Nervous system part 1

Basic terminology

Prefix Meaning
Root Word Meaning
an-, a- lack of, without
arachn/o spider
dura- Hard
electr/o electricity
echo- sound
hemat/o blood
epi- above, upon
hydr/o water, fluid
hemi- half
quadr/i four
poly- many
thromb/o clot
sub- beneath, below

Suffix Meaning

-algia pain

-cele hernia,
protrusion

-gram picture,
record

-graphy process of
recording

-itis inflammation

- softening
malacia

-oma tumor

-osis condition

- surgical
o/tomy incision

- partial
paresis paralysis

-pathy disease

-plegia paralysis
Organization of the Nervous System
 Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal
cord
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – spinal
nerves, cranial nerves
 Sensory division
 Motor division
Motor divisions
 Somatic Nervous System – conscious control
 Autonomic Nervous System – involuntary
 Sympathetic Nervous System
 Parasympathetic Nervous System
 Enteric Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System
 Sensory function
 Integrative function
 Motor function
Histology of Neuron
 Neurons – nerve cells that possesses electrical
excitability
 Stimulus – any change that initiates an action
potential
 Action potential – nerve impulse
Parts of a Neuron
 Cell body (perikaryon/soma)
 Nissl bodies – free ribosomes and rough
endoplasmic reticulum
 Neurofibrils and microtubules – cytoskeleton
 Lipofuscin – yellowish brown pigment
 Dendrites – receives signals
 Axon – sends signals
 Axon hillock
 Axoplasm
 Axolemma
Parts of a Neuron
 Synapse – site of communication between a
neuron and another neuron or cell
 Neurotransmitter
 Slow axonal transport – moves materials at 1-
5mm per day (anterograde)
 Fast axonal transport – moves materials at 200-
400m per day (anterograde & retrograde)
Neuroglia
 Structural support of the nervous system
 CNS:
 Astrocytes – largest and most numerous
 Microglia – phagocytes/WBC
 Ependymal cells – produce
cerebrospinal fluid
 Oligodendrocytes – produce myelin
 PNS:
 Schwann cells – produce myelin
 Satellite cells – regulate exchange of
materials
Myelination
 Axons can either be myelinated or
unmyelinated
 Neurolemma – outer layer of the Schwann cell
 Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath
Collections of Nervous Tissue
 Ganglion – cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the
PNS
 Nucleus – cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the
CNS
 Nerve – bundle of axons in the PNS
 Tract – bundle of axons in the CNS
 White matter – myelinated axons
 Gray matter – contains neuronal cell bodies,
dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals,
and neuroglia
Electrical Signals in Neurons
 Graded potentials – short-distance
communication
 Action potentials – long-distance
communication
Resting Membrane Potential
 Exists because of a small build-up of negative
ions in the inside of the membrane, and an
equal build-up of positive ions outside the
membrane
 Such separation of positive and negative
electrical charges is a form of potential energy,
measured in volts or millivolts (mV)
 RMP in neurons: -40 to -90 mV (typical -70 mV)
 A cell that exhibits a membrane potential is said
to be polarized
Factors of RMP
 Unequal distribution of ions in the ECF and ICF
 Inability of most anions to leave the cell
 Electrogenic nature of the sodium-potassium
ATPases
Graded Potentials
 Small deviation from the resting membrane
potential that makes the membrane either
more polarized or less polarized
 Vary in amplitude, depending on the strength of
stimulus
 Most graded potentials occur in the dendrites
and cell bodies
Action Potentials
 Sequence of rapidly occurring events that
decrease and reverse the membrane potential
