UNIT-I

General Concepts
Syllabus:

Introduction to distribution systems, Load modeling and characteristics.

Coincidence factor, contribution factor loss factor – relationship between the load
factor and loss factor. Classification of loads (residential, commercial, agricultural
and Industrial) and their characteristics

Course Objectives:

 To study different factors of Distribution system

 To differentiate different load models
Learning outcomes:

 Able to understand the various factors of distribution system

 Able to understand load characteristic and load modeling

1.1 Introduction to Distribution Systems:

The electric utility industry was born in 1882 when the first electric power
station, Pearl Street Electric Station in New York City, went into operation.

Fig 1.1 Electrical power system

In general, the definition of an electric power system includes a generating,

a transmission, a n d a distribution system. The economic importance of the
distribution system is very high, and the amount of investment involved
dictates careful planning, design, construction, and operation.
The objective distribution system planning is to assure that the growing
demand for electricity in terms of increasing growth rates and high load
densities can be satisfied in an optimum way by additional distribution
Systems from the secondary conductors through the bulk power substations,
which are both technically adequate and reasonably economical.

1.2 Factors Affecting Distribution System planning:

The number and complexity of t h e considerations affecting s y s t e m p l a n n i n g
appears initially to be staggering. Demands for ever-increasing power capacity,
higher distribution voltages, more automation, and greater control
sophistication constitute only the beginning of a list of such factors.The
planning problem is an attempt to minimize t h e c o s t of sub transmission,
Substations, feeders, laterals, etc., as well as the cost of losses.

1.2.1 Load Forecasting:

The load growth of the geographical area served by company is the most
important factor in the expansion of the distribution system. Therefore,
forecasting of load increases and system reaction tothese increases is essential
to the planning process.

There a r e two common Time scales of importance to Load Forecasting:

1. Long- range with time horizons on the order of 15 or 20 years away, and
2. Short-range, with time horizons of up to 5 years distant.

Fig.1.2 Factors affecting load forecast

Factors a f f e c t i n g load forecast

1. Alternative Energy Sources
2. Load density
3. Population growth
4. Historical Date
5. Geographical data
6. Land Use
7. City Plans
8. Industrial Plans
9. Community development plans

1.2.2 Substation Expansion: The planner makes a decision based on

tangible or intangible information. In the s y s t e m expansion plan the
present system configuration, capacity and the forecasted loads can play
major roles.
Factors a f f e c t i n g substation expansion

1. Feeder limitations
2. Transmission Voltage
3. Tie Capacity
4. Load Forecast
5. Present capacity & Configurations
6. Projection limitations
7. Physical size and land availability
8. Economic factors
9. Power Losses

Fig 1.3 Factors affecting substation expansion

1.2.3 Substation Site Selection:

The substation sitting process can b e described as a scr ee ni ng
procedure through w h i c h all possible locations for a site are passed. An
initial screening is applied by using a set of considerations, e.g., safety,
engineering, system planning, institutional, economics, aesthetics. This
stage of the site selection mainly indicates the areas that are unsuitable for
site development. Thus the service region is screened down to a set of
candidate sites for substation construction.

Candidate sites are categorized into three basic groups:

1. Sites that are unsuitable f o r development in the foreseeable future

2. Sites that have some promise but are not selected for detailed
evaluation during the planning cycle, and

3. Candidate Sites that are to be studied i n more detail.

 Fig 1.4 Factors a f f e c t i n g Site Selection

Fig 1.5 Substation site selection procedure.

1.2.4 Total Cost: The substation planning must be within the cost limits
and distribution of power in the large amount with low losses.

Factors a f f e c t i n g total Cost:

 Fig .1.6 Factors affecting total cost of the distribution system expansion .

1.3 Present Distribution S y s t e m Planning Techniques:

System planners in the industry utilize computer programs, usually based on
ad hoc techniques, such as load flow programs, radial or loop l oad flow
programs, short-circuit and fault-current calculation programs

Figure 1-7 shows a functional block diagram o f the distribution system

planning process

The planning procedure always consists of our major a c t i v i t i e s : load

forecasting, distribution system configuration design, substation
expansion, and substation site selection.

