMATAN
PEKERJAAN, 1994 - JKKP MESTI DITUBUH DIMANA
ADA > 40 PEKERJA.
7.2. AHLI JAWATANKUASA ( SAMA BANYAK MEWAKILI
PIHAK MAJIKAN DAN PEKERJA - DIPILIH SENDIRI ).
7.3. JAWATAN UTAMA DALAM J/K - KKP :
(A). PENGERUSI - KETUA EKSEKUTIF / KETUA JABATAN
(B). SETIAUSAHA - S.H.O. / SESIAPA YANG DILANTIK
(C). AHLI-AHLI SAMA BANYAK MEWAKILI MAJIKAN
DAN PEKERJA.
7.4. TUGAS-TUDAS DAN TANGGUNGJAWAB JKKP.
7.5. SEORANG PERLU DILANTIK SEBAGAI PEGAWAI
KESELAMATAN DAN KESIHATAN PEKERJAAN
DIBAWAH PERATURAN P.K.K. 1997.
8.21. WHO. (1997) : ANNUAL REPORT 1997.
6. PERUNDANGAN :
( LAWS ).
6.1. AKTA KESIHATAN DAN KESELAMATAN PEKERJAAN,
1994. (OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ACT, 1994)
6.2. PERATURAN-PERATURAN BERKAITAN ( RELEVANT
REGULATIONS )
6.3. PANDUAN - PANDUAN JKKP / KKM ( DOSH / MOH
GUIDELINES )
6.4. AKTA KILANG DAN JENTERA, 1967 ( FACTORIES AND
MACHINERIES ACT, 1967 )
6.5. UNDANG-UNDANG LAIN ( OTHER RELEVANT LAWS )
– LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT , 1976
– ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT , 1974
– PESTICIDES ACT , 1974.
8. RUJUKAN ( REFERENCES )
8.1. JKKP : AKTA KESIHATAN DAN KESELAMATAN PEKERJAAN, 1994.
8.2. JAS : AKTA KUALITI ALAM SEKELING,1974.
8.3. PBT : AKTA KERAJAAAN TEMPATAN ,1976.
8.4. JAB.PERTANIAN MALAYSIA : PESTICIDES ACT , 1974.
8.5. KKM : AKTA MAKANAN,1983 & PERATURAN-PERATUARN,1985.
8.6. JKKP : CHEMICAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 1996 - J.K.K.P.
8.7. KKM : LAPORAN TAHUNAN K.K.M. 1995.
8.8. JKKP : LAPORAN TAHUNAN J.K.K.P. 1998
8.9. SOCSO - LAPORAN TAHUNAN 1997.
8.10. JAS : LAPORAN TAHUNAN J.A.S. 1997.
8.11. USEPA : MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES’ ( 1999 ).
8.12. WILLIAMS,PL & BURSON JL; (1985). INDUSTRIAL TOXICOLOGY.
8.13. MSIS ( 1987 ) SAFETY-HEALTH & WORKING CONDITIONS MANUAL - MALAYSIA
SOCIETY OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETY , SOCSO & I. L.O.
8.14. SHILLITO, D; ( 1994 )IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT.
8.15. DUFFUS, J; ( 1999 ) CHEMICAL SAFETY-HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT & WORKPLACE.
- UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
8.16. WAITE, P; ( 1999) HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SAFETY TRAINING PROGRAM
MANUAL - DENISON UNIVERSITY.
8.17. LOUVAR, JF & LOUVAR , DB; ( 1998 ) HEALTH & ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
ANALYSIS.
8.18. HUGHES, WW; ( 1996) ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY.
8.19. AMERICAN RED CROSS ( 1999 ) - DISASTER RESPONSE PROGRAM.
8.20. UNEP. ( 1999 ) : INTERNATIONAL PROGRAM CHEMICAL SAFETY.