and then eventually restore it to the resting
state
  Depolarization – membrane potential becomes
positive
 Repolarization – membrane potential is
restored to resting state
 Hyperpolarization – temporarily becomes more
negative than the resting level
 Threshold – cut-off for depolarization to occur
(about -55 mV in neurons)
 Subthreshold stimulus – AP will not occur
 Threshold stimulus – AP will occur
 Suprathreshold stimulus – several AP will form
All or None Principle
An action potential either occurs completely,
or it does not occur at all.
Depolarization Phase
 Voltage-gated Na+ channels open rapidly
 Influx of Na+ causes the depolarizing phase of
the action potential
 Inflow of Na+ changes the membrane potential
from -55 mV to +30 mV
Repolarization Phase
 Voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed
 Voltage-gated K+ channels open slowly, causing
outflow of K+ ions
 Sodium-potassium pump
Refractory Period
 Period of time after an action potential begins
during which an excitable cell cannot generate
another action potential in response to normal
threshold stimulus
 Absolute refractory period
 Relative refractory period
Propagation of Action Potential
 Saltatory conduction – propagation of action
potential that occurs along myelinated axons
 Continuous conduction – occurs in
unmyelinated axons and in muscle fibers
Factors that affect speed of propagation
 Amount of myelination
 Axon diameter
 Temperature
Classification of Nerve Fibers
 A fibers – largest diameter of myelinated axons;
associated with touch, pressure, joint position,
Neurotransmitters
Excitatory Inhibitory Both
• Glutamate – • Gamma • Acetylcholine –
brain aminobutyr
synapses ic acid
(GABA) –
some thermal and pain sensations, and motor
neurons of skeletal muscle
 B fibers – myelinated axons; constitute
autonomic motor neurons
 C fibers – smallest diameter of unmyelinated
axons; associated with pain, touch, pressure,
heat and cold, and autonomic motor fibers to
the heart, smooth muscles, and glands
Signal Transmission at Synapses
 Axodendritic
 Axosomatic
 Axoaxonic
Electrical Synapses
 Action potentials conduct directly between the
plasma membranes of adjacent neurons
through gap junctions
 Common in visceral smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and the developing embryo
 Advantages:
 Faster communication
 Synchronization
Chemical Synapses
 Separated by a synaptic cleft
 Uses neurotransmitters for communication
between cells
Structure of Neurotransmitter Receptors
 Ionotropic receptors – type of ligand-gated
channel that has a neurotransmitter binding site
and an ion channel
 Metabotropic receptors – contains a
neurotransmitter binding site but lacks an ion
channel
Removal of Neurotransmitter
 Diffusion
 Enzymatic degradation
 Uptake by cells
Spatial and Temporal Summation of Postsynaptic
Potentials
 Spatial summation – summation of postsynaptic
potentials in response to stimuli that occur at
different locations in the membrane at the
same time
 Temporal summation – summation of
postsynaptic potentials in response to stimuli
that occur at the same location at different
times
ionotropic or
metabotropic
receptors
 CNS
• Aspartate • Glycine • Norepinephrine –
arousal, dreaming,
and mood
• ATP and other • Epinephrine
purines – both
CNS and PNS
• Nitric oxide – • Dopamine –
brain, spinal emotional
cord, adrenal responses,
glands, and addictive
nerves to the behaviors, and
penis pleasurable
experiences
• Carbon • Serotonin – sensory
monoxide – reception,
vasodilation, temperature
memory, regulation, mood
olfaction, control, appetite,
vision, and sleep
thermoregulat
ion, insulin
release, and
anti-
inflammatory