Configuration design starts a t the cu st om er level. The latter provides the

reduction from primary voltage t o customer-level v o l t a g e . The distribution
transformer loads are then combined to determine the demands on the
primary distribution system. The primary d i s t r i b u t i o n system loads are
then assigned to substations that step d o w n f r o m s u b transmission voltage.
The distribution system loads, in turn, determine the size and location
(siting) of the substations as well as the route and capacity of the associated
sub transmission lines.

1. Service Continuity
2. The maximum allowable peak-load v o l t a g e drop to the most
remote customer on the secondary.
3. The maximum allowable voltage dip occasioned by the starting of a
motor of specified starting current characteristics at the most remote
point on the secondary.
4. The maximum allowable peak load
5. Service reliability
 6. Power losses

Fig . 1.7 A block diagram of a typical distribution system planning process.

1.4 Distribution System Planning in the Future:

In the previous sections, some of the past and present techniques used by
the planning engineers of the utility industry in performing the distribution
system planning have been discussed. Also, the factors affecting the distribution
system planning decisions have been reviewed. Furthermore, the need for a
systematic approach to distribution planning has been emphasized. The following
sections examine what today’s trends are likely to portend for the future of the
planning process.
1.4.1 Economic Factors
There are several economic factors that will have significant effects on
distribution planning. The first of these is inflation. Fueled by energy shortages,
energy source conversion cost, environmental concerns, and government deficits,
inflation will continue to be a major factor. The second important economic factor
will be the increasing expense of acquiring capital. As long as inflation continues
to decrease the real value of the dollar, attempts will be made by government to
reduce the money supply. This in turn will increase the competition for attracting
the capital necessary for expansions in distribution systems. The third factor that
must be considered is increasing difficulty in raising customer rates. This rate
increase “inertia” also stems in part from inflation as well as from the results of
customers being made more sensitive to rate increases by consumer activist
groups.

1.4.2 Demographic Factors

Important demographic developments will affect distribution system
planning in the near future. The first of these is a trend that has been dominant
over the last 50 years: the movement of the population from the rural areas to the
metropolitan areas. The forces that initially drove this migration—economic in
nature—are still at work. The number of single-family farms has continuously
declined during this century, and there are no visible trends that would reverse
this population flow into the larger urban areas. As population leaves the country
sides, population must also leave the smaller towns that depend on the country
sides for economic life. This trend has been a consideration of distribution
planners for years and represents no new effect for which account must be taken.
However, the migration from the suburbs to the urban and near-urban areas is a
new trend attributable to the energy crisis. This trend is just beginning to be
visible, and it will result in an increase in multifamily dwellings in areas that
already have high population densities.
1.4.3 Technological Factors
The final class of factors, which will be important to the distribution system
planner, has arisen from technological advances that have been encouraged by
the energy crisis. The first of these is the improvement in fuel cell technology. The
output power of such devices has risen to the point where in the areas with high
population density, large banks of fuel cells could supply significant amounts of
the total power requirements. Other nonconventional energy sources that might
be a part of the total energy grid could appear at the customer level. Among the
possible candidates would be solar and wind-driven generators. There is some
pressure from consumer groups to force utilities to accept any surplus energy
from these sources for use in the total distribution network. If this trend becomes
important, it would change drastically the entire nature of the distribution
system as it is known today.

1.5 Role of the Computer in Distribution Planning

1.5.1 System Approach
A collection of computer programs to solve the analysis problems of a
designer necessarily constitutes neither an efficient problem-solving system nor
such a collection even when the output of one can be used as the input of
another. The system approach to the design of a useful tool for the designer
begins by examining the types of information required and its sources. The view
taken is that this information generates decisions and additional information that
pass from one stage of the design process to another. At certain points, it is noted
that the human engineer must evaluate the information generated and add his or
her input. Finally, the results must be displayed for use and stored for later
reference. With this conception of the planning process, the system approach
seeks to automate as much of the process as possible, ensuring in the process
that the various transformations of information are made as efficiently as
possible. One representation of this information flow is shown in Figure 1.8,
where the outer circle represents the interface between the engineer and the
system. Analysis programs forming part of the system are supported by a
database management system (DBMS) that stores, retrieves, and modifies various
data on distribution systems.