Neuropeptides
 Neurotransmitters consisting of 3-40 amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Neural circuits
a. Diverging circuit
b. Converging circuit
c. Reverberating circuit
d. Parallel after-discharge circuit
Regeneration and Repair of Nervous Tissue
 Plasticity – capability to change and adapt
  Neurogenesis – birth of new neurons from undifferentiated stem cells
 In the PNS, damage to dendrites and myelinated axons may be repaired if the cell body and Schwann cell
remains intact
 In the CNS, little or no repair of damage to neurons occurs
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Nervous system part two
Neuroanatomy
Spinal Cord
Anatomy
Protective structures:
 Vertebral column
 Meninges
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater

Spinal Nerves  Branches – branching out from the spinal nerve

 Associated with the spinal cord is called rami (ramus)
 Part of the PNS, with parallel bundles of axons  Anterior rami
and neuroglial cells  Posterior rami
 The human body has 31 pairs of spinal nerves  Meningeal branch
 Connective tissue covering:  Plexuses – networks of peripheral nerves
 Epineurium  Cervical plexus
 Perineurium  Brachial plexus
 Endoneurium  Lumbar plexus
Distribution of Spinal Nerves  Sacral plexus
  Intercostal nerves extension interossei,
Dermatomes lumbricals
 Skin over the entire body is supplied by somatic
sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from Myotome Action Muscles
the skin into the spinal cord and brain
L2 Hip flexion Iliopsoas,
 The area of the skin that provides sensory input
sartorius,
to the CNS via one pair of spinal nerves
tensor fascia
Myotomes
latae,
 Muscle or groups of muscle supplied by one pair
pectineus
of spinal nerve
Myotome Action Muscles L3 Knee Quadriceps
extension femoris
C5 Shoulder Deltoids,
abduction supraspinatus, L4 Ankle Tibialis
and lateral teres minor, dorsiflexion anterior,
rotation infraspinatus extensor
digitorum
C6 Elbow Biceps brachii, longus
flexion, wrist brachialis, wrist
extension extensors L5 Big toe Extensor
extension hallucis longus,
C7 Elbow Triceps brachii, extensor
extension, anconeus, hallucis brevis
wrist flexion wrist flexors
S1 Ankle Gastrocnemius,
C8 Wrist ulnar Flexor carpi plantarflexion soleus, tibialis
deviation, ulnaris, and eversion posterior,
finger flexion extensor carpi peroneus
ulnaris, flexor longus,
digitorum peroneus
profundus, brevis
flexor pollicis
longus
T1 Finger Extensor
abduction digitorum,
and dorsal
Cervical plexus