Fig 1.8 Compute role in distribution system planning

1.5.2 Database Concept
As suggested in Figure 1.8, the database plays a central role in the
operation of such a system. It is in this area that technology has made some
significant strides in the past few years so that not only is it possible to store vast
quantities of data economically, but it is also possible to retrieve desired data
with access times on the order of seconds. The DBMS provides the interface
between the process that requires access to the data and the data themselves.
The particular organization that is likely to emerge as the dominant one in the
near future is based on the idea of a relation. Operations on the database are
performed by the DBMS.
1.5.3 New Automated Tools
In addition to the database management program and the network analysis
programs, it is expected that some new tools will emerge to assist the designer in
arriving at the optimal design. One such new tool that has appeared in the
literature is known as a network editor .The network consists of a graph whose
vertices are network components, such as transformers and loads, and edges
that represent connections among the components. The features of the network
editor may include network objects, for example, feeder line sections, secondary
line sections, distribution transformers, or variable or fixed capacitors, control
mechanisms, and command functions. A primitive network object comprises a
name, an object class description, and a connection list. The control mechanisms
may provide the planner with natural tools for correct network construction and
modification.

1.6 Load Curves:

The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect
to (w.r.t) time is known as a load curve.
The load on a power station is never constant; it varies from time to time.
These load variations during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours) are recorded half-
hourly or hourly and are plotted against time on the graph. The curve thus
obtained is known as daily load curve as it shows the variations of load w.r.t.
time during the day. Fig. 1.9 shows a typical daily load curve of a power station.
It is clear that load on the power station is varying, being maximum at 6 P.M. in
this case. It may be seen that load curve indicates at a glance the general
character of the load that is being imposed on the plant. Such a clear
representation cannot be obtained from tabulated figures. The monthly load
curve can be obtained from the daily load curves of that month. For this purpose,
average values of power over a month at different times of the day are calculated
and then plotted on the graph. The monthly load curve is generally used to fix the
rates of energy. The yearly load curve is obtained by considering the monthly load
curves of that particular year. The yearly load curve is generally used to
determine the annual load factor.

Fig .1.9
Importance: The daily load curves have attained a great importance in
generation as they supply the following information readily:
(i) The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during
different hours of the day.
(ii) The area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the
day.

Units generated/day = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve.

(iii) The highest point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand
on the station on that day.
(iv) The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours
gives the average
load on the station in the day.

Average load =
 (v) The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in
which it is contained gives the load factor.

Load factor

(vi) The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
(vii) The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.

Load Duration Curve:

When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of
descending magnitudes, the curve thus obtained is called a load duration curve.
The load duration curve is obtained from the same data as the load curve but the
ordinates are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes. In other words,
the maximum load is represented to the left and decreasing loads are represented
to the right in the descending order. Hence the area under the load duration
curve and the area under the load curve are equal. Fig.1.10 (i) shows the daily
load curve. The daily load duration curve can be readily obtained from it. It is
clear from daily load curve [See Fig. 1.10 (i)], that load elements in order of
descending magnitude are : 20 MW for 8 hours; 15 MW for 4 hours and 5 MW for
12 hours. Plotting these loads in order of descending magnitude, we get the daily
load duration curve as shown in Fig.1.10 (ii).

Fig 1.10
The following points may be noted about load duration curve:
(i) The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form. In other
words, it readily shows the number of hours during which the given load has
prevailed.
(ii) The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding
load curve. Obviously, area under daily load duration curve (in kWh) will give the
units generated on that day.
(iii) The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time. By
laying out the abscissa from 0 hour to 8760 hours, the variation and distribution
of demand for an entire year can be summarized in one curve. The curve thus
obtained is called the annual load duration curve.
1.5 Load Characteristics:
1. Demand: The demand of a system is the load at receiving end over a
specified time interval.
2. Maximum Demand: The maximum demand of a system is the greater of all
the demands within the time interval specified.
3. Diversified demand (or coincident demand): It is the demand of the
composite group, as a whole, of somewhat unrelated loads over a
specified period of time.
4. Demand factor: It is the "ratio o f the maximum demand of a system to
the total connected Load. It is dimension less.
Demand factor is usually less than 1.0.
Demand factor = Maximum demand/ Total connected demand
5. Non-coincident demand: I t i s “the sum of the demands of a group
of loads with no restrictions on the interval to which each demand
is applicable."
6. Connected load :It is "the sum of continuous ratings of the load-
consuming apparatus connected to the system”
7. Utilization factor: It is "the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to
the rated capacity of the system "

Fu = Maximum Demand/ rated system capacity

8. Plant factor: It is the ratio of the total actual energy produced or

served over a designated period of time to the energy that would
have been produced or served if the plant (or unit) had operated
continuously at maximum rating. It is also known as the
capacity factor or t h e use factor.
Plant Factor = actual energy production (or) served * time/ maximum plant
rating

9. Load factor It is "the ratio of the average load over a designated

period of time to the peak load occurring on that period"

FLD= average load/ peak load

Annual load factor = total annual energy/ annual peak load*8760

10. Diversity factor: It is "the ratio of the sum of the individual

maximum demands of the various subdivisions of a system to the
maximum demand of the whole system"
Coincidence factor: It is "the ratio of the maximum coincident total
demand of a group of consumers to the sum of the maximum power
demands of individual consumers comprising the group both taken at
the same point of supply for the same time"

Load diversity: It is "the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or
more individual loads and the peak of the combined load"

Contribution factor: The c o n t r i b u t i o n factor of t h e ith load t o the group

maximum demand." It is given in per unit of the individual maximum
demand of the ith load

Loss factor: It is '' the ratio o f the average power loss to the peak-load
power loss during a specified period of time"

Ex 1.Assume that annual peak load of a primary feeder is 2000 kW, at which
the power loss, that is, total copper, or F.PR loss, is 80 kW per three phase.
Assuming an annual loss factor of 0.15, determine: (a)The average annual
power loss (b) The total annual energy loss due to the copper losses of the
feeder circuits

Solution:

(a) From
Average power loss = power loss at peak load
=80kWx0 .1 5 = 12 kW.

(b) The total annual energy loss is

TAEL, = average power loss x 8760 h/yr = 12 x 8760

= 105,120Kwh

Ex 2. Assume that there are two primary feeders supplied by one of the three
transformers located at the NL&NP's Riverside distribution substation, as shown
in Figure 1.11. One of the feeders supplies an industrial load which occurs
primarily between 8 A.M. and 11 P.M., with a peak of 2000 kW at 5 P.M. The
other one feeds residential loads which occur mainly between 6 A.M. and 12
P.M., with a peak of 2000 kW at 9 P.M., as shown in Figure 1.12. Determine the
following:

(a) The diversity factor of the load connected to transformer T3.

(b) The LD of the load connected to transformer T3.
(c) The coincidence factor of the load connected to transformer T3.
Solution:

Fig. 1.11

Fig 1.12

(b) the LD of the load is

= 4000 - 3000 = 1000 kW

(c)
Relationship between Load & Loss factors:

Fig 1.13 feeder with variable demand

 Fig 1.14

Where PLS avg is the average power loss, P LSmax is the maximum power loss, is the
peak loss at peak load.

Substituting

Where PLS1, is the off-peak loss at off-peak load, t is the peak load duration, and
T - t i s the off-peak load duration.

The copper losses are the function of the associated loads. Therefore, the off-
peak and peak loads can be expressed, respectively, as

Where k is a constant. Thus, substituting above Equations In F LS, the loss factor
can be expressed as
Load factor can be related to loss factor for three different cases

Case 1: Off-peak load is zero. Here,

Since P, = 0. Therefore, from Equations 2.28 and 2.35,

That is, the load factor is equal to the loss factor and they are equal to the t/T
constant

Case 2: Very short lasting peak. Here,

That is, the value of the loss factor approaches the value of the load factor
squared
Case 3: Load is steady. Here,

That is, the difference between the peak load and the off-peak load is negligible.
For example, if the customer's load is a petrochemical plant, this would be the
case

That is, the value of the loss factor approaches the value of the load factor.
Therefore, in general, the value of the loss factor is
Therefore, the loss factor cannot be determined directly from the load factor.
The reason is that the loss factor is determined from losses as a function of
time, which, in turn, is proportional to the time function of the square load

However, Buller and Woodrow developed an approximate formula to relate the

loss factor to the load factor as

Where FLS is the loss factor (pu) and FLD is the load factor (pu).