Brachial plexus
Lumbar plexus

Lumbosacral plexus
 Sensory and Motor Tracts
 Sensory tracts – ascending tracts
 Motor tracts – descending tracts
Reflex Arc
1. Sensory receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Integrating center – interneurons
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector organ
Brain Organization, Protection, and Blood Supply
Major Parts of the Brain
 Brainstem – continuous with the spinal cord and
consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and
midbrain
 Cerebellum – posterior to the brainstem
 Diencephalon
 Cerebrum – largest part of the brain
Protective Coverings of the Brain
 Dura mater
 Falx cerebri – separates the two
cerebral hemispheres
 Falx cerebelli – separates two cerebellar
hemispheres
 Tentorium cerebelli – separates the
occipital lobe from the cerebellum
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater
Blood-Brain Barrier
 Tight junctions that seal together the
endothelial cells of brain blood capillaries and a
thick basement membrane that surrounds
capillaries
 Allows certain substances in blood to enter
brain tissue and prevents passage to others
 Lipid-soluble substances, steroid hormones,
alcohol, barbiturates, nicotine, caffeine, and
water molecules easily cross the BBB
Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Clear, colorless liquid composed primarily of
water that protects the brain and spinal cord
from chemical and physical injuries
 Total volume: 80-150 mL in adults
 Functions of CSF:
 Mechanical protection
 Chemical protection
 Circulation
Formation of CSF in the Ventricles
 Majority of CSF production is from the choroid
plexus, a network of blood capillaries in the
walls of the ventricles
Medulla Oblongata
 Begins at the foramen magnum and extends to
the inferior border of the pons
  Consist of sensory (ascending) tracts and motor  Makes up 80% of the diencephalon
(descending) tracts  Interthalamic adhesion – joins the right and left
 Pyramids – large corticospinal tracts halves of the thalamus
 Decussation of pyramids – crossing of axons  Major nuclei:
Medulla Oblongata nuclei  Anterior nucleus – emotions and
 Cardiovascular center memory
 Medullary respiratory center  Medial nuclei – emotions, learning,
 Vomiting center memory, and cognition
 Deglutition center  Lateral group – emotions and help
 Centers for sneezing, coughing, hiccupping integrate sensory information
 Inferior olivary nucleus  Ventral anterior nucleus – movement
 Gustatory nucleus control
 Cochlear nucleus  Ventral lateral nucleus – movement
 Vestibular nucleus control
Pons  Ventral posterior nucleus – somatic
 Directly superior to the medulla and anterior to sensations
the cerebellum  Lateral geniculate nucleus – visual
 Pontine respiratory group – control breathing impulses
Midbrain  Medial geniculate nucleus – auditory
 Extends from the pons to the diencephalon impulses
 Anterior part – cerebral peduncles  Intralaminar nuclei – arousal and
 Posterior part – tectum integration of sensory and motor
 Superior colliculi – visual center information
 Inferior colliculi – auditory center  Midline nucleus – memory and olfaction
 Substantia nigra  Reticular nucleus – monitors, filters,
 Red nucleus and integrates activities of other
Reticular Formation thalamic nuclei
 Reticular activating system (RAS) – consists of Diencephalon: Hypothalamus
sensory axons that project to the cerebral  Small part of the diencephalon located inferior
cortex, both directly and through the thalamus to the thalamus
 Most important function: consciousness  Major groups of nuclei:
 Active during arousal  Mamillary region – relay stations for
 Helps maintain attention reflexes related to the sense of smell
 Prevents sensory overload  Tuberal region – widest part of the
 Inactivation produces sleep hypothalamus
Cerebellum  Supraoptic region – lies superior to the
 Occupies the inferior and posterior aspects of optic chiasm
the cranial activity  Preoptic region – anterior to the
 Vermis – central constricted area supraoptic region, participates in
 Cerebellar hemispheres – lateral lobes regulating certain autonomic activities
 Lobes:  Major functions:
 Anterior lobe  Control of the ANS
 Posterior lobe  Production of hormones
 Flocculonodular lobe  Regulation of emotional and behavioral
 Peduncles: patterns
 Superior cerebellar peduncle  Regulation of eating and drinking
 Middle cerebellar peduncle  Control of body temperature
 Inferior cerebellar peduncle  Regulation of circadian rhythms
 Primary functions: Diencephalon: Epithalamus
 Balance/equilibrium  Small region superior and posterior to the
 Coordination thalamus
 Muscle tone  Consists of the pineal gland and habenular
Diencephalon: Thalamus nuclei
  Pineal gland – secretes the hormone melatonin  Caudate nucleus
 Habenular nuclei – emotional response to  Accessory structures:
olfaction  Substantia nigra
Cerebrum  Subthalamic nucleus
 Seat of intelligence Limbic System
 Provides us with the ability to read, write, speak  Ring of structures on the inner border of the
 To make calculations and compose music cerebrum and floor of the diencephalon
 To remember the past, plan the future, and  Main components:
imagine things that have never existed before  Limbic lobe – includes the cingulate
 Consists of: gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus
 Outer cerebral cortex  Dentate gyrus
 Internal region of white matter  Amygdala
Cerebral Cortex  Septal nuclei
 Region of gray matter that forms the outer rim  Mamillary bodies
of the cerebrum  Olfactory bulbs
 Gyri – folds  Fornix, stria terminalis, stria medullaris,
 Sulci – shallow grooves medial forebrain bundle, and
 Corpus callosum – a broad band of white matter mammillothalamic tract
that internally connects the two cerebral  Functions:
hemispheres  Plays a primary role in a range of
emotions, including pain, pleasure,
Lobes of the Cerebrum docility, affection, and anger
 Frontal lobe  Functions in the sexual drive
 Parietal lobe  Also involved in olfaction and memory
 Temporal lobe Functional Organization of the Cortex
 Occipital lobe  Sensory areas – receive sensory information
 Insula/Insular lobe and are involved in perception, conscious
Cerebral White Matter awareness of sensation
 Association tracts/fibers  Motor areas – control the execution of
 Commissural tracts/fibers voluntary movements
 Projection tracts/fibers  Association areas – deal with more complex
Basal Ganglia/Nuclei integrative functions such as memory,
 Main nuclei: emotions, reasoning, will, judgment, personality
 Globus pallidus traits, and intelligence
 Putamen

Cranial Nerves
 CN I – Olfactory nerve
 CN II – Optic nerve
 CN III – Oculomotor nerve
 CN IV – Trochlear nerve
 CN V – Trigeminal nerve
 CN VI – Abducens nerve