The above Equation gives a reasonably close result. Figure shown below
gives three different curves of loss factor as a function of load factor.
Relatively recently, the formula given before has been modified for rural
areas and expressed as

Fig 1.15

Ex.3 The average load factor of a substation is 0.65. Determine the average
loss factor of its feeders, if the substation services:

(a) An urban area.

A rural area
 O.7 F
Sol (a) For the urban FLS = O.3FLD + ( LD)2
area, = 0.3(0.65) + 0.7(0.65)2

= 0.49.

0.84 F
(b) For the rural area, FLS = 0.16FLD + ( LD)2

= 0.16(0.65) + 0.84(0.65)2

= 0.53

1.6 Types of Loads:

A device which taps electrical energy from the electric power system is
called a load on the system. The load may be resistive (e.g., electric lamp),
inductive (e.g., induction motor), capacitive or some combination of them. The
various types of loads on the power system are:

(i) Domestic load: Domestic load consists of lights, fans, refrigerators, heaters,
television, small motors for pumping water etc. Most of the residential load
occurs only for some hours during the day (i.e., 24 hours) e.g., lighting load
occurs during night time and domestic appliance load occurs for only a few
hours. For this reason, the load factor is low (10% to 12%).

(ii) Commercial load: Commercial load consists of lighting for shops, fans and
electric appliances used in restaurants etc. This class of load occurs for more
hours during the day as compared to the domestic load. The commercial load has
seasonal variations due to the extensive use of air conditioners and space
heaters.

(iii) Industrial load: Industrial load consists of load demand by industries. The
magnitude of industrial load depends upon the type of industry. Thus small scale
industry requires load upto 25 kW, medium scale industry between 25kW and
100 kW and large-scale industry requires load above 500 kW. Industrial loads are
generally not weather dependent.

(iv)Municipal load: Municipal load consists of street lighting, power required for
water supply and drainage purposes. Street lighting load is practically constant
throughout the hours of the night. For water supply, water is pumped to
overhead tanks by pumps driven by electric motors. Pumping is carried out
during the off-peak period, usually occurring during the night. This helps to
improve the load factor of the power system.

(v) Irrigation load: This type of load is the electric power needed for pumps
driven by motors to supply water to fields. Generally this type of load is supplied
for 12 hours during night.

(vi) Traction load: This type of load includes tram cars, trolley buses, railways
etc. This class of load has wide variation. During the morning hour, it reaches
peak value because people have to go to their work place. After morning hours,
the load starts decreasing and again rises during evening since the people start
coming to their homes.
1.7 Load modeling:
A load model is a mathematical representation of the relation between the
active or reactive power (or the current injection) at a load bus / node and the
complex voltage of node.
Load modeling has been carried out based on two different approaches. The
first approach measures the voltage and frequency sensitivity of the active and
reactive powers at substations.
P=P(V) [1+ DP Δf]
Q=Q(V) [1+ DQ Δf]

Where P(V), Q(V) are dependent on the distribution system voltage

The second approach constructs a composite load model for a given
substation, based on the mix of load classes (constant power, constant current
and constant impedance) served by this substation.
Constant Power Load:
A constant power load varies it's impedance on change of input voltage to
keep the power constant
In a constant power load, the dynamic resistance is adjusted to increase
the current inversely to the load voltage. as the voltage rises or falls, then the
product of voltage and current in the load is power which is constant. This is
done to keep the power dissipated in the load constant as the voltage drops.
Electronics devices with SMPS approximate this type of load as they generally
employ regulators to generate a constant voltage and when then run the
electronics.
VI*=P+j Q

Fig. 1.16 constant power load characteristics

Constant Current Load:
In a constant current load the load will dynamically adjust its resistance as
the voltage drops to keep the current constant. Older linear regulators using a
pass transistor to deliver constant voltage to a fixed load powering electronics are
this kind of load.
 Fig. 1.17 constant current load characteristics

Constant Impedance Load:

In a constant resistance load the current will go down in proportion to the
voltage drop as the resistance is fixed and the load must follow ohms law. Heaters
approximate this type of load

Fig. 1.18 constant impedance load characteristics